Chapter 1 Basics of hydraulic structures

FUNDAMENTALS OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (CEng 4605)

CHAPTER 1: BASICS OF DAM ENGINEERING
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In various textbooks on hydraulic structures one can find different contents. That is only
due to different perceptions about what the hydraulic structures are. The broadest
definition is that: these are "all structures in contact with water" - that would include
structures such as bridges, hydraulic tunnels, docks coastal and offshore structures etc.
However in this course curriculum is limited only to hydraulic structures of interest to
hydraulic and civil engineers.
Hydraulic structures, in different forms, were built by human kind since the earliest days
of known history, in order to solve problems that could not be solved other wise.
Hydraulic structures are as old as Civilization. There could not be developed civilization
with out water management, and if one looks back, one can see that all major settled
civilizations were using water supply systems & irrigation. At first, small diversion dams
were used, there are reliable records about dam built on the Nile river before 4000BC,
which was to provide water for ancient city of Memphis.
Brief list of Hydraulic Structures (including those out of the scope of this lecture note are:
- Dams
- Intakes
- Outlets
- Spillways
- Energy Dissipators: Stilling basins, Plunge pools, Flip Buckets, Ski Jumps,
Aprons,
- Navigation structures- Locks, Ship-lifts and inclined plane, inland ports
- Pumping stations
- Canals, (Navigation and Water Conveyance), (Spawning canals)
- Other conveyance structures like pipelines
- Drop structures, Culverts and siphons
- Steel structures like gates, valves, air vessels, air vents, silt outlets
- Diversion work structures (Diversion dams and Weirs, river intakes, settling
basins,
- Fish ladders and passes
- Bridges, aqueductsTunnels
- Check dams
- Irrigation structures
- Hydropower stations
- Levees and canal dikes
- Earth retaining structures
- Revetments
- other river training structures
- Breakwaters
Even this list is not exhaustive as one can think of even more structures that could be
called as Hydraulic". However, some of them like dams and spillways are most
important for program in civil engineering and are dealt in this course.
Fundamentals of Hydraulic structure (CE -4605)
Adama univeristy - Department of Civil Engg & Arch, Mar, 2011- By: Mekdim M

Chapter 1 Basics of hydraulic structures

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DAM TYPES

Dams are built in vast variety of circumstances for different purposes and by different
materials and construction methods. Their differences in size, type purpose, material,
shape and appearances generally can be subjected to different classifications. Possible
classifications are stated as follows:
1.2.1 Classification according to height /overall size of the dam/
(i) Small and
(ii) Large
1.2.2 Classification based on intended number of use (purpose, mainly reservoir)
(i) Single purpose: dams intended for one specific uses (irrigation, flood control,
hydropower, water supply etc)
(ii) Multipurpose : dams intended for more than one purposes
1.2.3 Classification According to Purpose
(i) Storage Dams
Constructed to create a reservoir to store water during the periods when the flow
in the river is in excess of the demand, for utilization later on during the period
when the demand exceeds the flow in the river.
(ii) Detention Dam
Constructed to temporarily detain all or part of the flood water of a river and to
gradually release the stored water at controlled rates so that, the entire region on
the d/s side of the dam may be safeguarded against the possible damage due to
floods. Detention dams are also constructed to trap sediment. These often are
called Debris dams.
(iii)Stage Control Dams
o Diversion - to raise the water level (no storage) at entrance to diversion canal
intakes to permit gravity flow in the canal
o Navigation - to maintain minimum navigable depth in a stream reach
o Check - to retard velocity in steep channel for erosion control
(iv) Barrier Dams
o Levees and dykes - to protect banks from overflow
o Cofferdam for temporary dewatering with diversion around construction sites.
1.2.4 Classification according to its life time
(i) Permanent : final structure
(ii) Temporary :coffer dam for construction purpose alone
1.2.5 Classification According to Hydraulic Design
(i) Over flow dams - permit water to flow over their crest. They are thus
constructed of concrete or masonry (For very small dams)
(ii) Non-overflow dams: - water is not permitted to flow over their crest. Earth
and rock fill dams are non-over flow dams.
(iii)Composite dams: - the crest is divided into overflow & non-overflow sections.
Fundamentals of Hydraulic structure (CE -4605)
Adama univeristy - Department of Civil Engg & Arch, Mar, 2011- By: Mekdim M

Chapter 1 Basics of hydraulic structures

1.2.6 Classification based on construction materials

(i) Rigid dam /Concrete dam/
It is a dam constructed from rigid material such as masonry, hollow masonry
concrete, and timber, steel R.C.C etc. (can be referred from fig below)
Examples
Gravity Dam: - Resists the forces exerted upon it by its own weight. It is
adapted to sites where there is a reasonably sound rock foundation. Its crosssection is approximately triangular in shape.
Arch dam: - is a curved concrete dam, convex u/s, which resists the forces
exerted upon it, mainly by arch action. It is structurally more efficient than the
gravity or buttress dams, greatly reducing the volume of concrete required.
Buttress dam: - It consists of water retaining sloping membrane or deck on the
u/s which is supported by a series of buttresses or counter forts. The sloping
membrane is usually R.C. slab. They require about 60% less concrete than
solid gravity dams, but the increased form work and reinforcement steel
required usually offset the saving in concrete.

Fundamentals of Hydraulic structure (CE -4605)

Adama univeristy - Department of Civil Engg & Arch, Mar, 2011- By: Mekdim M

Chapter 1 Basics of hydraulic structures

(ii) Non-rigid dams

A dam which is constructed from non-rigid material such as earth, rock fills
etc. Earth fills and rock fill dams are non-rigid dams.
Earth dams: are the most common types of dams, principally because their
construction involves utilization of materials in the natural state requiring
a minimum of processing.
The foundation requirement for earth dams is less stringent than for other
types. However, they need supplementary structures to serve as spillways.
An embankment may be categorized as an earth fill dam if compacted
soils accounts for over 50% of the placed volume of material.
Rock fill dams: - The designation rock fill embankment is appropriate
where over 50% of fill material may be classified as rock fill. It uses rocks
of all sizes to provide stability and an impervious membrane for water
tightness. Spillway requirement is considerable as in the case of earth fill
dam.

Fundamentals of Hydraulic structure (CE -4605)

Adama univeristy - Department of Civil Engg & Arch, Mar, 2011- By: Mekdim M

Chapter 1 Basics of hydraulic structures

Fundamentals of Hydraulic structure (CE -4605)

Adama univeristy - Department of Civil Engg & Arch, Mar, 2011- By: Mekdim M

Chapter 1 Basics of hydraulic structures

Definitions for various types of dams according to (ICOLD-International Commission of

Large Dams) is provided below
Embankment Dam: Any dam constructed of naturally excavated materials placed without
addition of binding material other than those inherent in the natural material.
Embankment dams are usually referred to be types such as Earth fill, Rock fill,
and Hydraulic fill. The term embankment dam is used to indicate a zoned fill dam
involving selected areas of rock, gravel, earth and impervious zones, or
homogeneous earth fill dam. This is not necessarily zoned.
Earth fill dam: An embankment dam constructed primarily of compacted earth in either
homogeneous or zoned areas containing more than 50% of earth.
Hydraulic Fill dam: An embankment dam constructed of earth, sand, gravel or rock
generally from dredged material conveyed to the site of placement by suspension
in flowing water.
Rock fill dam: An embankment type of dam dependent for its stability primarily on rock.
As rock fill dams must contain an impervious zone, usually of selected earth with
filter zones comprising as substantial volume of the dam, the term rock fill dam
usually represents dams that contain more than 50% compacted or damped
pervious rock fill. The impervious zone may be of cement concrete, bituminous
concrete or other impermeable material.

Fundamentals of Hydraulic structure (CE -4605)

Adama univeristy - Department of Civil Engg & Arch, Mar, 2011- By: Mekdim M

Chapter 1 Basics of hydraulic structures

Gravity dam: A type of dam constructed of mass concrete or stone masonry, or both,
which relies on its weight for stability. The dam is usually roughly triangular in
cross section with its base width so related to its height as to insure stability
against overturning, sliding or crushing.
Arch dam: A dam with upstream curvature which transmits the major portion of the load
or pressure to the abutments rather than to the bottom foundation. In general, an
arch dam has a base thickness less than 60% of its height. Dams of greater
thickness are considered as arch-gravity dams or gravity dams.
Arch-gravity dams: Are dams where the load or pressure is transmitted to both the
abutments and the bottom foundation.
Buttress dam: A dam consisting of a watertight upstream face supported at intervals on
the downstream side by a serious of intermittent supports termed buttress.
Buttress dams take many forms; multiple arch, multiple dome, plank, flat slab,
deck, hollow gravity, cellular gravity, solid head, or bulb head dams.
1.3 SELECTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF DAMS
The optimum type of dam for a specific site is determined by estimates of cost and
construction programme for all design solutions which are technically valid. Where site
circumstances are such that viable alternatives exist it is important that options are kept
open, assessing the implications of each with respect to resources, programme and cost,
until a preferred solution is apparent. It may also be necessary to take account of less
tangible socio-political & environmental considerations in determination of that solution.
It is rare that for any given dam site only one type of dam is suitable. It is only in
exceptional circumstances that an experienced designer can say only one type of dam is
suitable or most economical. Thus, it would be necessary to prepare preliminary designs
and estimates for several types of dams before one can get the best solution from the
point of view of direct costs and all other factors.
Some of physical factors which affect choice of the type of dam are discussed below: Topography
Topography dictates the first choice of the type of dam and the most important factor in
this respect is the shape of the valley.
i) A narrow V-shaped valley with sound rock in abutments has an arch dam
as the first choice. However, for economic arch dam it is preferable to
have the top width of the valley less than about 4-times its height. It is also
suitable for rock fill dam.
ii) A narrow or moderately wide U-shaped valley with sound rock foundation
is best suited for gravity or buttress dam. Also suitable for rock fill dam.
iii) Wide valley with foundation of soil material to a considerable depth (deep
over burden) favor earth fill embankment dam.

Fundamentals of Hydraulic structure (CE -4605)

Adama univeristy - Department of Civil Engg & Arch, Mar, 2011- By: Mekdim M

Chapter 1 Basics of hydraulic structures

Figure Illustrative examples of dam type in relation to valley profile

Table Dam type selection Vs their characteristics:
Type

Notes and characteristics

Embankment
Earthfill

Rockfill

Suited to either soil or rock foundation and wide valleys; can accept limited
differential settlement given relatively wide and plastic core. Cut-off to sound, i.e. less
permeable, horizons required. Low contact stresses. Requires range of materials, e.g.
for core, shoulder zones, internal filters, etc.
Rock foundation or clay foundation above 5m depth.
Clay, sand , aggregate should be available on the site
Availability of separate spillway site is available
Rock foundations preferable; can accept variable quality and limited weathering. Cutoff to sound horizons required. Rock fill suitable for all weather placing. Requires
material (like boulders, sand clay) for core, and filters, etc.
Suited to wide cross section valleys
Semi permeable or impermeable foundations
Rock foundations above 5m depth.

Concrete
Gravity

Suited to wide valleys, provided that excavation to rock is less than about 5 m.
Limited weathering of rock acceptable. Check discontinuities in rock with regard to
sliding. Moderate contact stress. Requires imported cement.
Foundation should be impermeable
Guarantee for availability of materials is needed (cement ,sand , aggregate)

Fundamentals of Hydraulic structure (CE -4605)

Adama univeristy - Department of Civil Engg & Arch, Mar, 2011- By: Mekdim M

Chapter 1 Basics of hydraulic structures

Buttress

As gravity dam, but higher contact stresses require sound rock. Concrete saved relative
to gravity dam 30 60%.

Arch and Cupola

Suited to narrow gores, subject to uniform sound rock of high strength and limited
deformability in foundation & most particularly in abutments (because loads are more
of transmitted to abutments). High abutment loading. Concrete saving relative to
gravity dam is
50 85%

Geology and Foundation Condition

The existence of joint patterns in an abutment (their orientation, inclination and infilling)
may indicate the possibility of instability under loading from an arch dam and reservoir
water. Such a site would possibly be satisfactory for an embankment dam or even an
adequately dimensioned gravity dam. Type of rock, overburden, fractures, bedding have
a strong influence on the need for foundation treatment and costs. As a rule, concrete
dams require a foundation on relatively sound rock. Earth and rockfill dams may be
founded on decomposed rock and sediments or soils (with limitation).
The foundation has to carry the weight of the dam. The dam site must be thoroughly
surveyed by geologist so as to detect the thickness of the foundation strata, inclination of
the bedding planes, existing faults and fissures, and permeability of strata etc.
The common types of foundations generally encountered are: Solid rock foundations
Gravel and coarse sand foundation
Silt and fine sand foundation
Clay foundation
Non-uniform foundation
Seismicity (earthquake risk):
If the dam is to lie in an area that is subject to earth quake shocks, the design must
include provisions for the added loading and increased stresses Finite element methods
now make possible the analysis of the behavior of dams under dynamic loading. A rock
fill dam provided with filters, material from which could move into and seal cracks in the
core material, appear to be one of the safest type in earthquake regions. As another option
a gravity dam can be built as an assembly of large concrete blocks separated from one
another by laterally by gravel filling in the joints: this should permit relative movements
of parts of the dam.
The types of structures best suited to resist earth quake shocks without damage are
embankment dams (rock fill and earth fill) and concrete gravity dams. Arch dams are
better avoided.
Availability of Technical skills
At many sites neither skilled contractor nor artisans are available. This can preclude the
adoption of dams that require intricate framework or very high quality concrete. The
embankment type dams or a masonry gravity dam may then prove most suitable.

Fundamentals of Hydraulic structure (CE -4605)

Adama univeristy - Department of Civil Engg & Arch, Mar, 2011- By: Mekdim M

Chapter 1 Basics of hydraulic structures

Cost effectiveness
Site conditions naturally influence the cost of various types of dam. For a very high dam,
for instance, the cost may be high compared with concrete dams. For concrete dams costs
for external spillway can be saved incase of spillway located at the dam crest. However,
standard prices of earth and rock fill materials in the past have not risen as much as those
of mass concrete dams
Environment and public opinion
One large dam was proposed as central core rock fill dam. Core material was available
only in thin beds and to obtain sufficient would despoil a very large area of beautiful
land. Public opinion was a major factor in the adoption of a thin arch dam despite
difficulties with the foundation.
Time and money
Time and money may be unavailable for sophisticated investigation and design, like arch
dams. Embankment dams can be continuously constructed to reduce construction time
with high degree of mechanization.
Hydrology
The possibility of inundation by floods during construction may favor a concrete dam.
Although means are now proven whereby the downstream face of rock fill dam can be
stabilized against overtopping, such practice has, as yet been limited to dams about 30m
in height, i.e., to cofferdams and to the lowest part of the main dam sufficient to protect it
during construction to such a height that head is provided for flood waters to be forced
through the diversion tunnel without further overtopping. Where wet season high flow
occurs, an embankment dam will require special and detailed protection, where as
concrete dam could be overtopped with little damage.
Availability of construction material
The most economical type of dam will be the one for which materials are to be found in
sufficient quantity with in a reasonable distance from the site. Advantage should be taken
of every local resource to reduce the cost of the project without sacrificing the efficiency
and quality of the final structure.
Spillway size and location
The spill way is a vital appurtenance of a dam. Frequently its size and type and the
natural restrictions in its location will be the controlling factor in the choice of type of
dam.
Spillway requirements are dictated primarily by the runoff and stream flow
characteristics, independent of site condition or size of dam. The selection of specific
spillway types will be influenced by the magnitudes of the floods to be by passed. Thus,
it can be seen that on streams with large flood potential, the spill way become the
dominant structure, and the selection of the type of dam could become a secondary
selection.

Fundamentals of Hydraulic structure (CE -4605)

Adama univeristy - Department of Civil Engg & Arch, Mar, 2011- By: Mekdim M

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Chapter 1 Basics of hydraulic structures

The cost of constructing a large spillway is frequently a considerable portion of the total
cost of the development. In such cases, combining the spillway and in to one structure
may be desirable, indicating the adoption of a concrete overflow dam.
In certain instances, where excavated material from separate spillway channel may be
utilized in dam embankment, an earth fill dam may prove to be advantageous. Small
spillway requirements often favor the selection of earth fill or rock fill dams, even in
narrow dam sites.
Heights of the dam
Earthen dams are usually not provided for heights more than 30m or so. Hence, for
greater heights, gravity dams are generally preferred.
Other important Factors to be considered in design and construction of dam
In order to achieve general objectives and requirements, design and construction of dams
have to take into account a large variety of important factors. They are:
1. Physical factors in river basins and at site
Climatic conditions: temperatures, precipitation, winds, insolation (solar
radiation), evaporation potential, air moisture, etc.
Hydrological conditions: distribution of rainfall, run-off, stream flows and their
variation, floods, sediments
Topography, geomorphology, landscape: riverbed, valley, abutments
Geology, Hydro-geology, Geotechnics: geological formations, geological features,
natural construction materials and their properties, foundation capabilities, water
tightness permeability, etc.
Hydraulic conditions: river stages, regimes, sediment transport, river morphology.
2. Biological factors in river basin, at site
Flora; vegetation aquatic and terrestrial
Fauna; aquatic, terrestrial
Ecosystems
Water quality
3. Socio-economic factors in river basin, at site
Populations, demographic distribution, resettlements
Economic activities, natural resources and potentials, infrastructure, relocation,
costs
4 .Technical and technological factors
Availability of experience, construction materials, machinery, specific
infrastructure, labor.
5 .Legal and institutional framework
Legal requirements, liabilities, legal practices
Land ownership, institutional framework, other regional plans and projects
6 .Political factors
Political goals, mechanisms, representations, interest of society involved

Fundamentals of Hydraulic structure (CE -4605)

Adama univeristy - Department of Civil Engg & Arch, Mar, 2011- By: Mekdim M

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Chapter 1 Basics of hydraulic structures

1.4 DAM SITE ASSESSMENT AND INVESTIGATION

Parties directly involved in engineering of dam activities are:
- Owner - public or private organization
o Provision of financial resources
o Establishment of general objectives
- Consulting Engineer
o Planning and design
o Construction supervision
- Contractor for civil works
o Construction of required infrastructure
o Construction of civil works
o Assembly of equipments
Phases of engineering activities
Before a specific project is implemented and planned in a basin, a MASTER PLAN for
the use of water resources in the basin has to be established. (Refer the course on water
resources planning). Usually the site investigation and planning activity comprises of
hydraulic engineer, hydrologist, civil engineer, surveyor, geologist (or hydro geologist),
and sociologist (sometimes) with whom the Dam engineer is the team leader. The
following sequences of activities are focused on a particular dam that is part of the
proposed master plan development.
A) Prior to construction
The following are some of the stages where engineering investigations, geological and
geotechnical investigations, material survey investigations and hydrological
investigations are carried out.
- Preliminary studies
o Collection and evaluation of existing data
o Field trips- reconnaissance of dam site & reservoir area, downstream area
o Preliminary dam design including selection of type, main dimensions,
approximate site, costs, etc
- Feasibility studies
o Detailed investigation of site conditions
o Final selection of site
o Final selection of dam type, main dimensions, lay out
- Basic design
o Completion of detailed site investigations
o Detailed design, cost estimates construction schedules,
o Development of:
Basic report
Tender documents for the construction of civil works (drawings,
specifications, general and special contract conditions)
Fundamentals of Hydraulic structure (CE -4605)
Adama univeristy - Department of Civil Engg & Arch, Mar, 2011- By: Mekdim M

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Chapter 1 Basics of hydraulic structures

B) During Construction
- Detailed (construction execution design)
o Stepwise detail of dam design a head of construction
o Site investigations oriented towards construction
- Construction activities
o Preliminary installation of contractor at site
o Construction of required infrastructure (road, camp, plant, water and
energy supply, etc)
o River diversion
o Construction of dam and associated structures
- Construction and assembly supervision
- Commissioning and operation manuals
o Preparation of manuals for testing, monitoring and operation of
equipment. Maintenance
C) After construction
- Monitoring, surveillance, operation
o Reading of instruments, evaluation of results
o Planning of operation
o Execution of operation activities
Collection and Evaluation of Basic Data
In order to carry out reliable dam engineering activities there are major aspects that could
be regarded as basic input data that must be carefully studied. Topography and
geomorphology, geology and hydrogeology, metrology and climate, hydrology and
hydraulics are among those.
A) Topographic survey
No engineering work can be done with out topographic maps. Most of the countries in the
world have ready-made maps for all or most of the area up to certain scale (it is usually
1:10,000 in Ethiopia. Those, if existent, can be used for preliminary studies. However,
more detailed maps are required for each particular project, and those are to be done on
purposes, covering the areas determined by the project team.
-

aims to determine and present:

o Configuration of the dam site
o Configuration of the reservoir area
o Accessibility to the site
o Accessibility to construction material sources and deposits
Reasons
o Importance in dam type selection
o Importance in the selection of appurtenant structures
Methods

Fundamentals of Hydraulic structure (CE -4605)

Adama univeristy - Department of Civil Engg & Arch, Mar, 2011- By: Mekdim M

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Chapter 1 Basics of hydraulic structures

o Arial surveying (used both for preparation of maps and for different
analysis of the data such as geological, geo-morphological, topographical,
etc)
o Ground surveying (scale maps, ground profiles sections )
Generally the following are minimum requirements for scale maps:
- Master plan
1:100000, 1:50000, 1:25000, 1:20000,
1:10000
- Pre-feasibility 1:10000, 1:5000,
1:2500,
1:2000,
1:1000
- Feasibility
1:2500,
1:2000,
1:1000,
1:500
- Final (detailed design) 1:500, 1:250, 1:200,
1:100, 1:50
B) Geological and geotechnical investigations
Geological and geotechnical investigations of dam site selected for detailed evaluation is
directed to determination of geological structure, stratigraphy, faulting, foliation and
jointing, and to establishing ground and groundwater conditions adjacent to the dam site,
including the abutments. The general objectives of these and allied objectives are:
- To determine engineering parameters which can be safely used to evaluate
stability of the dam foundation and, on compressible foundations, i.e. soils, to
estimate the probable settlement and deformation,
- The determination of seepage patterns and parameters enabling assessment of the
probable seepage regime, including quantities and pressures and
- To confirm the containment integrity of the reservoir basin and the stability of its
margins
- Confirmation of the nature, suitability and availability of natural construction
materials, including the determination of the design parameters for fill materials.
C) Hydrogeology
Especial branch of geology that deals with interaction of water and rock/soil.
Determines:
- groundwater seepage paths and connections
- mechanical and chemical actions of water on geological formations
- interr-relation of different hydrogeological formations (barriers, conductors,
anticlines, synclines ..etc).
Explorations:
- water permeability tests
- piezometric measurements
- marking and tracing groundwater seepage paths

Fundamentals of Hydraulic structure (CE -4605)

Adama univeristy - Department of Civil Engg & Arch, Mar, 2011- By: Mekdim M

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Chapter 1 Basics of hydraulic structures

D) Metrology and Climatology

Metrology and climate has to be studied for two main reasons:
- one is backing up of the hydrological data analysis. Studying precipitation and
temperature distributions, humidity and moisture content (of air and soil) can help
a great deal in determining flow regimes, supporting necessary considerations to
obtain reliable hydrological data. In some cases it may be useful to fill in the
blank, i.e. restoring missing data in conjunction with runoff characteristics of the
catchment area. In other cases it is essential for the determination of PMF through
determination and application of PMP.
- Other is to help making decisions up on construction schedules and methods by
analysis of temperature distributions, air humidity, precipitations, winds, solar
radiations, etc. With those data carefully studied scheduling of special phases can
be determined, e.g. storing aggregates for pre-cooling purposes, for concrete
placement, placing materials during periods with out (or not intensive)
precipitations or during appropriate (acceptable) temperatures.
Methods of measurement and analysis:
- Metrological gauging stations
- Triangular interpolation
- Statistical correlations
E) Hydrological aspects and related Hydraulic aspects
i)
River discharge serious
Is variation of discharges in time at a given section on a river (preferably at sections
of interest). Its importance is:
- Determination of availability of water
- Study of discharge regulation by use of reservoir
- Determination of production capabilities for different purposes (hydropower,
irrigation, water supply, etc).
Completing discharge series
- Rainfall-runoff models: transformation of precipitation in runoff + routing
(SSAR, HEC)
- Regression models; statistical correlation
- Stochastic models, stochastic hydrology
Safety standards for dams:
- Design dams and spillways large enough to ensure that the dam will not be
overtopped by floods up to probable maximum categories.
- Design the dam and associated structures so that they can be overtopped without
destruction or if possible with out serous damage.
- Design the dam and associated structures so to ensure a slow breaching to protect
downstream reaches design in such a way that repairs may be carried out most
economically.
- Keep the dam low enough and impoundment small enough to avoid serious
hazards downstream
Fundamentals of Hydraulic structure (CE -4605)
Adama univeristy - Department of Civil Engg & Arch, Mar, 2011- By: Mekdim M

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Chapter 1 Basics of hydraulic structures

Determination of design floods

Envelope curves for river basins- Myers. Creager. Crippen Qmax= CAn
Observation of floods- flood hydrographs
Statistical distribution- Gummbel, Log. Pearson. Other distribution
Empirical methods based on runoff. Precipitations, basin characteristics.
Unit hydrograps techniques.
Storm patterns, PMP/PMF techniques.

Important factors to be taken in to account

Antecedent conditions- moisture of ground. Pervious precipitations. Base flow
Sources of runoff; rainfall, snowmelt
Intensity, duration geographic distribution of rainfall
Storm patterns, hydro-meteorological condition
Routing through channel system.
Usual design procedure- application of several methods. More and more widespread use
of PMP/PMF approach; checked against statistical methods.
PMP/PMF methods
Divided drainage basin in meteorologically homogeneous sub- basins.
Study applicable maximum moisture content oft atmosphere
F) Materials data
Soil, sand and stone are required for the dam construction. Possible borrow area for these
should be identified during the preliminary studies. The borrow area should be as close as
possible to the construction site. Test pits in sufficient numbers and spacing should be
dug to check on the quantity and quality of the material.
G) Miscellaneous data
Erosion in the catchments area
Transport facilities in the area
Local labour, availability and skill etc.

Fundamentals of Hydraulic structure (CE -4605)

Adama univeristy - Department of Civil Engg & Arch, Mar, 2011- By: Mekdim M

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Chapter 1 Basics of hydraulic structures

1.5 FOUNDATION INVESTIGATIONS

Foundation competence of the dam site must be assessed in terms of stability, loadcarrying capacity, compressibility (soils) or deformability (rocks), and effective mass
permeability. The investigative techniques to be adopted will depend upon the
geomorphology and geology of the specific site.
(a) Dams on competent stiff clays and weathered rocks
Serious under seepage is unlikely to be a problem in extensive and uniform deposits of
competent clay. It is important, however, to identify and consider the influence of
interbedded thin and more permeable horizons which may be present, e.g. silt lenses, fine
laminations, etc. Considerable care is required in the examination of recovered samples to
detect all such features. The determination of appropriate shear strength parameters for
Evaluating foundation stability is of major importance. For a foundation on rock positive
identification of the weathered rock profile may prove difficult. In situ determination of
shear strength parameters may also be necessary, using plate loading tests in trial pits or
adits, or dilatometer or pressure meter testing conducted within boreholes. The latter
techniques are particularly suitable in softer rocks containing very fine and closely spaced
fissures.
(b) Dams on soft cohesive foundations
The presence of superficial soft and compressible clay deposits normally ensures that
seepage is not a major consideration. The nature of such formations also ensures that
investigations are, in principle, relatively straightforward. The soft consistency of the
clays may necessitate the use of special sampling techniques. In such situations
continuous sampling or in situ cone penetrometer testing techniques offer advantages.
Stability and settlement considerations will require the determination of drained shear
strength and consolidation parameters for the clay.
(c) Dams on pervious foundations
Seepage-associated problems are normally dominant where a dam is to be founded on a
relatively pervious foundation. In a high proportion of such instances the soil conditions
are very complex, with permeable and much less permeable horizons present and closely
interbedded.
(d) Dams on rock foundations
The nature of the investigation is dependent upon whether an embankment or a concrete
dam is proposed. Where the decision is still open, the investigation must cover either
option; both require a full understanding of the site geology.

Fundamentals of Hydraulic structure (CE -4605)

Adama univeristy - Department of Civil Engg & Arch, Mar, 2011- By: Mekdim M

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