Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
421
__________________________________________________________________________
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
APPLIED METALLURGY
422
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED METALLURGY
__________________________________________________________________________
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Why Metallurgy For Civil and Structural Engineers?
The engineering properties of steel, i.e. strength, ductility and resistance against brittle
fracture, depend on its crystalline structure, grain size and other metallurgical
characteristics.
These microstructural properties are dependent on the chemical composition and on the
temperature-deformation history of the steel. Heat treatments that occur during welding
may also have a large influence on the engineering properties.
When selecting steel for welded structures, it is important to have at least a basic
knowledge of metallurgy. This knowledge is required especially when large and
complicated structures are being designed, such as bridges, offshore structures, and high
rise buildings.
Selecting materials, welding processes and welding consumables usually requires
consultation of "real" metallurgists and welding specialists. A basic knowledge of
metallurgy is essential for communication with these specialists.
Finally, a basic knowledge of metallurgy also enables civil and structural engineers to
have a better understanding of the engineering properties of steel and the performance of
welded structures.
424
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED METALLURGY
__________________________________________________________________________
Slide 2 : Microstructure of hot rolled steel containing 0,2% carbon showing ferrite (white)
and pearlite colonies (dark). (x 200)
Slide 3 : Microstructure of hot rolled steel containing 0,36% carbon showing increased
proportions of pearlite (dark). (x 500)
Slide 4 : Microstructure of heat treated hot rolled steel containing 0,36% carbon showing
spheroidised pearlite (dark) in a ferrite matrix. (x 750)
Slide 5 : Microstructure of quenched hot rolled steel containing 0,36% carbon showing
bainite (x 200)
The steel of Slide 2 is an example of a polycrystalline substance which has been made
visible by polishing and etching.
(a) The surface is polished but not etched.
(b) The surface is polished and etched. Different reflections of the light indicate different
orientation of crystals (polycrystalline structure).
(c) Some etchants affect only the grain boundaries. These etchants are used when it is
required to investigate the grain structure, e.g. to estimate the grain size.
(d) The appearance of etched grain boundaries of Figure 1c.
(e) The appearance of a steel with 0,15% carbon (enlargement 100x). The dark areas are
pearlite. The grain boundaries are clearly indicated. The dark areas indicate the presence
of carbon.
By adjusting the history of rolling and heating treatment experienced by the steel during
its production, the grain size can be altered. This technique is useful because the grain size
affects the properties. In particular, the yield strength is determined by the grain size,
according to the so-called Petch equation:
y = o + kd-1/2
where y is the yield strength
o - is effectively the yield strength of a very large isolated crystal: for mild steel
this is 50N/mm2
d - is the grain size in mm
k
426
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED METALLURGY
__________________________________________________________________________
This crystal structure of iron at ambient temperature is one of the major factors
determining the metallurgy and properties of steels.
Steels contain carbon. Some of it, a very small amount, is contained within the crystals of
iron. The carbon atoms are very small and can fit, with some distortion, into the larger
gaps between the iron atoms. This arrangement forms what is known as an interstitial solid
solution: the carbon is located in the interstices of the iron crystal.
In the steels of Slides 2, 3 and 4, most of the remaining carbon has formed a chemical
compound with the iron, Fe3C, iron carbide or cementite. Iron carbide is also crystalline
3. IRON-CARBON PHASES
3.1 Influence of Temperature on Crystal Structure
The crystal structure of steel changes with increasing temperature. For pure iron this
change occurs at 910 C. The body-centred cubic (bcc) crystals of Figure 2 change to
face-centred cubic (fcc) crystals as illustrated in Figure 3. For fcc crystals the atoms of
iron are on the cube corners and at the centres of each face of the cube. The body-centred
position is empty.
A given number of atoms occupy slightly less volume when arranged as fcc crystals than
when arranged as bcc crystals. Thus the change of the crystal structure is accompanied by
a volume change. This change is illustrated in Figure 4. When a piece of pure iron is
heated, expansion occurs in the normal way until the temperature of 910 C is reached. At
428
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED METALLURGY
__________________________________________________________________________
this temperature there is a step contraction of about % in volume associated with the
transformation from the bcc to fcc crystal structure. Further heating gives further thermal
expansion until, at about 1400C the fcc structure reverts to the bcc form and there is a
step expansion which restores the volume lost at 910C. Heating beyond 1400C gives
thermal expansion until melting occurs at 1540C. The curve is reversible on cooling
slowly.
The property that metals may have different crystal structures, depending on temperature,
is called allotropy.
430
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED METALLURGY
__________________________________________________________________________
The amount of cementite and the distribution of cementite particles in the microstructure
is important for the engineering properties of steel.
The distribution of cementite is highly dependent on the cooling rate. The distribution may
be explained by considering the so-called iron-carbon phase diagram, see Section 3.4.
3.3 Nomenclature
Ferrite or -Fe
Cementite
Pearlite
Austenite or -Fe
Steel
Cast Iron
Steel used in structures such as bridges, buildings and ships, usually contains between
0,1% and 0,25% carbon by weight.
432
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED METALLURGY
__________________________________________________________________________
Any point in the field of the diagram represents a steel containing a particular carbon
content at a particular temperature.
The diagram is divided into areas showing the structures that are stable at particular
compositions and temperatures.
The diagram may be used to consider what happens when a steel of 0,5%C is cooled from
1000C (Figure 6).
At 1000C the structure is austenite, i.e. polycrystalline fcc crystals with all the carbon
dissolved in them. No change occurs on cooling until the temperature reaches about
800C. At this temperature, a boundary is crossed from the field labelled Austenite () to
All the constituents of the microstructure are at the same temperature. A line of constant
temperature may be drawn through X. It cuts the boundaries of the austenite and ferrite
field at F and A. These intercepts give the carbon contents of ferrite and austenite
respectively at the particular temperature.
434
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED METALLURGY
__________________________________________________________________________
If, now, the line FA is envisaged as a rigid beam which can rotate about a fulcrum at X,
the 'weight' of austenite hanging at A must balance the 'weight' of ferrite hanging at F.
This is the so-called Lever Rule:
Weight of ferrite FX = Weight of austenite AX
The ratio of ferrite to austenite in the microstructure is then given by:
Thus, as the steel cools, the proportion of ferrite increases and the carbon content of the
remaining austenite increases, until cooling reaches 723C. At this temperature the carbon
content of the austenite is 0,8% and it can take no more. Cooling to just below this
temperature causes the austenite to decompose. It decomposes into the lamellar mixture of
ferrite and Fe3C identified earlier as pearlite.
The proportions of ferrite and pearlite in the microstructure, say at 722C, are virtually the
same as the proportions of ferrite and austenite immediately before the decomposition at
723C. Thus, referring to Figure 7 and using the Lever Rule:
Weight of ferrite F X = Weight of pearlite F P
In this case, there should be about twice as much pearlite as ferrite.
For other steels containing less than 0,8%C, the explanation is identical except for the
proportions of pearlite in the microstructure below 723C. This varies approximately
linearly with carbon content between zero at 0,02%C and 100% at 0,8%C. A typical mild
steel containing 0,2%C would contain about 25% pearlite.
For steels containing a greater percentage of carbon than 0,8%, the structure is fully
austenitic on cooling from high temperatures. The first change to occur is the formation of
particles of Fe3C from the austenite. This change reduces the carbon content of the
residual austenite. On further cooling, the carbon content of the austenite follows the line
of the boundary between the field and + Fe3C field. Once again, on reaching 723C the
carbon content of the austenite is 0,8%. On cooling further, it decomposes into pearlite as
before. Therefore, the final microstructure consists of a few particles of Fe3C embedded in
a mass of pearlite, see Figure 6.
4. COOLING RATE
4.1 Cooling Rate During Austenite to Ferrite Transformation and Grain
Size
During cooling of austenite, the new bcc ferrite crystals start to grow from many points.
The number of starting points determines the number of ferrite grains and consequently
the grain size. This grain size is important because the engineering properties are
dependent on it. Small grains are favourable. By adding elements like aluminium and
436
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED METALLURGY
__________________________________________________________________________
Figures 8 and 9 illustrate one of the difficulties in the choice of carbon content. Increasing
the carbon content is beneficial in that it improves yield strength and ultimate tensile
strength, but is undesirable in that it reduces ductility and toughness. A high carbon
content may also cause problems during welding, see Section 4.3.
In European Norm 10025, Table 3, [3] the chemical composition for flat and long products
is given. An extract is presented in Figure 10. The designation S235 JR, for example,
indicates that the yield strength is at least 235 N/mm2. It is emphasised that the
compositional values in the table are maximum values. Many steelmakers achieve much
lower levels, resulting in better ductility, resistance against brittle fracture, and
weldability.
The lowest carbon content that can be achieved easily on a large scale is about 0,04%.
This content is characteristic of sheet or strip steels intended to be shaped by extensive
cold deformation, as in deep drawing.
Carbon contents of more than 0,25% are used in the wider range of general engineering
steels. These steels are usually put into service in the quenched and tempered state (see
below) for a great multiplicity of purposes in mechanical engineering. High strength bolts
for some structural applications would also be steels of this type.
4.2.2 The need for control of grain size
The mechanical properties of steel are affected by grain size. Slides 8 and 9 show
microstructures of two samples of the same batch of mild steel which have been treated,
by methods outlined in Section 4.2.3, to give different grain sizes. Reduction in grain size
438
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED METALLURGY
__________________________________________________________________________
improves yield strength but also has a profound effect on the ductile/brittle transition
temperature,
see
Figure 11. Thus, there are several benefits from the same microstructural charge. This is
an unusual circumstance in metallurgy where adjustments to improve one property often
mean a worsening of another and a compromise is necessary. An example of such
compromise relates to carbon content, already discussed above.
Slide 8 : Microstructure of typical hot rolled structural steel containing 0,15% carbon and
showing white ferrite grains and pearlite colonies. (x 200)
440
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED METALLURGY
__________________________________________________________________________
442
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED METALLURGY
__________________________________________________________________________
microstructure having moderately fine-grained ferrite results. Modern controlled rolling
techniques aim to do this, or even to roll at still lower temperatures to give still finer
grains.
If the temperature falls so that the rolling is finished in the ferrite + austenite range, the
mixture of ferrite and austenite grains is elongated along the rolling direction and a layerlike structure is developed. If now, the section is air-cooled, the residual austenite
decomposes into fine-grained ferrite and pearlite, with the later being present as long,
cigar shaped, bands in the material, as in Slide 10. Structural steels are not harmed by
microstructures of this sort.
Slide 10 : Microsection through a fillet weld on structural steel showing three distinct
regions: the coarse grained cast structure of the weld deposit, the heat affected
zone, and the unaffected microctructure of the parent steel. (x 200)
If the finish rolling temperature drops further, to below 723C, the equilibrium diagram
shows that the structure should be a mixture of ferrite and pearlite. Rolling in this range is
usually restricted to low carbon steels containing less than 0,15%C because the presence
of pearlite makes rolling difficult.
Slide 11 : Macrosection through a butt weld on hot rolled steel plate, typical of line pipe
weld.
444
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED METALLURGY
__________________________________________________________________________
Of course, cold working need not be applied by rolling. Any way of deforming the
material causes work hardening. For example, high strength steel wire is made by colddrawing, imparting large deformations. In another example, one type of reinforcing bar is
made by twisting square section bar into a helical form. The cold-deformation produced in
this way is not large but causes significant work hardening.
To restore the ductility and at the same time reduce the work hardened state of the
material, it is necessary to reform the isotropic, polycrystalline structure of the ferrite. Reheating to temperatures between about 650C and 723C allows the ferrite to recrystallise.
The carbide particles are unaffected by this treatment.
Thus, there is another technique for controlling the grain size of steel. The greater the
amount of deformation before the recrystallisation treatment and the lower the temperature
of the treatment, the finer is the final grain size. Because this type of treatment does not
involve the formation and decomposition of austenite, it is known as sub-critical
annealing. The resulting microstructure has good ductility and deep drawing
characteristics. Sheet steels of low carbon content
(< 0,1%C) are usually supplied
in this condition. Objects such as motor car body panels are formed from such steels by
cold pressing.
If the material is heated into the austenite range, subsequent cooling reforms the
normalised microstructure.
Slide 12 : Longitudinal section of hot rolled structural steel showing dark bands of
pearlite in a ferrite matrix. (x 200)
4.3.2 Martensite in welded structures
Civil engineering structures are not heat-treated by heating to, say, 900C and quenching
into water. However, there is one important circumstance which can produce martensite in
localised parts of the structure, and that is welding. The weld zone is raised to the melting
temperature of the steel and the immediately adjacent solid metal is heated to temperatures
well within the austenite range. When the heat source is removed, the whole region cools
at rates determined mainly be thermal conduction into the surrounding mass of cold metal.
These rates of cooling can be very large, exceeding 1000C per second in some cases and
can produce transformation structures such as martensite and bainite. The properties of
rapidly cooled steels and the influence of carbon content on the nature of the
transformation product - ferrite and pearlite, or bainite, or martensite - are discussed
below.
Figure 14 shows the hardness of martensite as a function of its carbon content. Reheating
martensite to temperatures up to about 600C causes cementite to precipitate which causes
the steel to soften and become much tougher. This reheating is known as tempering. The
extent of these changes increases as the reheating temperature increases, as shown in
Figure 15. Tempering at 600C produces an extremely tough material. What is more, its
ductile-brittle transition temperature is lower than for the same steel in the normalised
condition. Bainite has properties similar to those of tempered martensite.
446
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED METALLURGY
__________________________________________________________________________
448
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED METALLURGY
__________________________________________________________________________
considered to be acceptable. In modern fine grain low carbon steels the "allowable"
hardness may be increased to HV = 400 or even HV = 450.
The danger of hydrogen cracking may also be present in high strength quenched and
tempered steels, e.g. 10.9 bolts (Re 900 N/mm2 and Rm 1000 N/mm2). When such bolts
are electroplated with zinc or cadmium, hydrogen may be picked up from the plating bath.
Usually cracking does not occur until sometime after tightening bolts when the hydrogen
has diffused to the sites of stress concentration at the thread roots.
4.3.4 Control of martensite formation
Martensite forms because ferrite and pearlite did not! If follows that metallurgical factors
which promote the formation of ferrite and pearlite inhibit the production of martensite.
The ability of a steel to form martensite rather than ferrite and cementite is called
hardenability. Note that this term does not refer to the absolute value of hardness obtained,
but to the ease of formation of martensite.
The most convenient method of assessing hardenability is the so called Jominy end
quench. A rod-shaped sample is austenitised and then quenched by spraying water onto
one end face such that different cooling rates are produced along the length of the bar.
Thereafter, a flat is ground along its length and the hardness measured as a function of
distance from the quenched end.
Some typical results are shown in Figure 16 for three different steels. For a carbon steel
containing 0,08%C and 0,3%Mn, cooling rates at 700C of greater than about 50C s-1 are
necessary to form martensite. On the other hand in the 0,29%C, 1,7%Mn steel, martensite
C.E. =
If the CE is lower than about 0,4%, the steel can be welded with little or no trouble from
martensite and HAZ hydrogen cracking. As indicated before, the cooling rate is also an
important factor, which means that during welding, thick plates are more susceptible to
hydrogen cracking than thin plates. To reduce susceptibility to martensite formation, the
cooling rate (between 800C and 500C) can be reduced by preheating the plates before
welding.
450
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED METALLURGY
__________________________________________________________________________
5. INCLUSIONS
5.1 Sulphur, Phosphorus and Other Impurities
One tonne of steel, a cube with sides of about 0,5m, contains between 1012 and 1015
inclusions which can occupy up to about 1% of the volume. The total content is largely
determined by the origins of the ores, coke and other materials used to extract the metal in
the first place, and by the details of steelmaking practice.
The principal impurities which worry steelmakers are phosphorus and sulphur. If not at
very low concentrations, these impurities form particles of phosphide and sulphide which
are harmful to the toughness of the steel. Typically, less than 0,05% of each of these
elements is demanded. Low phosphorus contents are relatively easily attained during the
refining of the pig iron into steel, but sulphur is more difficult to remove. It is controlled
by careful choice of raw materials and, in modern steelmaking, by extra processing steps
to remove it.
Manganese is always added to steels. It has several functions but the important one in this
context is that it combines with the sulphur to form manganese sulphide (MnS). If the
manganese were not present, iron sulphide would form which is much more harmful than
MnS.
Some of the inclusions are too small to be seen with optical microscopes and must be
detected by more elaborate methods. Among this group, which are mainly equiaxial in
shape, are nitrides of aluminium and titanium which are deliberately introduced in order to
inhibit the processes which lead to coarsening of grain size.
In recent years, a number of practices have been introduced which aim to reduce the
inclusion content in the molten steel before it is cast into ingots. Sulphur contents of
0,01% or less are now regularly produced. These processes produce what have become
452
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED METALLURGY
__________________________________________________________________________
known as 'clean steels'. The expression is relative. Clean steels still contain many
inclusions, but are significantly tougher than ordinary steels. Inclusion shape control is
also practised in better quality steels. Additions of calcium or cerium and other rare earth
elements to the refined molten steel combine with the sulphur in preference to the
manganese. Sulphides of these elements appear in the final microstructure as equiaxial
particles and are not so deleterious to the through-thickness ductility of the material as
elongated MnS inclusions. Steels treated in these ways are used in applications where
toughness is of paramount importance and where the extra cost can be justified. Examples
include high integrity pressure vessels, oil and gas pipelines and the main legs of offshore
platforms. The introduction of continuous casting has also improved the quality of
conventional structural steels.
454
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: APPLIED METALLURGY
__________________________________________________________________________
If the manganese content is increased too much, its effect ceases to be beneficial and can
become harmful because it increases hardenability, i.e. promotes martensite formation. It
is for this reason that a maximum manganese content is specified: For S355 in Table 3 of
EN 10025 this maximum is 1,7% by weight, see Figure 16. A convention has also grown
that distinguishes between plain carbon steels, i.e. steels containing < 1%Mn, and carbon
manganese steels i.e. >1%Mn.
6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
7. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: 'Design of Steel Structures' ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules and
Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] Rollason, E. C., 'Metallurgy for Engineers', 4th Edition, Arnold, 1973.
[3] Euronorm 10025
8. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Honeycombe, R. W. K., 'Steels. Microstructure and Properties'. Arnold.
2. Knott, J. F., 'The relationship between microstructure and fracture toughness' in
'Steels for line pipe and pipeline fittings' The Metals Society, London 1981.