CHAPTER 2

POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS AND OVERVIEW

Definition of Power Quality:
There can be completely different definitions for power quality, depending on ones
frame of reference. For example, a utility may define power quality as reliability and
show statistics demonstrating that its system is 99.98 percent reliable. Criteria
established by regulatory agencies are usually in this vein. A manufacturer of load
equipment may define power quality as those characteristics of the power supply that
enable the equipment to work properly. These characteristics can be very different for
different criteria [3].
Power quality is ultimately a consumer-driven issue, and the end users point of
reference takes precedence. Finally we can define as Any power problem manifested
in voltage, current, or frequency deviations that result in failure or malfunctioning of
customer equipment.
Voltage quality: Voltage quality is the quality of the product delivered by the utility
to the customers. It is concerned with deviations of the voltage waveform from the
ideal sinusoidal waveform.
Current quality: Current quality is a complementary term to the voltage quality. It is
concerned with deviations of the current waveform from the ideal sinusoidal
waveform. In addition to the ideal current waveform (as demanded by the utility), the
current sinusoidal wave should be in phase with supplied voltage to minimize the
transmitted apparent power and consequently the power system ratings. Because
voltage and current are closely related, a deviation of any of them from the ideal may
(with a high probability) cause the other to deviate from the ideal case [3].
2.1 Power Quality Aspects of Telecom Power Supplies
Electronic power supplies (including the telecom power supplies) are interfaces
between the utility and the end user. As such, they contribute to power-quality
problems and, at the same time, are victims of poor power quality.
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The main contributions of electronic power supplies to power quality problems are
Increased line current, voltage distortion (caused by the normal rectifier
operation and leading to peaky line current, flat-topped line voltage, and
increased neutral current)
Sags (caused by charging up the bulk capacitor at start-up), and
EMI (caused by the switching action in switching power supplies, and also by
the normal rectifier operation).
The effects of poor power quality on electronic power supplies include
Failures (caused by high-energy impulses, swells, notches, and short outages),
Reduced hold-up time (during sags, also caused by flat-topping voltage
distortion),
Increased output noise (caused by EMI, impulses, notches, and voltage
distortion); all those effects lead to
Increased Cost (due to the need for surge suppression devices, larger bulk
capacitors, and extra filtering and shielding).
The relationship of telecom power supplies and power quality is similar to that of the
electronic power supplies in other applications. The telecom power supply has,
however, some distinctive power-quality related characteristics that set it apart from
the common power supply. Those are as follows [3].
1. The telecom power supply usually operates with relatively high power level, and it
has, therefore, a much greater local impact on power quality than other power
supplies with smaller power levels. Even if the power level is low (as, e.g. in a remote
installation), telecom power supplies constitute a substantial portion of local power
consumption, and the impact on local power quality is retained.
2. The telecom power supply is fundamentally a benign load, with practically
continuous operation and small variations in the load current. Its greatest effect on
power quality is due to the harmonic currents and EMI injected in the line. Some
earlier designs also introduce a lag in the fundamental current (power supplies with
phase-angle control or with large inductive line filter).

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3. Due to their long service life, in addition to power quality standards in effect at the
time of commissioning, telecom power supplies are expected to comply with
anticipated future standards, too.
4. Availability is very important because virtually uninterrupted service is required in
telecommunications. High availability requires
highly reliable equipment that is resistant to line borne disturbances, and
Local energy storage (usually batteries).
In some applications, large-capacity backup batteries may prove economically
impractical, and the emergency power is provided by Diesel generators. As a rule, the
emergency power is of lower grade than the normal utility power. This imposes
additional requirements on the telecom rectifiers and increases their cost.
5. Energy conversion efficiency is more important in telecom applications than in
other applications, due to the practically continuous operation and the relatively high
power levels [11].
2.2 General Classes of Power Quality Problems
Power quality problems encompass a wide range of disturbances that can disrupt the
operation of sensitive industrial loads and cause a loss of production. In this Section,
the following power quality problems are defined and briefly discussed.
Table 2.1 Power Disturbances
DISTURBANCE TYPE

DESCRIPTION

CAUSES

Narrow pulse with fast

rise and exponential or
damped oscillatory
decay; 50 V to 6 kV
amplitude, 0.5 s to
2 ms duration

Load switching, fuse

clearing, utility
switching, arcing
contacts, lightning

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Repetitive low energy

disturbances in the 10
KHz to 1 GHz band,
with 100 V to 100 V
amplitude

Normal equipment
operation (switching
power supplies, motor
speed controllers,
etc.), carrier powerline communication,
wireless broadcasting

Low voltage (typ. less

than 80%), for more
than one period High

Starting heavy load,

utility switching,
ground fault

High voltage (typ.

more than 1l0 % ), for
more than one period

Load reduction, utility

switching

Small repetitive
fluctuations in the
voltage level

Pulsating load

Repetitive dips in the

line voltage, with short
durations

Current commutation
in controlled or
uncontrolled threephase rectifier circuits

Deviation from ideal

sine wave due to the
presence of harmonics
or inter harmonics

Rectifiers, phaseangle controllers,

other nonlinear and/or
intermittent loads

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Deviation of the
frequency from the
nominal value

Poorly regulated
utility equipment,
emergency power
generator

Zero-voltage condition
of a single phase or
several phases in a
multiphase system, for
more than a half period

Load equipment
failure, ground fault,
utility equipment
failure, accidents,
lightning, acts of
nature

2.3 Transients
The term transients have long been used in the analysis of power system variations to
denote an event that is undesirable and momentary in nature. Another word in
common usage that is often considered synonymous with transient is surge. A utility
engineer may think of a surge as the transient resulting from a lightning stroke for
which a surge arrester is used for protection. Broadly speaking, transients can be
classified into two categories, impulsive and oscillatory. These terms reflect the wave
shape of a current or voltage transient.
2.4 Long-Duration Voltage Variations
Long-duration variations encompass root-mean-square (rms) deviations at power
frequencies for longer than 1 min. Long-duration variations can be either over
voltages or under voltages. Over voltages and under voltages generally are not the
results of system faults, but are caused by load variations on the system and system
switching operations. Such variations are typically displayed as plots of rms voltage
versus time.
2.4.1 Overvoltage
An overvoltage is an increase in the rms ac voltage greater than 110 percent at the
power frequency for duration longer than 1 min. Over voltages are usually the results
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of load switching (e.g., switching off a large load or energizing a capacitor bank). The
over voltages result because either the system is too weak for the desired voltage
regulation or voltage controls are inadequate. Incorrect tap settings on transformers
can also result in system over voltages.
2.4.2 Undervoltage
An under voltage is a decrease in the rms ac voltage to less than 90 percent at the
power frequency for a duration longer than 1 min. Undervoltage are the result of
switching events that are the opposite of the events that cause overvoltages. A load
switching on or a capacitor bank switching off can cause an under voltage until
voltage regulation equipment on the system can bring the voltage back to within
tolerances. Overloaded circuits can result in under voltage also. The term brownout is
often used to describe sustained periods of under voltage initiated as a specific utility
dispatch strategy to reduce power demand. Because there is no formal definition for
brownout and it is not as clear as the term under voltage when trying to characterize a
disturbance, the term brownout should be avoided [6].
2.5 Short-Duration Voltage Variations
This category encompasses the IEC category of voltage dips and short interruptions.
Each type of variation can be designated as instantaneous momentary, or temporary,
depending on its duration. Short-duration voltage variations are caused by fault
conditions, the energization of large loads which require high starting currents, or
intermittent loose connections in power wiring. Depending on the fault location and
the system conditions, the fault can cause either temporary voltage drops (sags),
voltage rises (swells), or a complete loss of voltage (interruptions). The fault
condition can be close to or remote from the point of interest. In either case, the
impact on the voltage during the actual fault condition is of the short-duration
variation until protective devices operate to clear the fault.

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2.6 Interruptions
An interruption occurs when the supply voltage or load current decreases to less than
0.1 p.u. for a period of time not exceeding 1 min. Interruptions can be the result of
power system faults, equipment failures, and control malfunctions. The interruptions
are measured by their duration since the voltage magnitude is always less than 10
percent of nominal. The duration of an interruption due to a fault on the utility system
is determined by the operating time of utility protective devices. Instantaneous
reclosing generally will limit the interruption caused by a nonpermanent fault to less
than 30 cycles. Delayed reclosing of the protective device may cause a momentary or
temporary interruption. The duration of an interruption due to equipment
malfunctions or loose connections can be irregular [11].
2.7 Sags (dips)
Sag is a decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 p.u. in rms voltage or current at the power
frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min. The power quality community has
used the term sag for many years to describe a short-duration voltage decrease.
Although the term has not been formally defined, it has been increasingly accepted
and used by utilities, manufacturers, and end users. The IEC definition for this
phenomenon is dip. Figure 2.1 shows typical voltage sag that can be associated with a
single-line-to-ground (SLG) fault on another feeder from the same substation. 80
percent sag exists for about 3 cycles until the substation breaker is able to interrupt
the fault current. Typical fault clearing times range from 3 to 30 cycles, depending on
the fault current magnitude and the type of over current protection [3].

Figure 2.1 Voltage sag caused by an SLG fault.

RMS waveform for Voltage Sag event.
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2.8 Swells
A swell is defined as an increase in values between 1.1 and 1.8 p.u. in rms voltage or
current at the power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycles to 1 min. As with sags,
swells are usually associated with system fault conditions, but they are not as
common as voltage sags. One way that a swell can occur is from the temporary
voltage rise on the unfaulted phases during an SLG fault [4]. Figure 2.2 illustrates a
voltage swell caused by an SLG fault. Swells can also be caused by switching off a
large load or energizing a large capacitor bank. Swells are characterized by their
magnitude (rms value) and duration. The severity of a voltage swell during a fault
condition is a function of the fault location, system impedance, and grounding. On an
ungrounded system, with infinite zero-sequence impedance, the line-to-ground
voltages on the ungrounded phases will be 1.73 p.u during an SLG fault condition.
Close to the substation on a grounded system, there will be little or no voltage rise on
the unfaulted phases because the substation transformer is usually connected deltastar, providing a low-impedance zero-sequence path for the fault current. Faults at
different points along four-wire, multigrounded feeders will have varying degrees of
voltage swells on the unfaulted phases [4].

Figure 2.2 Instantaneous Voltage Swell caused by an SLG fault.

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2.9 Waveform Distortion

Waveform distortion is defined as a steady-state deviation from an ideal sine wave of
power frequency principally characterized by the spectral content of the deviation.
There are five Primary types of waveform distortion [3]:

DC offset
Harmonics
Inter-harmonics
Notching
Noise

2.10 DC offset
The presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac power system is termed dc offset.
This can occur as the result of a geomagnetic disturbance or asymmetry of electronic
power converters [5]. Incandescent light bulb life extenders, for example, may consist
of diodes that reduce the rms voltage supplied to the light bulb by half-wave
rectification. Direct current in ac networks can have a detrimental effect by biasing
transformer cores so they saturate in normal operation. This causes additional heating
and loss of transformer life. Direct current may also cause the electrolytic erosion of
grounding electrodes and other connectors.
2.11 Harmonics
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are integer
multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (termed
the fundamental frequency; usually 50 Hz). Periodically distorted waveforms can be
decomposed into a sum of the fundamental frequency and the harmonics (3 rd
harmonic frequency=3 times of fundamental frequency). Harmonic distortion
originates in the nonlinear characteristics of devices and loads on the power system.
Harmonic distortion levels are described by the complete harmonic spectrum with
magnitudes and phase angles of each individual harmonic component. It is also
common to use a single quantity, the total harmonic distortion (THD), as a measure of
the effective value of harmonic distortion [7].
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Figure 2.3 Additive Third Harmonics

2.12 Interharmonics
Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer multiples of
the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz)
are called inter-harmonics. They can appear as discrete frequencies or as a wideband
spectrum. Interharmonics can be found in networks of all voltage classes. The main
sources of Interharmonics waveform distortion are static frequency converters, cycloconverters, induction furnaces, and arcing devices. Power line carrier signals can also
be considered as Inter harmonics.
2.13 Notching

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Notching is a periodic voltage disturbance caused by the normal operation of power

electronic devices when current is commutated from one phase to another. Since
notching occurs continuously, it can be characterized through the harmonic spectrum
of the affected voltage. However, it is generally treated as a special case. The
frequency components associated with notching can be quite high and may not be
readily characterized with measurement equipment normally used for harmonic
analysis. Figure 2.4 shows an example of voltage notching from a three-phase
converter that produces continuous dc current. The notches occur when the current
commutates from one phase to another. During this period, there is a momentary short
circuit between two phases, pulling the voltage as close to zero as permitted by
system impedances.

Figure 2.4 Voltage Notching caused by Three-Phase Converter

2.14 Noise
Noise is defined as unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral content lower
than 200 kHz superimposed upon the power system voltage or current in phase
conductors, or found on neutral conductors or signal lines. Noise in power systems
can be caused by power electronic devices, control circuits, arcing equipment, loads
with solid-state rectifiers, and switching power supplies [6]. Noise problems are often
exacerbated by improper grounding that fails to conduct noise away from the power
system. Basically, noise consists of any unwanted distortion of the power signal that
cannot be classified as harmonic distortion or transients. Noise disturbs electronic
devices such as microcomputer and programmable controllers. The problem can be
mitigated by using filters, isolation transformers, and line conditioners.

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