9.

8 Introduction to nanofiltration

9.7

265

Reverse osmosis software

The brief introduction to reverse osmosis in the previous sections has provided just a
glimpse into the complexities of this important membrane filtration process. Reverse
osmosis is ultimately concerned with separating multi-component mixtures of ions by
taking advantage of the relative permeabilities of solutes through a polymeric membrane.
In that sense, it is inherently more complicated than ultrafiltration, and understanding
it requires a deep knowledge of the chemistry, including chemical thermodynamics, of
highly complex ionic solutions. For that reason, real industrial design of RO systems
involves a mix of theoretical and empirical equations, the latter often being of a proprietary nature. Such equations are typically embedded in design software along with
databases of physical and chemical property data [1]. Probably the best known of these is
the ROSA (Reverse Osmosis System Analysis) package produced by the Dow Corporation. Routine use of software like ROSA makes RO design quite close in spirit to the more
traditional chemical engineering separation techniques, such as distillation and liquid
liquid extraction. These separations involve multi-component systems and modern day
calculations are done with the aid of one or more of the many design and flowsheeting
packages with which chemical engineers are familiar. Just like reverse osmosis, doing
distillation and liquidliquid extraction calculations requires a deep knowledge of the
physical chemistry of multi-component systems, along with the availability of extensive
and accurate databases of physical and chemical property data.
Ultimately, therefore, the purpose of the calculations shown in the preceding section
is to give the reader a feel for the sort of issues that are involved in RO design. In truth,
reverse osmosis is a subject that requires deep study, incorporating as it does, many
aspects of membrane science, chemistry and chemical engineering.

9.8

Introduction to nanofiltration
Nanofiltration (NF), so named because the membrane pores are in the nanometre range, is
one of those awkward processes that are sometimes encountered in chemical engineering.
It exists in something of a transition zone between UF and RO, involving solutes in the
molecular weight range 1001000 Da and operating at pressures up to about 40 bar. If
you have studied fluid mechanics, you will be aware of transitional flow, i.e., that flow
that lies between laminar and fully turbulent. Here, the flow contains both laminar and
turbulent zones, making numerical predictions fraught with difficulty. The transitional
nature of NF makes it difficult to define precisely and sometimes causes people to
question whether it is really a membrane filtration technique worthy of its own name.
It could be argued, quite reasonably, that it is an especially leaky form of RO or a
particularly tight form of UF.
Nonetheless, membrane filtration in the nano range is gaining huge importance in a
variety of applications. These include water treatment processes of all kinds, including
removal of low levels of contaminants such as endocrine disruptors; food processes