CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Flowers are the loveliest objects on earth. They instantaneously

suggest beauty because they are associated with things that offer pleasure and
delight. Our age old culture, paintings, art and craft, ideas, emotions, religion,
philosophy and social customs exhibit their memory haunting association with
flowers. In short they have played an important role in the course of human
civilization and social development. Hence floriculture has assumed very
great significance over the years.
1.1 Flowers and their Individuality
Botanically speaking flowers form the reproductive organ of any
plant. They can be borne singly or in aggregation called florescence. Female
and male flowers may be located on separate plants or on the same plant.
Flowers are symmetrical about an axis and are characterized by numerous
spirally arranged floral parts. The floral parts are sepals, petals and stamens,

anther, pistil and the like borne on an elongated floral axis and attached below
the ovary.1
The world would not be as beautiful as it is now but for flowers.
For millions and millions of years there were no flowering plants. Evolution
of flowering plants changed the very appearance of the world. Flowers in
their range of color, size, form and anatomical arrangement, present a plethora
of combinations. They range in size from minute blossoms to giant blooms.2
In some plants, such as poppy, magnolia, tulip, and petunia, each flower is
relatively large and prominent and is produced singly, while in other plants,
such as aster, snap dragon, calla lily, and lilac these individual flowers are
relatively very small and are borne in a distinctive cluster known as
florescence.3
Flowers are found in more than 2,00,000 different varieties in a
wide spectrum of colours. Many flowers have odd or irregular shapes. In
addition to their beauty, flowers also exude a pleasant smell. These qualities
make them popular for decoration and as gift for birthdays and other functions
and ceremonies. They are also considered as tokens of love. Flowers are

Modern Century Illustrial Encyclopedia New York, Vol.6, 1972, McGraw-Hill For Eastern
Publishers (P) Ltd., Australia, pp.805-806.
2
The Junior World Encyclopedia, Erosion to Geyser, Golden Press, New York, 1959, Book 6, pp.500
to 503.
3
The New Encyclopedia Britannica, 2005, Vol.4, pp.844-845.

planted and grown both inside and around homes, and there is also a wild
growth of flowers everywhere in the world except the Polar Regions.4
Flowers may be costly or rare or cheap or in abundance but
connoisseurs of flowers will always be wealthy in taste. Beautiful flowers are
within reach of all. Flowers are so perfect in form and colour that they bring
joy and solace to human beings.5 The flowers so far known to mankind could
be classified into three groups according to their life span. They are annuals,
biennials and perennials.
1.2 Annual Flowers
Annual flowers are the ones, which need to be started from seed
each year. Biennial flowers are those with a life of two years. Flowers like
Foxglove, sweet William and some varieties of hollyhock are biennials.
Perennial flowers are those that live for more than two growing seasons. All
trees, shrubs, and bulbous plants are classed as woody perennials, while plants
with no wood in their structure are herbaceous perennials such as peonies, iris,
lilies and phlox.
All cultivated flowers have been derived from the wild flowers.
However, their infinite variety could be rightly attributed to the trail blazing
and innovative researches which have been hitherto carried out in the field of
4

Modern Century Illustrated Encyclopedia, McGraw-Hill, For Eastern Publishers (P) Ltd., Australia,
1972, Vol.6, pp.805-806.
The Wonder Land of Knowledge, The Pictorial Encyclopedia, Tangley Oaks Educational Center,
Illinois, USA, 1961, pp.1526-1531.

breeding. Plants are the only species in the Earth, which are able to convert
the energy from the Sun into starch with the help of chlorophyll. Ferments in
flower seeds are believed to determine the colors of the blossom, which
distinguish it from the stem and leaves, so that it will lure insects in search of
pollen and nectar. Certain flowering plants are known to have the power to
move their leaves and other parts. Morning glories close when the sun grows
bright, barberry flowers raise their stamens at a touch and the sunflower turns
on her God as he sets the same smile that she gave when he rose.6
All flowering plants, which flourish off the flower plantations
maintained by farmers, are called wild flowers. They normally include weeds
growing among cultivated plants and the so called garden escapes which as a
result of seed dispersed have been transported to some natural habitat and
proved sufficiently handy or sufficiently adaptable to survive the change.7
Significance of Flowers in Real Life
Flowers have a language of their own. They convey different
feelings and thoughts including that of love. There is a belief that certain
flowers convey cure capable of different feelings and making direct and
indirect impacts on human lives. It is worthwhile to remember that a gift of
flowers for someone special provides a personal touch providing a source of

6
7

Ibid.
Chambers Encyclopaedia, George New Ones Limited, London, 1950, Vol.V, pp.749-750.

everlasting impression.8 This notion could be better understood from the

following few examples.
ASTER

symbol of love

CACTUS

Endurance

CARNATION (GENERAL)

Fascination, women love

CARNATION (PINK)

Ill never forget you.

CARNATION (RED)

My heart Aches for you, Admiration.

CARNATION (STRIPED)

No, Refusal, Sorry I cant be with

you

Youre a wonderful friend.

CHRYSANTHE MUM
(GENERAL)

CHRYSANTHE MUM (WHITE)

Truth.

DAISY

Innocence, Loyal love, Purity.

LILY (WHITE)

Virginity, Purity, Majesty.

LILY OF THE VALLEY

Sweetness, Tear of the Virgin Mary,

MARIGOLD

Cruelty, Grief, Jealousy

OLEANDER

Caution

ORCHID

Love, Beauty, Chinese symbol for

many children,

ROSE (BRIDAL)

Happy Love

ROSE (RED)

Love, I love you

ROSE (WHITE)

Innocence and Purity, Secrecy and

Silence

SWEET PEA

Good bye, departure

Ashwani Sharma, Meaning of Flowers, Floriculture Today, Vol.12, No.4, September 2007,
pp.110-116.

TULIP (RED)

Believe me, Declaration

ZINNIA (YELLOW)

Daily Remembrance

ZINNIA (WHITE)

Goodness.

1.3 Types of Commercial Floriculture

In India there are two types of commercial floriculture; they
could be explained as follows.
1.3.1 Traditionally Cultivated Flowers
Traditional flowers are those that are cultivated under open field
conditions. These flowers are meant for worship, festivals, social occasions,
public functions and personal adornments. Most of the traditional flowers are
used for making garlands. Traditional flowers such as the rose, jasmine and
the tuberose could be used for the production of oil and perfumes as well.
Traditional flower growers are mostly small and marginal farmers. The other
traditionally cultivated flowers are Marigold, Bachelors Button, Crossandra,
Merjoram, Nerium, Cocks Comb, Chrysanthemum, Tulsi, Scented green,
Aster, Lotus.
Among the traditional flower crops, marigold, deserves special
mention. There are two varieties of marigold. They are the local marigold
and the African marigold. It is followed by Jasmine. It is a typical flower
which is known for its fragrance.

It is used mostly by women for hair

decorations. It is produced in plenty in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in the

south and West Bengal in the east. Crossandra and Aster form the remaining
two varieties of traditional flowers which are cultivated in vast areas in certain
parts of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.9
1.3.2 Modern Cut Flowers
Modern cut flowers are those that are cultivated under controlled
conditions in poly houses or green houses. Modern cut flowers which could
be identified by their long stems and used in bouquets and for other decoration
purposes. It is very important to bear in mind that modern cut flowers include
the rose, the tuberose, the gladiolus, the carnation, the lilies, the orchids, the
anthurium, the gerbera and the like.
The rose is the principal cut flower grown all over the country,
even though in terms of total area, it may not be so. A larger percentage of the
area in many states is used for growing scented rose. Usually local varieties
akin to the grussEn tepelitZ, are sold as loose flowers. They are used mostly
at places of worship. It cannot be deemed that old rose varieties like Queen
Elizabeth, Super Star Montezuma, Papa Meiland, Christian Dior, Eiffel tower,
Kiss of Fire, Golden Giant, and Garde Henkle First prizes are still popular. In
recent times, with the growth of exports, the latest varieties like first red,
Grand Gala, Konfitti, Ravel, Tineka, Sacha, Propheyta, Pareo, Noblesse.
Virsilia, Vivaldi and the like are also being grown commercially.10

Desai, R.G., Economics of Floriculture, Himalaya Publishing House, Delhi, 2004, pp.10-18.
Narendra K. Dadlani, Cut Flower Production in India, KAP Publications, Delhi, 1998, pp.85-90.

10

Gladiolus is the next most important cut flower crop grown in

the country. Earlier it was considered a crop for the temperate regions and its
cultivation was restricted to hilly areas, particularly in the north eastern
region. This still continues to supply the planting material to most parts of the
county.

However, with improved agro-economic techniques and better

management, the northern parts of Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Utter Pradesh, as

well as Maharashtra and Karnataka have emerged as the major areas for
production of gladiolus.
Tuberose, a very popular cut flower crop in India is grown
mainly in the eastern part of the country i.e. West Bengal, and also in northern
plains and parts of south. Both single and double flower varieties are equally
popular. Tuberose flowers are also sold loose in some areas for preparing
garlands and wreaths.
The other main cut flower item is orchid. Its production is
mainly restricted in the northeastern Hill regions, besides parts of the southern
states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The main species grown are
Dendrobiums, Vanda, Paphiopedilums, Oncidiums, Phalaenopsis, and
cymbidiums.
1.4 Role of Flowers
Flowers have a significant role to play in our daily lives.

Flowers and leaves freshen the air and so they are good. Fragrance of flowers
like jasmine and rose freshen the tired brain. They provide charm and
happiness and help to forget the dreariness and monotony of life. Flowers
elevate ones moods to get rid of the ennui associated with loneliness and lack
of interest in the everyday life. They impress the mind and teach us how life is
like them. Fresh flowers thus give happiness.

But no one cares for dry

flowers. It is believed that flowers give peace of mind, patience and strength
during difficulties. Flowers are an inexpensive means of beautifying ones
house or its surroundings.
1.5 Floriculture and Quality of Life
Nature and plants are interwoven into the subconscious mind of
the human being. From birth to death flowers are extensively used in our
rituals or etiquettes. Flowers are used as a status symbol of every home and
garden and to convey messages of love and as memorials of the departed.
Floriculture helps in enriching the quality of life and the
development of our society through its impact on environment. There is no
denying the fact that floriculture is an ancient art. As an advanced science it is
playing an important role in the course of human civilization and its social
development.
Flowers have been associated with mankind since time
immemorial and intimately woven into the daily life, culture, paintings, arts

10

and craft, literature, ideas, emotions, religions, philosophy and social customs
as seen in the foregoing paragraphs. A garden is a source of inspiration and a
symbol of virtue for poets and for artists to represent relationship between
nature and mankind.

It is a built-in environment of living spaces with

artificial and natural components to fulfill the physical and spiritual needs of
human beings.11
1.6 Floriculture and Pollution Control
Rapid and uncontrolled industrialization, urbanization, everincreasing vehicular traffic and decrease in natural vegetation have all
contributed to pollute the environment. There is an undesirable increase in the
concentration of poisonous and unhealthy gases like carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide due to excessive burning of carbonaceous fuels in
industry and transport which results in polluting the air we breathe. Global
warming and other health hazards are a by-product of the above phenomena.
Various trees and flowering plants have been grown to check
environmental pollution. Plants have modified themselves morphologically to
absorb the pollutants and provide us clean environment. Some flowering
plants also develop biochemical defense mechanisms, which enable them to

11

Bhattacharjee, S.K., Periurban Floriculture and Quality of Life, Indian Horticulture, JanuaryMarch 2001, pp.37-40.

11

detoxify the harmful chemicals. Trees with profuse branching and hairy large
size leaves help in trapping the dust.12
Some of the pollutionfighting plants are Rose, Syngonium,
Bougainvillea, Chrysanthemum, Marigold, Dracaena, Philodendron, Bottle
Palm, Tulsi, Bottle Brush, to name a few. Among trees of the same category,
kadan, kachnar, Banyan, Chinese rain tree, Ashoka tree, Plumeria and Popler
can be quoted as examples with the added advantage of being considered holy
and helpful in controlling pollution. Bougainvillea is the most ideally suited
plant for urban and rural landscaping especially for industrial areas with its
exemplary qualities of being drought and pollution resistant. The specialty of
a syngonium tree is that it attracts the dust particles in the house.13
1.7 The Psychological, Emotional and Behavioral Benefits of Floriculture
In the path breaking and exiting academic research conducted
between the years 2000 and 2005 in the USA the findings are that flowers
leave immediate and long-term positive effects on emotional reactions, mood
and social behaviors of individuals and also assist in enhancing the memory of
people irrespective of their sex be it male or female. The presence of flowers
triggers emotional happiness, induces a sense of satisfaction in life and
positively affects social behavior in scales far beyond what is normally
12

Chadha, K.L., et al., Role of Horticulture in Controlling Environmental Pollution in India, Indian
Horticulture, January-March 2001, pp.33-35.
13
Anoop Kumar et al., Horticulture in Controlling Pollution, Kisan World, Vol.25, No.6, June
1998, p.63.

12

imagined. A study on the influence of flowers on senior citizens showed

many benefits including lifting their morale and improving memory.

It

demonstrated that flowers ease depression, inspire social networking and

refresh memory.14
In a recent empirical study on flowers in the workplace,
researchers here found out that brainstorming of workers creative
performance and problem-solving skills improve substantially in workplace
environments that include flowers and their plants. It has also been found out
that flowers can play a significant role in improving home ecology as well.
These studies demonstrate how people feel more compassionate towards
others and likely to have less worry and anxiety, and feel less depressed when
fresh flowers are present at home.
1.8 Flowers in Religion
In India a sizable percentage of flowers produced are used for
the worship of Gods. Several fragrant flowers used for the worship of Gods
are mentioned in the Ancient Sangam Tamil literature. As it has been pointed
in PATHTHU PATTU women worship Gods by offering PUJA with a
mixture of flowers and paddy. The Tamil word Poosai or puja has been
derived from the root word poo (Flower) mainly offered for the performance
of puja. The most common flowers they used for worship were: Aambal
14

Mohammed Mustaq, U.S. Floriculture Size, Potential and Prospects, Floriculture Today, Vol.12,
No.4, September 2007, pp.98-102.

13

(water lily/ pilhigam (Large flowered Jasmine, Kanakambaram (Crossandra),

Erukku Kuvalai (Morning bloom water lily), Kandhal (malabar glory lily) and
Kadambu (Indian Oak).
People believe that different flowers could be used to propitiate
different Gods.

Flowers such as Kandhal, Kadambu, Karareeram (Red

oleander and cetchai (Scarlet Ixora) are used while worshiping Lord Muruga.
Lord Siva always used to wear the garland made by the flowers of kontrai tree
(Indian laburnum). The earliest literature of Tamil is Perumbanaautrupadai
which describes creator Brahma who always stayed in the Lotus flower and
Paththu pattu describes Lord Tirumaal always wears the garlands made by
Tulsi leaves (sacred basil) Kalithogai one of the Ettuthogai mentions that the
Goddess Tirumagal always stood in the Lotus flower.15
1.9 Dry Flower A Profitable Floriculture Industry
Dry flowers are natural flowers. Their leaves, florescence and
pods are dried and preserved so that they can have lasting value. They are
used for various decoration purposes, in bouquets, flower arrangements,
creating flower pictures, flower balls, greeting cards, pomanders, festival
decoration, sweet smelling potpourri and many items of aesthetic
importance.16

15

Amirthalingam, M., Flower Worship in Tamil Literature, Kisan World, Vol.23, No.6, June 1996,
pp.39-40.
16
Rengasamy et al., Dry Flowers A Profitable Floriculture Industry, Kisan World, Vol.26, No.10,
October 1999, pp.61-62.

14

Flowers can be dried at home by various methods. The different

drying techniques are (i) Air Drying (ii) Oven Drying (iii) By using
Desiccants (iv) By Pressing the Flowers and Foliage.
The various flowers that can be used for drying are
chrysanthemum, Aster, Bongainvillea, Zinnia, Marigold, Limonium carnation,
Dahlia, Gerbera, Rose, Gomphrena to name a few.17
Dry flowers are generally cheap, eco-friendly and biodegradable. They can survive the heat of summer and cold of winter.
Any entrepreneur especially the unemployed women and youth
can start the industry of drying flowers on a small scale, Dry flower craft is
labour intensive. Dry flower industry would be a definite money-spinner due
to the demand for such products.18
India has emerged as a leading country in the export of dried
flowers. Dried flowers worth more than 100 crores are exported annually
from India. India exports dry flowers to U.K, Germany, Italy, Netherlands,
U.S.A, Japan and Singapore.
1.10 Floral Oil Industry
The floral oil, concrete is obtained from Jasmine, Rose and
Tuberose. Good field sanitation and cleanliness among the labourers involved

17
18

Raghupathy et al., Dried Flowers Significance, Kisan World, Vol.27, No.5, May 2000, p.39.
Sujatha A. Nair et al., Dry Flower Industry in Andaman, Kisan World, Vol.28, No.10, October
2001, p.28.

15

in the harvesting of the flower increases the recovery percentage of concrete.

Jasmine oil is added to blend with every floral scent and hence extensively
used as an important perfumery throughout the world.
Rose oil and Rose water has its applications from time
immemorial. The Arabs were the first to use the technique of extraction of oil
from rose. Tuberose oil is one of the most expensive raw materials used in
perfumery industry. The single flower tuberose variety gives more oil than
the double flower variety.19
The Palma rosa oil is obtained from flowering shoot and parts
above the ground of the aromatic grass cymbopogon merthini var motia. The
Palma rosa oil is one of the most important essential oil of India and is
exported. It is used as base for fine perfumery and is valued because of the
geraniol content. The oil is useful in imparting rose-like aroma to a wide
variety of soaps, tobacco products and the like.
The major floriculture exports include the sizeable amount of
foreign exchange earned by the essential oils, concrete and absolute which
constitute the major raw materials for perfumery and cosmetic industries.
The major centers for the floral oil business include Europe,
USA and Japan, which consume 90 percent of the global production of floral
oil.
19

Ashok et al., Floral Oil Industry, Kisan World, Vol.26, No.11, November 1999, p.71.

16

1.11 Flowers of Medicinal Importance

In recent years the indigenous system of medicine particularly
Ayurveda is attracting modern scientists for finding cures for many
challenging diseases. It has been confirmed by World Health Organization
that herbal medicines serve the health needs of about 80% of worlds
population, especially for millions of people in the vast rural areas of
developing countries. The recent resurgence of plant remedies results from
the effectiveness of plant medicines compared to harmful side effects of most
modern drugs.

A brief description of certain flowers their seasons and

medicinal values can be seen from the following table.20

20

Beena Thomas and C. Lekha Rani, Orchids of Medicinal Importance, Plant Hortitech, Vol.7,
No.5, October-December 2007, pp.34-36.

17

TABLE No. 1.1

FLOWERS THEIR SEASONS AND MEDICINAL VALUES
Sl.
No.
1.

Name
Acampe praemorsa

Flower Type and

Flowering Time
Colour
Yellow with red
stripes lip is white March June
with red stripes.

Cymbidium
aloifolium

Yellowish red

3.

Dendrobium ovatum

White
with
pinkish tinge
March-April

Eulophia epidendrea

Greenish white

October-December

Eulophia nuda

Greenish purple

February-April

Elichingeria macrei

White or Pinkish

Periodically

Satyrium nepalense

Pink or white

August-September

8.

Vanda spathulata

Golden yellow

October-November

Vasda tessellate

Yellowish
tessellated with
brown

April-May

10.

Luisia tenuifolia

Yellowish with
purple tinge.

March-April

February-March

Medicinal Use
Plant is used as a
tonic and in the
treatment of
rheumatism.
The juice from
the pod is used
against ear ache.
Plant juice is
stomachic and
laxative
Tubers are used
as vermifuge
Tubers are used
to treat bronchitis
and diseases of
blood.
The plant is used
in the treatment
of asthma, fever,
burning
sensation.
Tuberous roots
are used in the
preparation of
tonic.
Flowers are given
against
consumption,
asthma and
mania.
Root is alerciteric
and antipyretic
external
application in
nervous disorders
and rheumatism.
Plant is
emollient. It is
applied as
poultice to boils.

SOURCE: Beena Thomas and C. Lekha Rani, Orchids of Medicinal Importance,

Plant Hortitech, Vol.7, No.5, October-December 2007, pp.34-36.

18

1.12 Flower Exports from India

Indian floriculture industry has been shifting from traditional
flowers to cut flowers for export purposes. After liberalisation the
Government of India identified floriculture as a sunrise industry and accorded
it 100 percent export oriented status. The liberalised economy has given an
impetus to the Indian entrepreneurs for establishing export oriented
floriculture units under controlled climatic conditions. In India Maharastra,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Haryana have emerged as major
floriculture centers in recent times.
The major importers of live plants, and bulbs are Germany,
France, Italy, U K. U S A and Japan. The major importers of cut flowers are
Germany, U S A, U K, U A E, France, Netherlands, Italy, Japan.
Indian exports are mainly to European countries including the
Netherlands, Germany, U.K., Italy and France. The Netherlands consumes 50
per cent of our total exports demand from the U.K is also increasing. Newer
markets in Asia like Singapore are also opening for Indian flowers.21
Indias share in the global cut flowers trade in 1995 was a mere
0.3 percent. Indias share in the world floriculture is negligible. There has
been a significance rise in the floriculture exports.

21

Jeevitha, E., and Sridevi, K., Floriculture and Exports, Kisan World, Vol.35, No.12, December
2008, pp.13-15.

19

More than 300 export oriented units (EOUs) have been approved
in the sector out of which 255 units are operational. But many of them operate
50 percent of their capacity with redressal of their problems, the floriculture
industry thus may turn to be viable enterprise for earning foreign exchange.
TABLE No. 1.2
INDIAS EXPORT OF FLORICULTURE PRODUCTS
Sl.
No.
1.

1989-1990

675.00

2.

1990-1991

786.00

3.

1991-1992

1480.00

4.

1992-1993

1491.00

5.

1993-1994

1884.00

6.

1994-1995

3084.00

7.

1995-1996

6041.00

8.

1996-1997

6340.00

9.

1997-1998

8121.00

10.

1998-1999

9661.00

11.

1999-2000

13726.00

12.

2000-2001

19063.00

13.

2001-2002

21370.00

14.

2002-2003

22650.00

15.

2003-2004

25600.00

16.

2004-2005

27900.00

17.

2005-2006

30500.00

Year

Value (Rs. in Lakhs)

18.
2006-2007
39000.00
SOURCE: Export Statistics for Agro and Food Products APEDA, New Delhi.

20

1.13 Export Potential of India

Floricultural crops are very important for exports, India can
become a major exporter of flowers, but not any other commodity said
Manmohan Singh, the Prime Minister of India. Now floriculture has become
one of the extreme focus segments for development of export by the
Government of India. The growth of floriculture industry from 1962 to 1999
was very slow but thereafter there has been a significant rise in floricultural
export from Rs. 14.55 crores in 1991-92, Rs. 30.60 crores in 1994-95, Rs.
57.80 crores in 1995-96 to Rs. 96.6 crores earnings in 1998-99.22
As Agriculture and Processed Food Product Development
Authority chairman has pointed out floricultural exports from the country
stood at Rs.381 crore in 2006-2007. They are likely to go up by 25 to 30
percent and reach an all time high of Rs.4,000 crores in the next five years.23
Among the leading exporters of flowers those who deserve a
special mention would include Netherlands, Columbia, Italy, Israel and
Kenya. Netherlands enjoy the pride of place among these chief exporters.
India can also emerge as a leading exporter of flowers if floriculture is given
the place it deserves in the general scheme of things.24

22

Brijendra Singh, Floriculture: An Emerging Industry in India, Indian Horticulture, Vol.42, No.2,
July-September 1997, pp.47-49.
23
Money, K., Flower Power, Economic Times, 18.10.2007.
24
Abdul Kalam, A.P.J., National Mission Floriculture 2010, Floriculture Today, Vol.12, No.3,
August 2007, p.20.

21

1.14 Research on Floriculture

Research work on floriculture is being carried out at several
research institutions under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research and
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, in the horticulture/floriculture
departments of State Agricultural Universities and under the All India
Coordinated Floriculture Improvement Project with a network of about twenty
(20) centers. The crops, which have received larger attention, include rose,
gladiolus, chrysanthemum, orchid, jasmine, tuberose, aster, marigold etc.
The thrust till recently has been on crop improvement, standardization of agrotechniques including improved propagation methods, plant protection and post
harvest management.

In view of the fact that most of the cut flower

production is being done under open field conditions, the research efforts
generally relate to open cultivation. In recent years, however, technologies for
protected cultivation and tissue culture for mass propagation have also
received attention. A large number of varieties suitable for cut flower use, as
well as garden display have been developed.

Production technology,

particularly the agronomic requirements and control methods for important

diseases and insect pests have also been developed. In Indias contribution by
the private sector in research activities in floriculture is negligible.25

25

Narendra K. Dadlani, Cut Flower Production in India, KAP Publication, Delhi, 1998, pp.85-90.

22

1.15 The Scope of Floriculture

The scope of floriculture is next only to the Information
Technology Industry all over the world and this is growing by leaps and
bounds. Floriculture is not just a business but is also a perennial source of
income. Floriculture is a very dynamic market today. All private banks, Big
Hospitals, corporate houses, event management companies are using flowers
in their offices. Weddings big or small scale, film makers, political parties,
exhibition and conference organizers are consuming flowers for decoration
purposes giving another dimension to this blooming sector.26
1.16 Indian Floriculture Industry Present Status
In spite of its long and close association with floriculture, Indias
record of commercial activities in this field is not very encouraging indeed. It
is alarming to see that it is still in its infancy. The information on the area
under floriculture and the production achieved is highly inadequate. As
commercial and scientifically managed floriculture is an activity only of a
recent origin there are not many large farms engaged in organized floriculture.
In most part of the country flower growing is carried out on smallholdings,
mainly as a part of the regular agriculture systems. The total business of

26

Jeevitha, E., and Sridevi, K., Floriculture and Exports, Kisan World, Vol.35, No.12, December
2008, pp.13-15.

23

floriculture products in India was Rs.8174 lakh while it increased to Rs.10,117

lakh by April 2006.27
Floriculture in India is being viewed as a high growth Industry.
Commercial floriculture is becoming important from the export angle. The
liberalization of industrial and trade polices paved the way for development of
export oriented production of cut flowers. The new seed policy had already
made it feasible to import planting material of international varieties. The
government of India offers tax benefits to new export oriented floriculture
companies in the form of income tax holidays and exemption from certain
import duties.
Agriculture and Processed food product Export Development
Authority (APEDA) responsible for export promotion and development of
floriculture in India grants subsidies for establishing cold storages, precooling
units, refrigerated vans and green houses and air freight subsidy to exports. It
has been found that commercial floriculture has higher potential per unit area
than most of the field crops and is therefore a lucrative business.
1.17 Flower Production Areas in India
According to the Economic Survey (2007-2008) the acreage
under flower cultivation has increased from 1,16,000 hectares in 2004-2005 to
1,46,000 hectares in 2005-2006 and further to 1,54,000 hectares in 200627

FICCI Report 2008, Agribusiness Information Centre, New Delhi.

24

2007.28 The major flower growing states are Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
Andhra Pradesh in the South, West Bengal in the East, Maharashtra in the
West and Rajasthan, Delhi and Haryana in the North. It must, however, be
mentioned that it is extremely difficult to compute the statistics of the area in
view of the very small sizes of the holdings, which very often go unreported.
This perhaps is the reason for unrealistically small areas under flower growing
reported for a state which is known for its floricultural activity like
Maharashtra, Utter Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
More than two thirds of this area is devoted for production of
traditional flowers, which are marketed as loose flowers e.g. marigold,
jasmine, chrysanthemum, aster, crossandra, tuberose nerium, merjoram and
the like. The area under cut flower crops (with stems) used for bouquets,
arrangements and the like has grown in recent years, with growing affluence
and the trend of using flowers as gifts. The major flowers in this category are
rose, gladiolus, tuberose, carnation, orchids and more recently liliums,
gerbera, chrysanthemum, gypsophila and the like.

28

Surinder Sud, Ready to Bloom, Business Standard, 25.03.2008.

25

TABLE No. 1.3

AREA AND PRODUCTION OF FLOWERS IN INDIA
Area
Production
(000 ha)
Loose (000 MT)
1993-1994
53
233
1994-1995
60
261
1995-1996
82
334
1996-1997
71
366
1997-1998
74
366
1998-1999
74
419
1999-2000
89
509
2000-2001
98
556
2001-2002
106
535
2002-2003
70
735
2003-2004
101
580
2004-2005
116
655
SOURCE: Kisan World, Vol.35, No.12, December 2008, p.14.
Year

Cut
(Million)
555
519
537
615
622
643
681
804
2,565
2,060
1,793
1,952

According to Economic Survey (2007-2008) the production of

flowers is estimated to have spurted from 6,55,000 tones by 2004-2005 to over
8,86,000 tones of loose flowers and over 2100 million cut flowers with stem
in 2006-2007.29 In the case of production also, the estimates could be at
variance from the actual figures as some of the flowers like rose,
chrysanthemum, and tuberose are used both as loose flowers and cut flowers
with stem.
It may be mentioned that almost all of the area reported here is
under open field cultivation of flowers. Protected cultivation of flowers has

29

Surinder Sud, Ready to Bloom, Business Standard, 25.03.2008.

26

been taken up only in recent years for production of cut flowers for exports.
The estimated area under production in this category is about 500 hectares.
Recognising the potential for low cost production for export, in
view of cheap land, labour and other resources, several export-oriented units
are being set up in the country. These projects, located in clusters around Pune
(Maharashtra) in the West, Bangalore (Karnataka) and Hyderabad (Andhra
Pradesh) in the South, and Delhi in the North, are coming up in technical
collaboration with expertise mainly from Holland and Israel. More than 90
percent of these units are for rose production, on an average size of 3-hectare
farm, while some projects for orchid, anthurium, gladiolus and carnation are
also being set up. Nearly one third of over 200 proposed projects, have
already commenced production and export of its products.
1.18 Floriculture in Tamil Nadu
Floriculture is a blossoming industry in Tamil Nadu. It has
tremendous potential for growth in terms of production, employment, income
and export.

In 1997-98 Tamil Nadu had about 16,788 hectares under

floriculture with annual production of 1.18 lakh tones. Now it is increased to

24641 hectares under floriculture with annual production of 1.56 lakh tonnes.
The below table shows that Tamil Nadu is the top flower producing state in
India due to its conductive climate for floriculture.30 Flower cultivation in
30

Jeevitha and K. Sridevi, Floriculture and Exports, Kisan World, Vol.35, No.12, December 2008,
pp.13-15.

27

Tamil Nadu accounts for 2.2 per cent of the total area under horticultural
crops.
TABLE No. 1.4
FLOWER PRODUCING STATES
States

Tones

Tamil Nadu

156.70

Karnataka

138.77

Andhra Pradesh

121.30

West Bengal

31.30

Maharashtra

29.80

Delhi

25.00

Haryana

17.90

Uttar Pradesh

3.40

Punjab
2.70
SOURCE: Kisan World, Vol.35, No.12, December 2008, p.15.
Of the traditional flowers, the share of Jasmine, crossandra,
chrysanthemum, rose (not cut flower) marigold, tuberose and others arc 49.3,
16.1, 11.3, 10.1, 8.2, 3.4 and 1.67% respectively in Tamil Nadu. Cultivation
of cut flowers commercially under glass houses has been taken up in Tamil
Nadu since 1993.31
On the basis of climatic condition and scope for raising flowers,
Tamil Nadu has been divided into seven zones for purposes of effective

31

Desai, R.G., Economics of Floriculture, Himalaya Publishing House, New Delhi, 2004, pp.30-34.

28

development of floriculture under the commercial Floriculture policy. They

are,
1. Hosur Zone (Hosur and Denkanikottai Taluk of Dharmapuri district)
2. Chennai zone (Kancheepuram and Thiruvallur district)
3. Hill Area Zone (Nilgiris, Kodaikanal, Yercaud, Kairyan at Lagiri Hills)
4. Kanyakumari Zone (Kanyakumari district and Tenkasi Taluk in
Tirunelveli District.
5. Madurai Zone (Madurai and Dindigual Districts, Arupukottari taluk of
Virudunagar District, Sivagangai taluk of Sivagenga district and
Mandapam taluk of Ramanathapuram district.
6. Coimbatore Zone (Coimbatore and Erode Districts)
7. Tiruchirapalli Zone (Manapparai Taluk)
Hosur, Chennai Hill area, Kanyakumari and Coimbatore Zones
have been identified as potential areas for cut flowers production.
There is already a well-developed dry flower industry in Tamil
Nadu. A Number of tropical flowers, foliages, and grasses are utilized to
make different designs in dry flower arrangements. Dry flower units are
located in Tuticorin which has a good potential for improving the dry flower
industry. Tanflora Infrastructure Park, the countrys first agri-zone (AEZ) for
cut roses in Tamil Nadu exported one million cut red rose stems to Europe in
2006-2007. Tanflora is the Hosur-based Park which currently produces 3
million cut red rose stems a year, plans to raise capacity to 40 million stems in

29

2007-2008 and 70 million stems by 2008-2009. This will make it the fourth
largest rose stem producer in the world.32 The statistical details contained in
the following two tables would facilitate a clear understanding about the
flower production potentials of Tamil Nadu.
TABLE No. 1.5
FLOWER PRODUCTION IN TAMIL NADU
(Area in Hectare)
Sl.
No.

Year

1.

1995-1996

14635

2.

1996-1997

15879

3.

1997-1998

16788

4.

1998-1999

17750

5.

1999-2000

18120

6.

2000-2001

18720

7.

2001-2002

19084

8.

2002-2003

17676

9.

2003-2004

20274

10.

2004-2005

23233

11.

2005-2006

23567

Area (ha)

12.
2006-2007
24641
SOURCE: Season and Crop Report of Tamil Nadu, Department of Economics
and Statistics, Chennai.

32

Anil Urs, Tanflore Exports 1 Mn Cut Roses to Europe, Business Standard, 07.03.2007.

30

TABLE No. 1.6

FLOWER PRODUCTION AREA IN TAMIL NADU (DISTRICT WISE)
(2006-2007)

1001

250
0
89

Sendumalli

165
589
81
454
11

Vadamalli

1051

Tube Rose

0
127
922
135
182
730
435
555
54
430
745
193
879
416
128
56
165
43
7
233

Marygold

0
32
22
97
83
136
134
52
5
262
58
15
32
82
8
0
7
11
0
1
9
31
218
0
11
0
19
31
0
29

Kozhikondai

0
3
2
19
1
363
79
31
0
90
53
136
6
48
3
1
1
5
0
0
12
0
74
0
0
0
19
1
0
60

Arali

Chennai
Kancheepuram
Thiruvallur
Cuddalore
Villupuram
Vellore
Thiruvannamalai
Salem
Namakkal
Dharmapuri
Krishnagiri
Coimbatore
Erode
Tiruchirappalli
Karur
Perambalur
Pudukottai
Thanjavur
Thiruvarur
Nagapattinam
Madurai
Theni
Dindugal
Ramanathapuram
Virudhunagar
Sivagangai
Tirunelveli
Thoothukudi
The Nilgiris
Kanyakumari

Chevanthi

0
35
182
21
10
103
43
49
1
119
321
27
6
37
42
0
44
86
5
0
94
13
345
0
29
0
79
29
4
31

District

Jasmine

Crosandra

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.

Jathimalli

Sl.
No.

Rose

(Area in ha)

0
2
0
1
0
39
27
62
17
12
19
33
2
168
1
6
18
19
0
0
45
62
215
0
24
1
17
30
0
26

0
5
0
0
2
0
46
125
18
5
22
6
1
29
4
1
3
0
0
0
24
5
749
0
24
0
54
32
0
30

0
1
0
0
25
0
17
15
0
0
4
34
4
19
1
18
0
0
0
0
20
0
33
0
2
0
3
5
0
8

0
6
1
0
0
4
18
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
0
0
0
0
37
0
0
42

0
35
53
16
29
9
617
5
1
116
3
29
16
48
7
1
3
0
0
0
89
0
187
0
0
0
217
0
0
9

0
0
0
0
0
5
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
0
0
0
58
2
0
23

0
0
0
0
4
17
19
0
4
15
5
23
136
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
28
0
0
0
0
11
0
6

SOURCE: Season and Crop Report of Tamil Nadu 2006-2007, Department of

Economics and Statistics, Chennai-600 006.

31

1.19 Floriculture in Thovalai

Thovalai has been identified as a fabled centre for the
production and marketing of flowers. No wonder Thovalai is treated for all
practical and purposes as a centre for the abode of the aroma of flowers.
1.20 Production of flowers in Thovalai
The weather, soil and Water conditions at Thovalai are suitable
for the production of flowers. People believe that flower production was
started in the early eighteenth century in Thovalai. The then Travancore king
identified this area as suitable for flower cultivation and different kinds of
flowers were produced and distributed to various parts of erstwhile
Travancore state especially Padmanabha Temple at Thiruvananthapuram and
Iyyappan Temple at Sabarimala for offering to the local deities.
Flower cultivation is the primary occupation in this village as
more than 80 percent of the people are actively involved in activities such as
cultivation, harvesting, distribution, garland making and marketing.

The

flowers produced in and around Thovalai include are Jasmine (Pitchi),

Jasmine (Malligai), Rose, Bachalors Button (Vadamalli), Marigold (Krenthi),
Merjoram (Marikolunthu), Nerium (Arali) Crossandra (Kanakambaram),
Chrysanthemum (Chevanthi), Sacred basil (Tulsi), Cocks comb (Kolikondai)
Scented Green (Pachi) Tuberose (Champanki). Plucking of these flowers

32

starts early in the morning around 5.00 a.m. Youngsters, elders and school
children irrespective of their age or occupation are engaged in this work.
1.21 The Research Problem
Thovalai has been a renowned centre for flower production. The
flower it produces are without parallel in variety, beauty, fragrance and export
value.

Though Thovalai is known for flower production since time

immemorial it still maintains its uniqueness in the flower industry in the

southern part of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The demand for flower is increasing
day by day. In spite of all these, the flower market in Thovalai still remains
under developed. There is no special area earmarked for a flower market in
Thovalai. The present flower market is operating at a place covering area of
25 cents devoid of facilities like electricity, cold storage, proper toilets, water
taps, weighing arrangements and waiting sheds. There is no protection from
rain or shine for the traders. In the absence of cold storage facilities and
seasoning facilities, it has been found very difficult to protect flowers from
dehydration. Consequently flowers are bought from local producers and sent
to Trivandrum by fast moving vehicles equipped with facilities for cold
storage, within three hours from 5.30 to 8.30 A.M. The obvious concomitant
effect has been appalling price fluctuations in Thovalai. This trend very often
flay in the face of flower producers in Thovalai. It dampens their interest
resulting in unavoidable slumps in flower production. Further, in spite of the

33

popularity gained by Thovalai for the production and marketing of flowers, no

effort has so far been made to introduce new technologies like shade-Net
cultivation and the Green House Technology that have been used effectively
in foreign countries. Green houses are nothing but covered structures in
transparent materials which facilitate flower production under a controlled
environment. The investigator is very much burdened by this problem. He
seeks to delve deep into this problem as a prelude to script a new chapter in
the industry of floriculture in Thovalai.