Table of Contents

Dedication .................................................................................................................................................... iii

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ iv
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................................ v
Declaration ................................................................................................................................................... vi
Administration chart ................................................................................................................................... vii
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 Brief History of the Company.............................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Social Responsibility of Corrugated Sheets Limited ............................................................................ 1
1.2.1 Society and the company ............................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Introduction to pickling ....................................................................................................................... 3
1.3.1 Pickling Solutions ......................................................................................................................... 4
1.3.2 Hydrochloric Acid Pickling ............................................................................................................ 5
1.3.3 Continuous-Strip Pickling Lines .................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................................... 7
1.0 Design of fluidized-bed systems ......................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Fluidization Vessel ........................................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Bed .................................................................................................................................................. 8
1.3 Freeboard and Entrainment............................................................................................................ 9
1.4 Gas Distributor .............................................................................................................................. 11
1.4 Scale-up ......................................................................................................................................... 15
1.5 Circulating or Fast Fluidized Beds ................................................................................................. 17
1.6 Pneumatic Conveying.................................................................................................................... 18
1.7 Heat Transfer ................................................................................................................................ 18
1.8 Temperature Control .................................................................................................................... 18
1.9 Solids Mixing ................................................................................................................................. 18
1.10 Gas Mixing................................................................................................................................... 19
1.11 Size Enlargement......................................................................................................................... 19
1.12 Size Reduction ............................................................................................................................. 20
1.13 Instrumentation .......................................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................................ 22
2.0 Cyclone Design ...................................................................................................................................... 22

2.1 Flow Pattern .................................................................................................................................. 24

2.2 Collection Efficiency ...................................................................................................................... 25
2.3 Factors Affecting Collection Efficiency .......................................................................................... 26
2.4 Theoretical Collection Efficiency ................................................................................................... 29
2.5 Lapples Efficiency Correlation ...................................................................................................... 32
2.6 Leith and Licht efficiency Model ................................................................................................... 34
2.7 Comparison of efficiency model results........................................................................................ 36
Pressure Drop...................................................................................................................................... 36
2.8 Cyclone Design Factors ................................................................................................................. 38
2.9 Cyclone Roughness ....................................................................................................................... 39
2.10 Cyclone Inlets .............................................................................................................................. 41
2.11 Solids Loading.............................................................................................................................. 43
2.12 Cyclone Length ............................................................................................................................ 44
2.13 Saltation ...................................................................................................................................... 45
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................................... 46
3.0 Design and Application of Wet Scrubbers ........................................................................................ 46
3.1 Collection Mechanisms And Efficiency ......................................................................................... 47
3.2 Collection Mechanisms And Particle Size ..................................................................................... 47
3.3 Selection And Design Of Scrubbers ............................................................................................... 49
3.4 Devices For Wet Scrubbing ........................................................................................................... 49
3.5 A Model For Counter-Current Spray Scrubbers ............................................................................ 52
3.6 A Model For Venturi Scrubbers..................................................................................................... 54
CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................................................... 59
4.0 Summary of the process ....................................................................................................................... 59
4.1.1 Reactor with cyclone Separator ..................................................................................................... 59
4.1.2 Venturi ........................................................................................................................................... 59
4.1.3 Absorption tower including scrubbing ........................................................................................... 60
4.1.4 Fan.................................................................................................................................................. 60
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................................................. 61
5.0 Safety ................................................................................................................................................ 61
SITE PLAN AND LOCATION .......................................................................................................................... 65
References .................................................................................................................................................. 66

ii

Dedication
It is to my dear mother, my sister Pascalia and my brother Peter and my cousins: Ronald and
Joseph, my supervisor and lecturer Ms. Florence Ajiambo that I dedicate this report for their
priceless support throughout my life and to the staff at corrugated sheets for their cooperation and
hospitality during my attachment at the company.

iii

Abstract
In order for the student to acquire enough understanding on his field of study it is mandatory that
he/she be attached to a relevant company. At Moi University the student engineer is supposed to
get attachment at the end of the third, fourth and fifth year of study. At the end of each attachment,
the student is expected to write a comprehensive report that is then submitted to the school.
During the attachment the student becomes part of the company so as to learn the operations of
the company.

iv

Acknowledgement
I would like to take this opportunity to pass my sincere thanks to Corrugated Sheets Limited
especially my supervisors Mr. Rajneesh and my trainer technician Ngome and to Moi University
School of Engineering Chemical and Process Department for giving me this special opportunity
to attend industrial attachment as part of my learning.

Declaration
I declare that this report is my own work. It has never been submitted to any institution for the
purpose of learning or examination. I submit this report to Moi University School of Engineering
being a requirement for completion of the bachelors degree in Chemical and Process
Engineering.
Name: Mgoja K. Safari
Reg. No. CPE/41/09
Sign: ..

vi

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

DIRECTO FINANCE AND

PLANT
MANAGE
R
PICKLING
DIVISION

PURCHASING
MANAGER

FINANCE
AND

CHIEF
ACCOUNTAN

ARP
ETP
PICKLIN
G

REINFORCEMENT
STEEL DIVISION
BITUMEN

WORKS MANAGER
STEEL/ BITUMEN
DIVISION

CGL PRODUCTION
COLORCOT DIVISION
ELECTRICAL
MAINTENANCE
FINISHING SECTION
LABORATORY
DESPATCH TO STORES
o
ETP/STP

PRODUCTIO
N MANAGER

Administration chart

HUMAN
RESOURCE

o
o
o

o
o
o
o

EXPORT DISPATCH
IMPORTS
CLEARING AND
FORWARDING

IMPORT/E
XPORT
MANAGE
R

HUMAN RESOURCE
WIRE DIVISION
MATERIALS AND SPARES
STORES
SECURITY
WEGH BRIDGE
TUBE MILL DIVISION
FINISHED GOODS STOCK
OUTSOURCEDo
PROCSSES
o
TRANSPORT AND
o
MATERIALS HANDLING

IT
MANAGER

SALES AND
MARKETIN
G
MANAGER

SALES AND
MARKETING
DEPARTMEN
T

DISPATCH
STORE

SALES
OFFICE

IT DEPARTMENT

PURCHASING
DEPARTMENT

vii

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Brief History of the Company
The Corrugated Sheets Ltd was founded in 1958, started by an entrepreneur trading under the
name of Venus Metal (Africa) Limited. The company has risen to the status of one of the largest
Steel Houses in East Africa. The company serves as one stop shop for all steel products. Be it
Hot Rolled or Cold Rolled, Flat Products or Long Products and Galvanized or Pre-Painted, a
wide range is available under the Group umbrella. The company has an annual capacity of over
100,000 MT of various steel products in mixed ranges. It has been exporting Galvanized
Corrugated sheets, Pre-Painted sheets, nails and other wire products in the neighbouring African
countries. Quality of product has always been its single most priority. And quality checks at
various stages of production, ensures the product quality meeting the Kenyan and other
International Standards. The company believes in building a long term relationship with its
customers and its endeavour is to work towards attaining total customer satisfaction.

1.2 Social Responsibility of Corrugated Sheets Limited

1.2.1 Society and the company
1.2.1.1The Companys Priorities

Corrugated Sheets Limited recognizes social responsibilities as a corporate to the citizens. The
company provides limited financial and material support to projects within those areas it
operates. It is also determined to contribute to the development of manpower needs. It manages a
number of projects in relation to youth development and children of tender age by involving
them in games and tournaments that foster their mental development and embark on generous
donations for education of children by assisting their school fees which keep them away from
drugs and other mischief. Health and safety are also absolute priorities for the company with
implementation of stringent safety policy for its employees and subcontractors. Corrugated
Sheets Limited prides itself in being the safest company in its sector and has achieved significant
reduction in both the frequency and the gravity of work-related accidents due to its strong health
and Safety Management System which defines the minimum safety levels required for all
employees. All Corrugated Sheet limited employees are committed to respecting certain rules to
ensure the greatest levels of health and safety within the company.
To achieve a zero fatal accident level and keep lost time injuries to minimum, Corrugated Sheets
Limited:
Informs its employees and subcontractors about risks related to their activities and provide
appropriate training.
Supervises the systematic application of safety standards.
Implements procedure for reporting incidents and undertakes regular audits to minimize them.
Identifies and communicates best practices and drives their adoption across all work sites.

1.2.1.2 Environmental Policy

It is widely acknowledged that tomorrow's world, even more than today's or yesterday's will be
in need of quality products and services, with more and more stringent requirements. The
companys goodwill is to be increasing recognized as one of the best in this industry not only in
Kenya but in Africa and to prosper from reputation of excellence and efficiency that we will
earn. As part of companys corporate social responsibility, Corrugated Sheets Ltd is committed
to carrying out her production, services, deliver activities and processes while ensuring it
conserves the environment for the future generations. Corrugated Sheets Ltd environmental
management system is modeled in line with requirements of the international Standard ISO
14001:2004.
Corrugated Sheets limited has a commitment to conduct its activities in a responsible manner in
order to protect and enhance the environment. It is the policy of Corrugated Sheets Limited to:
Ensure that facilities are operated, maintained and wherever necessary modified to ensure
compliance with laws and regulations and with Corrugated Sheets Ltd Environmental standards.
Ensure that its products and their manufacture will not be harmful to people or the environment.
Strive to continuously improve the efficiency of its operations so as to minimize the use of
resources and generation of waste and to ensure that any waste generated is dealt with in an
environmentally responsible manner.
All employees will adhere to the applicable guideline and procedures and take care in carrying
out their duties in a manner that may have a negative impact on the environment.
Managers and engineers will assure compliance with environmental guidelines and procedures
and ensure execution of improvement actions within each area.
Train its employees to achieve high standards of environmental performance. All employees will
share responsibility for implementation of environmental policy.
Corrugated Sheets Limited will demonstrate commitment to this policy by fostering open and
effective communication with all stakeholders and other interested parties and by ranking
environment protection with other key business objectives. Corrugated Sheets Limited is
committed to the prevention of pollution by seeking to achieve minimal adverse impact on air,
water and land through programs which incorporate responsible environment
management.Environmentalprotectionisaprimaryesponsibilityofeveryemployee.
1.2.1.3Continuous Improvement to Environment:

Continuous Compliance with all applicable environmental laws and regulations and any other
applicable requirements. All environmental non compliances will be investigated, assigned root
causes, documented, implemented and verified for effectiveness. Preventive measures are
reviewed for relevance, implemented and evaluated for effectiveness.

To train and educate employees to conduct their activities in an environmentally sound manner.
No one has authority to cause or allow an environmental non compliance for the sake of
production.
Environmental impact evaluation of proposed actions, including process and practice changes,
which may have an environmental impact.
Improvement, continually of our environmental performance, including objectives and targets,
through annual reviews with Corrugated Sheets Limited's top management. Appropriate
information regarding environmental performance is periodically provided to top management
and employees and made available to the public. Environmental performance will be regularly
measured and assessed for conformance to the ISO guidelines and compliance to legal
requirements.
As a commitment, the company has formulated and environmental policy for effective
implementation of her environment management system.

1.3 Introduction to pickling

Oxide scale must be completely removed from hot-worked or hot-rolled steel before subsequent
processing is initiated, in order to prevent wear on dies and rolls and avoid surface defects in the
final product. This oxide scale originates during the hot working or hot rolling of steel, when the
surface of the metal reacts with oxygen in the air to form oxides of iron, or mill scale. The scale
actually consists of three iron oxides with different proportions of iron and oxygen. Hematite,
2 3, which contains 30.1% oxygen, is the outermost oxide in the scale layer, whereas wustite,
, with 22.3% oxygen, is the innermost oxide. Magnetite, 3 4, contains 27.6% oxygen;
when all oxides are present, the middle layer in the scale is magnetic. At temperatures above 566
C (1050 F), wustite is the predominant oxide, but during cooling below 566 C (1050 F), a
portion of it is transformed to iron and magnetite (4 = 3 4 + ). In cases of rapid
cooling, which can occur with rod and bar, substantial amounts of wustite are retained in the
cooled product. When cooling after hot rolling is relatively slow, as it is with coiled strip,
magnetite is the main oxide constituent of the scale in the cooled product.
Pickling is the most common of several processes used to remove the scale from steel surfaces.
The term pickling refers to the chemical removal of scale by immersion in an aqueous acid
solution. The process originated in the late 1700s, when sheets of steel were descaled by
immersion in vats of vinegar. Wide variations are possible in the type, strength, and temperature
of the acid solutions used, depending on time constraints (batch vs. continuous operations), as
well as the thickness, composition, and physical nature (cracks) of the scale. Pickling is
applicable for many types of forgings and castings, for merchant bar, blooms, billets, sheet, strip,
wire, and for tubing.

1.3.1 Pickling Solutions

For carbon steel, sulfuric acid (2 4) is used in most batch pickling operations, whereas
hydrochloric acid has become the pickling agent of choice, as of 1994, for continuous operations
with wire and strip. Hydrochloric acid () is also used for special purposes, such as etching
before galvanizing or tinning. Nitric-hydrofluoric acid mixtures are used to pickle stainless steel.
Hydrofluoric acid is sometimes used when pickling castings to remove sand.
Mixtures of hydrochloric and sulfuric acids have been used in batch pickling, often by adding
rock salt () to a sulfuric acid pickling bath. Such practices might be expected to give the
bright, pickled steel surface characteristics associated with hydrochloric acid and to increase
pickling rates, but not without some drawbacks. The proportion of to 2 4 that is required
to achieve the rapid scale removal rate that is possible with alone is too high to be
economical, and the mixed acids cannot be properly handled by many of the spent pickle liquor
disposal methods now in use.
Acids other than to 2 4 have been used to remove rust and scale from carbon steel. Citric
acid, oxalic acid, formic acid, hydrofluoric acid, fluoboric acid, and phosphoric acid are all
capable of removing mill scale from steel, but the rates of removal are generally not regarded as
useful or veconomical for most commercial applications, especially continuous operations.
The mechanism of scale removal, or pickling, by mineral acids involves the penetration of acid
through cracks in the scale, followed by the reaction of the acid with the innermost scale layer
and base metal. The presence of hydrogen gas, which forms when acid reacts with the base
metal, and the dissolution of help detach the outer scale layer from the metal surface. This
classical concept of pickling with 2 4 is supported by experimental work and commercial
practices that demonstrate substantial increases in scale removal rates when scale cracking is
initiated by flexing, temper rolling (of strip), or tension leveling.
The reaction of 2 4 with or with scale that is substantially 3 4 mixed with iron will
form ferrous sulfate and water:
+ 2 4 = 4 + 2

3 4 + + 42 4 = 44 + 42
The reaction of sulfuric acid with base metal forms ferrous sulfate and hydrogen gas:
+ 2 4 = 4 + 2 ()
With hydrochloric acid, descaling primarily involves direct attack on the oxides. However, the
penetration of acid through cracks in the scale does contribute to the scale removal process,
although the magnitude of the effect resulting from enhanced scale cracking is somewhat less
than it is with sulfuric acid. The reaction of with or with scale that is substantially
3 4 mixed with iron will form ferrous chloride and water:
+ 2 = 2 + 2
4

3 4 + + 8 = 42 + 42
The reaction of hydrochloric acid with base metal forms ferrous chloride and hydrogen gas:
+ 2 = 2 + 2()

1.3.2 Hydrochloric Acid Pickling

Hydrochloric acid is preferred for the batch pickling of hot-rolled or heat-treated high carbon
steel rod and wire. Continuous pickling operations also use hydrochloric acid to produce the very
uniform surface characteristics required for both low- and high-carbon steel. The possibility of
over pickling is minimized in these short time operations. The acid also dissolves lead oxides
that adhere to steel previously heat treated in molten lead baths.
Operating conditions for batch pickling in hydrochloric acid solutions typically involve acid
concentrations of 8 to 12 g/100 mL, temperatures of 38 to 40 C (10 to 105 F), and immersion
times of 5 to 15 min, with a maximum allowable iron concentration of 13 g/100 mL. Operating
conditions for continuous pickling in hydrochloric acid solutions typically involve acid
concentrations of 2 to 20 g/100 mL, temperatures of 66 to 93 C (150 to 200 F), and immersion
times of 1 to 20 s.
Hydrochloric acid offers a number of advantages, when compared with sulfuric and other acids.
It consistently produces a uniform light-gray surface on high-carbon steel. The possibility of over
pickling is less than it is with other acids.
Effective pickling can be obtained with iron concentrations as high as 13 g/100 mL. Rinsing is
facilitated because of the high solubility of chlorides. The cost of heating the bath for batch-type
operations is less than it is with sulfuric acid because of lower operating temperatures. The chief
disadvantage of hydrochloric acid is the necessity for a good fume control system.
Emissions from hydrochloric acid pickling include hydrogen chloride gas and must be
adequately vented to prevent localized corrosion of equipment and unsatisfactory working
conditions.
1.3.3 Continuous-Strip Pickling Lines

A few pickling lines make use of vertical towers in which one or two hydrochloric acid spray
columns are used. The acid spray columns are assembled and sealed in sections made of
fiberglass-reinforced polyester, with a tower height of 21.3 to 45.7 m (70 to 150 ft). The tank
sections are made from rubber lined steel. After use, acid flows into a sump and is returned to the
circulating tank. The composition of the acid in the recirculation tank is typically maintained at
11 g/100 mL and 13% 2. It is passed through a carbon-block heat exchanger and
delivered to the sprays at 77 C (170 F). Most lines of this type have acid-regenerating facilities.
Entry and exit coil handling are similar to the more common horizontal lines.
Continuous-strip pickling lines with horizontal pickling tanks are capable of handling coils that
are welded head to tail.
5

The entry section comprises a coil conveyer, one or two uncoilers, one or two processors, one or
two shears, and a welder. Processors are integral with the uncoiling equipment and consist of a
mandrel, hold-down roll, and a series of smaller diameter rolls. As the strip is flexed through the
processor, some cracking occurs in the scale layer, although not nearly as much as that imparted
by a temper mill. Proper welding and weld trimming is essential to avoid strip breaks in the line.
The section prior to the pickling tanks uses bridles for tensioning the strip; a strip accumulator,
either in the form of wet looping pits or, for more modern lines, a coil-car accumulator; and, for
many lines, a temper mill to crack the scale on the surface of the strip. A stretch leveler can
replace the temper mill and not only effectively cracks the scale, but also contributes to superior
strip shape.
The pickling section usually contains three or more tanks. So-called "deep tanks" are typically
1.22 m (4 ft) in depth and up to 31.3 m (90 ft) in length. Acid tanks are steel shells with layers of
rubber bonded to the steel. The rubber is protected from abrasion by a lining of silica-base acidproof brick. Most lines have a cascade flow of pickling solutions countercurrent to the direction
of strip movement. When fresh acid is added to the last tank, it will contain the highest
concentration of acid. Acid concentrations will decrease from the last tank to the first tank, from
which the spent pickle liquor is discharged. A rinse section follows the pickling section.
An especially effective rinsing method used on many continuous lines is the cascade rinse
system. Several rinse compartments are used, and fresh water is added to the last compartment.
The solution in that compartment cascades over weirs into the preceding compartments. The
excess overflows from the first compartment and is sent to the waste-water treatment plant (a
portion can be used for makeup water in the pickle tanks). Each compartment contains less acid
than the previous compartment. At the exit end of the line, there are usually an exit strip
accumulator, steering rolls, a strip inspection station, dual side trimmers, an oiler, and two
coilers. Pickling lines must have fume scrubbers to capture emissions/spray from the pickle
tanks.
In some modern lines, the pickling solution is contained in shallow tanks with liquid depths of
approximately 0.41 m (16in.) and lengths up to approximately 36 m (118 ft). Although they
involve a cascade system, the solution in each tank is recirculated through a heat exchanger.
During a line stop, the pickling solution can be rapidly drained from shallow tanks into
individual storage tanks and then pumped back when the line starts up. Lines with deep tanks
usually have strip lifters provided to remove the strip from the acid solution during an extended
line stop. Tank covers may be made from fiberglass or polypropylene. Some lines have squeegee
rolls, covered with acid-resistant rubber, located above and below the strip at each tank exit to
minimize acid carryover from one tank to another.
Maximum speeds in modern lines in the pickling section can be as high as 305 to 457 m/min
(1000 to 1500 ft/min).
Although sustained operation at such speeds is limited by other aspects of coil handling, the
selection of pickling tank acid concentrations and temperatures must be such that complete scale
removal is achieved during periods of high-speed operation. The combination of a pickling line
6

and a cold reduction mill in tandem represents a new state of the art in continuous processing
facilities. Another type of strip pickling line suitable for plants with moderate production
requirements is the push-pull type, which has many of the features of the continuous-type lines,
but no welder.
Turbulent-flow, shallow-tank, continuous-strip lines that claim to provide more effective
pickling action than conventional lines have been developed.

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Design of fluidized-bed systems
Fluidized beds are reactors in which small particles (with average size below 0.1 mm) are
fluidized by the reactant gases or liquids. When the linear velocity is above the minimum
required for fluidization, a dense fluidized bed is obtained. As the superficial velocity increases,
the bed expands and becomes increasingly dilute. At a high enough linear velocity, the smallest
particles entrain from the bed and have to be separated from the exhaust gases and recycled.
Advantages of fluidized beds are temperature uniformity, good heat transfer, and the ability to
continuously remove catalyst for regeneration.
Disadvantages are solids back mixing, catalyst attrition, and recovery of fines. Baffles have been
used often to reduce back mixing.

The major parts of a fluidized-bed system can be listed as follows:

Fluidization vessel
Fluidized-bed portion.
Disengaging space or freeboard
Gas distributor
Solids feeder or flow control
Solids discharge
Dust separator for the exit gases
Instrumentation
Gas supply

1.1 Fluidization Vessel

The most common shape is a vertical cylinder. Just as for a vessel designed for boiling a liquid,
space must be provided for vertical expansion of the solids and for disengaging splashed and
entrained material. The volume above the bed is called the disengaging space. The crosssectional area is determined by the volumetric flow of gas and the allowable or required
fluidizing velocity of the gas at operating conditions. In some cases the lowest permissible
velocity of gas is used, and in others the greatest permissible velocity is used. The maximum
flow is generally determined by the carry-over or entrainment of solids, and this is related to the
dimensions of the disengaging space (cross-sectional area and height).
7

1.2 Bed

Bed height is determined by a number of factors, either individually or collectively, such as:
Gas-contact time
L/D ratio required to provide staging
Space required for internal heat exchangers
Solids-retention time
Generally, bed heights are not less than 0.3 m (12 in) or more than 16 m(50 ft).
Although the reactor is usually a vertical cylinder, generally there is no real limitation on shape.
The specific design features vary with operating conditions, available space, and use. The lack of
moving parts lends toward simple, clean design.
Many fluidized-bed units operate at elevated temperatures. For this use, refractory-lined steel is
the most economical design.
The refractory serves two main purposes:

it insulates the metal shell from the elevated temperatures, and

it protects the metal shell from abrasion by the bed and particularly the splashing solids at
the top of the bed resulting from bursting bubbles.

Depending on specific conditions, several different refractory linings are used [Van Dyck,Chem.
Eng. Prog., 4651 (December 1979)]. Generally, for the moderate temperatures encountered in
catalytic cracking of petroleum, a reinforced-gunnite lining has been found to be satisfactory.
This also permits the construction of larger units than would be permissible if self-supporting
ceramic domes were to be used for the roof of the reactor.
When heavier refractories are required because of operating conditions, insulating brick is
installed next to the shell and firebrick is installed to protect the insulating brick. Industrial
experience in many fields of application has demonstrated that such a lining will successfully
withstand the abrasive conditions in the bed for many years without replacement. Most serious
refractory wear occurs with coarse particles at high gas velocities and is usually most
pronounced near the operating level of the fluidized bed.
Gas leakage behind the refractory has plagued a number of units. Care should be taken in the
design and installation of the refractory to reduce the possibility of the formation of chimneys
in the refractories. A small flow of solids and gas can quickly erode large passages in soft
insulating brick or even in dense refractory. Gas stops are frequently attached to the shell and
project into the refractory lining. Care in design and installation of openings in shell and lining is
also required.

In many cases, cold spots on the reactor shell will result in condensation and high corrosion
rates. Sufficient insulation to maintain the shell and appurtenances above the dew point of the
reaction gases is necessary. Hot spots can occur where refractory cracks allow heat to permeate
to the shell. These can sometimes be repaired by pumping castable refractory into the hot area
from the outside.
The violent motion of a fluidized bed requires an ample foundation and a sturdy supporting
structure for the reactor. Even a relatively small differential movement of the reactor shell with
the lining will materially shorten refractory life. The lining and shell must be designed as a unit.
Structural steel should not be supported from a vessel that is subject to severe vibration.

Fig. 1.1 Non-catalytic fluidized bed system

1.3 Freeboard and Entrainment

The freeboard or disengaging height is the distance between the top of the fluid bed and the gasexit nozzle in bubbling- or turbulent-bed units. The distinction between bed and freeboard is
difficult to determine in fast and transport units.
At least two actions can take place in the freeboard: classification of solids and reaction of solids
and gases.
9

As a bubble reaches the upper surface of a fluidized bed, the bubble breaks through the thin
upper envelope composed of solid particles entraining some of these particles. The crater-shaped
void formed is rapidly filled by flowing solids. When these solids meet at the center of the void,
solids are geysered upward. The downward pull of gravity and the upward pull of the drag force
of the upward-flowing gas act on the particles. The larger and denser particles return to the top of
the bed, and the finer and lighter particles are carried upward. The distance above the bed at
which the entrainment becomes constant is the transport disengaging height, TDH. Cyclones and
vessel gas outlets are usually located above TDH. Figure 17-9 graphically estimates TDH as a
function of velocity and bed size.

Fig. 1.2 Estimating transport disengaging height (TDH).

The higher the concentration of an entrainable component in the bed, the greater its rate of
entrainment. Finer particles have a greater rate of entrainment than coarse ones. These principles
are embodied in the method of Geldart (Gas Fluidization Tech., Wiley, 1986, pp. 123153) via
the equation,

() = ()() 1.1

Where,
10

() = entrainment rate for size , /2 ;

() = entrainment rate constant for particle size i; and
() = weight fraction for particle size i.
is a function of operating conditions given by

()/( ) = 23.7 [5.4

()

1.2

The composition and the total entrainment are calculated by summing over the entrainable
fractions. An alternative is to use the method of Zenz as reproduced by Pell (Gas Fluidization,
Elsevier 1990, pp. 6972).
In batch classification, the removal of fines (particles less than any arbitrary size) can be
correlated by treating as a second-order reaction

= () [( )] 1.3
where
= rate constant,
= fines removed in time , and
= original concentration of fines.
1.4 Gas Distributor

The gas distributor (also often called the grid of a fluidized bed) has a considerable effect on
proper operation of the fluidized bed. For good fluidized-bed operation, it is absolutely necessary
to have a properly designed gas distributor. Gas distributors can be used both when the gas is
clean and when the gas contains solids. The primary purpose of the gas distributor is to cause
uniform gas distribution across the entire bed cross-section. It should operate for years without
plugging or breaking, minimize sifting of solids back into the gas inlet to the distributor, and
minimize the attrition of the bed material. When the gas is clean, the gas distributor is often
designed to prevent backflow of solids during normal operation, and in many cases it is designed
to prevent backflow during shutdown. To provide good gas distribution, it is necessary to have a
sufficient pressure drop across the grid. This pressure drop should be at least one third the
pressure drop across the fluidized bed for gas upflow distributors, and one-tenth to one-fifth the
pressure drop across the fluidized bed for downflow gas distributors. If the pressure drop across
the bed is not sufficient, gas maldistribution can result, with the bed being fluidized in one area
and not fluidized in another. In units with shallow beds such as dryers or where gas distribution
is less crucial, lower gas distributor pressure drops can be used.

11

a)

b)

Fig. 1.3 Gas inlets designed to prevent backflow of solids. (a) Insert tuyere; (b) clubhead tuyere.
(Dorr-Oliver, Inc.)

When both solids and gas pass through the distributor, such as in some catalytic cracking units, a
number of different gas distributor designs have been used. Because the inlet gas contains solids,
it is much more erosive than gas alone, and care has to be taken to minimize the erosion of the
grid openings as the solids flow through them. Generally, this is done by decreasing the inlet
gas/solids velocity so that erosion of the grid openings is low.
There are three basic types of clean inlet gas distributors:

a perforated plate distributor,

a bubble cap type of distributor, and
a sparger or pipe-grid type of gas distributor.

The perforated plate distributor is the simplest type of gas distributor and consists of a flat or
curved plate containing a series of vertical holes. The gas flows upward into the bed from a
chamber below the bed called a plenum. This type of distributor is easy and economical to
construct. However, when the gas is shut off, the solids can sift downward into the plenum and
may cause erosion of the holes when the bed is started up again. The bubble cap type of
distributor is designed to prevent backflow of solids into the plenum chamber or inlet line of the
gas distributor on start-up. The cap or tuyere type of distributor generally consists of a vertical
pipe containing several small horizontal holes or holes angled downward from 30 to 45 from
the horizontal. It is difficult for the solids to flow back through such a configuration when the
fluidizing gas is shut off.

12

The pipe distributor (often called a sparger) differs from the other two distributor types because
it consists of pipes with distribution holes in them that are inserted into the bed. This type of
distributor will have solids below it that are not fluidized. If this is not acceptable for a process,
then this type of distributor cannot be used. However, the pipe distributor has certain advantages.
It does not require a large plenum, the holes in the pipe can be positioned at any angle, and it can
be used in cases when multiple gas injections are required in a process.
To generate a sufficient pressure drop for good gas distribution, a high velocity through the grid
openings may be required. It is best to limit this velocity to less than 60 m/s to minimize attrition
of the bed material. The maximum hole velocity allowable may be even lower for very soft
materials that attrite easily. The pressure drop and the gas velocity through the hole in the gas
distributor are related by the equation

= 2 2

2
2 2

for fps units..1.4

for SI units.1.5

where
= velocity in hole at inlet conditions
= fluid density in hole at conditions in inlet to hole
= pressure drop in consistent units, / 2
= orifice constant, dimensionless (typically 0.8 for gas distributors)
= gravitational conversion constant, /( 2 )

Due to the pressure drop requirements across the gas distributor for good gas distribution, the
velocity through the grid hole may be higher than desired in order to minimize or limit particle
attrition. Therefore, it is common industrial practice to place a length of pipe (called a shroud)
over the gas distributor hole such that the diameter of the pipe is larger than the diameter of the
distributor hole. This technique effectively allows a smaller hole to give the required pressure
drop, but the larger hole diameter of the shroud reduces the exit gas velocity into the bed so that
particle attrition at the grid will be minimized. This technique is applied to both plate and pipe
spargers.

13

Experience has shown that a concave-downward gas distributor is a better arrangement than a
concave-upward gas distributor, as it tends to increase the flow of gases in the outer portion of
the bed. This counteracts the normal tendency of the gas to flow into the center of the bed after it
exits the gas distributor. In addition, the concave-downward type of gas distributor tends to assist
the general solids flow pattern in the bed, which is up in the center and down near the walls. The
concave-upward gas distributor tends to have a slow-moving region at the bottom near the wall.
If solids are large (or if they are slightly cohesive), they can build up in this region.
Structurally, distributors must withstand the differential pressure across the restriction during
normal and abnormal flow. In addition, during a shutdown, all or a portion of the bed will be
supported by the distributor until sufficient backflow of the solids has occurred into the plenum
to reduce the weight of solids above the distributor and to support some of this remaining weight
by transmitting the force to the walls and bottom of the reactor. During start-up, a considerable
upward thrust can be exerted against the distributor as the settled solids under the distributor are
carried up into the normal reactor bed.
When the feed gas is devoid of or contains only small quantities of fine solids, more
sophisticated designs of gas distributors can be used to effect economies in initial cost and
maintenance. This is most pronounced when the inlet gas is cold and noncorrosive. When this is
the case, the plenum chamber gas distributor and distributor supports can be fabricated of mild
steel by using normal temperature design factors.
The first commercial fluidized-bed ore roaster [Mathews, Trans.Can. Inst. Min. Metall. L11:97
(1949)], supplied by the Dorr Co. (now Dorr-Oliver Inc.) in 1947 to Cochenour-Willans, Red
Lake, Ontario, was designed with a mild-steel constriction plate covered with castable refractory
to insulate the plate from the calcine and to provide cones in which refractory balls were placed
to act as ball checks. The balls eroded unevenly, and the castable cracked. However,when the
unit was shut down by closing the air control valve, the runback of solids was negligible because
of bridging. If, however, the unit were shut down by deenergizing the centrifugal blower motor,
the higher pressure in the reactor would relieve through the blower and fluidizing gas plus solids
would run back through the constriction plate. Figure 17-11 illustrates two designs of gas inlets
which have been successfully used to prevent flowback of solids. For best results, irrespective of
the design, the gas flow should be stopped and the pressure relieved from the bottom upward
through the bed. Some units have been built and successfully operated with simple slot-type
distributors made of heat-resistant steel. This requires a heat-resistant plenum chamber but
eliminates the frequently encountered problem of corrosion caused by condensation of acids and
water vapor on the cold metal of the distributor. When the inlet gas is hot, such as in dryers or in
the upper distributors of multibed units, ceramic arches or heat-resistant metal grates are
generally used. Self-supporting ceramic domes have been in successful use for many years as gas
distributors when temperatures range up to 1100C. Some of these domes are fitted with alloysteel orifices to regulate air distribution. However, the ceramic arch presents the same problem as
the dished head positioned concave upward. Either the holes in the center must be smaller, so
that the sum of the pressure drops through the distributor plus the bed is constant across the

14

entire cross section, or the top of the arch must be flattened so that the bed depths in the center
and outside are equal. This is especially important when shallow beds are used.
It is important to consider thermal effects in the design of the grid to-shell seal. Bypassing of the
grid at the seal point is a common problem caused by situations such as uneven expansion of
metal and ceramic parts, a cold plenum and hot solids in contact with the grid plate at the same
time, and start-up and shutdown scenarios. When the atmosphere in the bed is sufficiently
benign, a sparger-type distributor may be used. In some cases, it is impractical to use a plenum
chamber under the constriction plate. This condition arises when a flammable or explosive
mixture of gases is being introduced to the reactor. One solution is to pipe the gases to a
multitude of individual gas inlets in the floor of the reactor. In this way it may be possible to
maintain the gas velocities in the pipes above the flame velocity or to reduce the volume of gas
in each pipe to the point at which an explosion can be safely contained. Another solution is to
provide separate inlets for the different gases and to rely on the rapid axial mixing of the
fluidized bed. The inlets should be fairly close to one another, as lateral gas mixing in fluidized
beds is poor.
Much attention has been paid to the effect of gas distribution on bubble growth in the bed and the
effect of this on catalyst utilization, space-time yield, etc., in catalytic systems. It would appear
that the best gas distributor would be a porous membrane because of its even distribution.
However, this type of distributor is seldom practical for commercial units because of structural
limitations and the fact that it requires absolutely clean gas. Practically, the limitations on hole
spacing in a gas distributor are dependent on the particle size of the solids, materials of
construction, and type of distributor. If easily worked metals are used, then punching, drilling,
and welding are not expensive operations and permit the use of large numbers of holes. The use
of tuyeres or bubble caps permits horizontal distribution of the gas so that a smaller number of
gas inlet ports can still achieve good gas distribution. If a ceramic arch is used, generally only
one hole per brick is permissible and brick dimensions must be reasonable.
1.4 Scale-up

Bubbling or Turbulent Beds: Scale-up of noncatalytic fluidized beds when the reaction is fast,
as in roasting or calcination, is straightforward and is usually carried out on an area basis. Smallscale tests are made to determine physical limitations such as sintering, agglomeration, solidsholdup time required, etc. Slower (k < 1/s) catalytic or more complex reactions in which several
gas interchanges are required are usually scaled up in several steps, from laboratory to
commercial size. The hydrodynamics of gas-solids flow and contacting is quite different in
small-diameter high-L/D fluid beds as compared with large-diameter moderate-L/D beds. In
small-diameter beds, bubbles tend to be small and cannot grow larger than the vessel diameter.
In larger, deeper units, bubbles can grow very large. The large bubbles have less surface for mass
transfer to the solids than the same volume of small bubbles. The large bubbles also rise through
the bed more quickly. Homogeneous noncatalytic reactions are normally carried out in a
fluidized bed to achieve mixing of the gases and temperature control. The solids of the bed act as
a heat sink or source and facilitate heat transfer from or to the gas or from or to heat-exchange

15

surfaces. Reactions of this type include chlorination of hydrocarbons or oxidation of gaseous

fuels.
The size of a bubble as a function of height was given by Darton et al. [Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng.,
55, 274280 (1977)] as

0.54( )0.4 ( + 4 0 )0.8

=
1.6
0.2
Where
= bubble diameter, m
= height above the grid, m
0 = grid area per hole
Bubble growth in fluidized beds will be limited by the diameter of the containing vessel and
bubble hydrodynamic stability. Solids and gas back mixing are much less in high-L/D beds
(whether they are slugging or bubbling) compared with low-L/D beds. Thus, the conversion or
yield in large, unstaged reactors is sometimes considerably lower than in small high-L /D units.
To overcome some of the problems of scale-up, staged units are used. It is generally concluded
than an unstaged 1-m-(40-in-) diameter unit will achieve about the same conversion as a large
industrial unit. The validity of this conclusion is dependent on many variables, including bed
depth, particle size, size distribution, temperature, and system pressure.
There are several methods available to reduce scale-up loss. These are summarized in Fig. 17-16.
The efficiency of a fluid bed reactor usually decreases as the size of the reactor increases. This
can be minimized by the use of high velocity, fine solids, staging methods, and a high L/D. High
velocity maintains the reactor in the turbulent mode, where bubble breakup is frequent and back
mixing is infrequent. A fine catalyst leads to smaller maximum bubble sizes by promoting
instability of large bubbles. Maintaining high L/D minimizes back mixing, as does the use of
baffles in the reactor. By these techniques, Mobil was able to scale up its methanol to gasoline
technology with little difficulty [Krambeck, Avidan, Lee, and Lo, A.I.Ch.E.J., 17271734
(1987)].
Another way to examine scale-up of hydrodynamics is to build a cold or hot scale model of the
commercial design.

16

Fig. 1.4 Reducing scale-up loss. (From Krambeck, Avidan, Lee, and Lo, A.I.Ch.E.J.,
17271734, 1987.)

1.5 Circulating or Fast Fluidized Beds

The circulating or fast fluidized bed is actually a misnomer in that it is not an extension of the
turbulent bed, but is actually a part of the transport regime, as discussed above. However, the fast
fluidized bed operates in that part of the transport regime that is dominated by the static head of
solids pressure drop term (the part of the regime where the solids concentration is the highest).
The solids may constitute up to 10 percent of the volume of the system in this regime. There are
no bubbles, mass transfer rates are high, and there is little gas backmixing in the system.
The high velocity in the system results in a high gas throughput which minimizes reactor cost.
Because there are no bubbles, scale-up is also less of a problem than with bubbling beds.
Many circulating systems are characterized by an external cyclone return system that usually has
as large a footprint as the reactor itself. The axial solids density profile is relatively flat.
There is a parabolic radial solids density profile that is termed core annular flow. In the center of
the reactor, the gas velocity and the solids velocity may be double the average. The solids in the
center of the column (often termed a riser) are in dilute flow, traveling at their expected slip
velocity . Near the wall in the annulus, the solids are close to their fluidized-bed density.
The solids at the wall can flow either upward or downward. Whether they do so is determined
17

primarily by the velocity used in the system. In circulating fluidized-bed combustor systems, the
gas velocity in the rectangular riser is generally in the range of 4 to 6 m/s, and the solids flow
down at the wall. In fluid catalytic cracking, the velocity in the riser is typically in the range of
12 to 20 m/s, and the solids flow upward at the wall. Engineering methods for evaluating the
hydrodynamics of the circulating bed are given by Kunii and Levenspiel (Fluidization
Engineering, 2nd ed., Butterworth, 1991, pp. 195209), Werther (Circulating Fluid Bed
Technology IV, 1994), and Avidan, Grace, and Knowlton (eds.), (Circulating Fluidized Beds,
Blackie Academic, New York, 1997).
1.6 Pneumatic Conveying

Pneumatic conveying systems can generally be scaled up on the principles of dilute-phase

transport. Mass and heat transfer can be predicted on both the slip velocity during acceleration
and the slip velocity at full acceleration. The slip velocity increases as the solids concentration is
increased.
1.7 Heat Transfer

Heat-exchange surfaces have been used to provide the means of removing or adding heat to
fluidized beds. Usually, these surfaces are provided in the form of vertical or horizontal tubes
manifolded at the tops and bottom or in a trombone shape manifolded exterior to the vessel.
Horizontal tubes are extremely common as heat-transfer tubes. In any such installation, adequate
provision must be made for abrasion of the exchanger surface by the bed.
1.8 Temperature Control

Because of the rapid equalization of temperatures in fluidized beds, temperature control can be
accomplished in a number of ways.
Adiabatic. Control gas flow and/or solids feed rate so that the heat of reaction is removed as
sensible heat in off gases and solids or heat supplied by gases or solids.
Solids circulation. Remove or add heat by circulating solids.
Gas circulation. Recycle gas through heat exchangers to cool or heat.
Liquid injection. Add volatile liquid so that the latent heat of vaporization equals excess energy.
Cooling or heating surfaces in bed.
1.9 Solids Mixing

Solids are mixed in fluidized beds by means of solids entrained in the lower portion of bubbles,
and the shedding of these solids from the wake of the bubble (Rowe and Patridge, Particle
Movement Caused by Bubbles in a Fluidized Bed, Third Congress of European Federation of
Chemical Engineering, London, 1962). Thus, no mixing will occur at incipient fluidization, and
mixing increases as the gas rate is increased. Naturally, particles brought to the top of the bed
must displace particles toward the bottom of the bed. Generally, solids upflow is upward in the
center of the bed and downward at the wall.

18

At high ratios of fluidizing velocity to minimum fluidizing velocity, tremendous solids

circulation from top to bottom of the bed assures rapid mixing of the solids. For all practical
purposes, beds with L/D ratios of from 4 to 0.1 can be considered to be completely mixed
continuous-reaction vessels insofar as the solids are concerned.
Batch mixing using fluidization has been successfully employed in many industries. In this case
there is practically no limitation to vessel dimensions.
All the foregoing pertains to solids of approximately the same physical characteristics. There is
evidence that solids of widely different characteristics will classify one from the other at certain
gas flow rates [Geldart, Baeyens, Pope, and van de Wijer, Powder Technol., 30(2),
195 (1981)]. Two fluidized beds, one on top of the other, may be formed, or a lower static bed
with a fluidized bed above may result. The latter frequently occurs when agglomeration takes
place because of either fusion in the bed or poor dispersion of sticky feed solids.
Increased gas flows sometimes overcome the problem; however, improved feeding techniques or
a change in operating conditions may be required. Another solution is to remove agglomerates
either continuously or periodically from the bottom of the bed.
1.10 Gas Mixing

The mixing of gases as they pass vertically up through the bed has never been considered a
problem. However, horizontal mixing is very poor and requires effective distributors if two gases
are to be mixed in the fluidized bed.
In bubbling beds operated at velocities of less than about 5 to 11 times Umf the gases will flow
upward in both the emulsion and the bubble phases. At velocities greater than about 5 to 11 times
Umf the downward velocity of the emulsion phase is sufficient to carry the contained gas
downward. The back mixing of gases increases as U/Umf is increased until the circulating or fast
regime is reached where the back mixing decreases as the velocity is further increased.
1.11 Size Enlargement

Under proper conditions, solid particles can be caused to increase in size in the bed. This can be
advantageous or disadvantageous. Particle growth is usually associated with the melting or
softening of some portion of the bed material (i.e., addition of soda ash to calcium carbonate feed
in lime reburning, tars in fluidized-bed coking, or lead or zinc roasting causes agglomeration of
dry particles in much the same way as binders act in rotary pelletizers). The motion of the
particles, one against the other, in the bed results in spherical pellets. If the size of these particles
is not controlled, rapid agglomeration and segregation of the large particles from the bed will
occur. Control of agglomeration can be achieved by crushing a portion of the bed product and
recycling it to form nuclei for new growth. Often, liquids or slurries are fed via a spray nozzle
into the bed to cause particles to grow. In drying solutions or slurries of solutions, the location of
the feed injection nozzle (spray nozzle) has a great effect on the size of particle that is formed in
the bed. Also of importance are the operating temperature, relative humidity of the off-gas, and
19

gas velocity in the bed. Particle growth can occur as agglomeration (two or more particles
sticking together) or by the particle growing in layers, often called onion skinning.
1.12 Size Reduction

Attrition is the term describing particle reduction in the fluidized bed. Three major attrition
mechanisms occur in the fluidized bed: particle fragmentation, particle fracture, and particle
thermal decrepitation. Particle fragmentation occurs when the protruding edges on individual
particles are broken off in the bed. These particle fragments are very smallusually on the order
of 2 to 10 m. Particle fracture occurs when particle interaction is severe enough to cause the
particles to break up into large individual pieces.
Because of the random motion of the solids, some abrasion of the surface occurs in the bed.
However, this abrasion is very small relative to the particle breakup caused by the high-velocity
jets at the distributor. Typically, particle abrasion (fragmentation) will amount to about
0.25 to 1 percent of the solids per day. In the area of high gas velocities at the distributor, greater
rates of attrition will occur because of fracture of the particles by impact. As mentioned above,
particle fracture of the grid is reduced by adding shrouds to the gas distributor.
Generally, particle attrition is unwanted. However, at times controlled attrition is desirable. For
example, in coking units where agglomeration due to wet particles is frequent, jets are used to
attrit particles to control particle size [Dunlop, Griffin, and Moser, J. Chem. Eng. Prog. 54:3943
(1958)].
Thermal decrepitation occurs frequently when crystals are rearranged because of transition from
one form to another, or when new compounds are formed (i.e., calcination of limestone).
Sometimes the stresses on particles in cases such as this are sufficient to reduce the particle to
the basic crystal size. All these mechanisms will cause completion of fractures that were started
before the introduction of the solids into the fluidized bed.
1.13 Instrumentation
1.13.1 Temperature Measurement

This is usually simple, and standard temperature-sensing elements are adequate for continuous
use. Because of the high abrasion wear on horizontal protection tubes, vertical installations are
frequently used. In highly corrosive atmospheres in which metallic protection tubes cannot be
used, short, heavy ceramic tubes have been used successfully.
1.13.2 Pressure Measurement

Although successful pressure measurement probes or taps have been fabricated by using porous
materials, the most universally accepted pressure tap consists of a purged tube projecting into the
bed. Minimum internal diameters of the tube are 0.6 to 1.2 cm (0.25 to 0.5 in). A purge rate of at
least 1.5 m/s (5 ft/s) is usually required to prevent solids from plugging the signal lines. Bed
density is determined directly from P/L, the pressure drop inside the bed itself (P/L in units of
weight/area 1/L). The overall bed weight is obtained from P taken between a point just above
the gas distributor and a point in the freeboard. Nominal bed height is determined by dividing the
P across the entire bed and dividing it by the P/L over a section of the bed length. Splashing
20

of the solids by bubbles bursting at the bed surface will eject solids well above the nominal bed
height in most cases. The pressure drop signal from fluidized beds fluctuates due to bubble
effects and the generally statistical nature of fluid-bed flow parameters. A fast Fourier transform
of the pressure drop signal transforms the perturbations to a frequency versus amplitude plot with
a maximum at about 3 to 5 Hz and frequencies generally tailing off above 20 Hz. Changes in
frequency and amplitude are associated with changes in the quality of the fluidization.
Experienced operators of fluidized beds can frequently predict what is happening in the bed from
changes in the P signal.
1.13.3 Flow Measurements

Measurement of flow rates of clean gases presents no problem. Flow measurement of gas
streams containing solids is almost always avoided. The flow of solids is usually controlled but
not measured except solids flows added to or taken from the system.
Solids flows in the system are usually adjusted on an inferential basis (temperature, pressure
level, catalyst activity, gas analysis, heat balance, etc.). In many roasting operations, the color of
the calcine discharge material indicates whether the solids feed rate is too high or too low.

21

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Cyclone Design
Cyclones are very common particulate control devices used in many applications, especially
those where relatively large particles need to be collected. They are not very efficient for
collecting small particles because small particles have little mass that can generate a centrifugal
force. Cyclones are very simple devices that use centrifugal force to separate particles from a gas
stream. They commonly are constructed of sheet metal, although other materials can be used.
They have a low capital cost, small space requirement, and no moving parts. Of course, an
external device, such as a blower or other source of pressure, is required to move the gas stream.
Cyclones are able to handle very heavy dust loading, and they can be used in high temperature
gas streams. Sometimes they are lined with castable refractory material to resist abrasion and to
insulate the metal body from high-temperature gas.

Fig. 2.1 Cyclone-separator proportions.

22

It has a tangential inlet to a cylindrical body, causing the gas stream to be swirled around.
Particles are thrown toward the wall of the cyclone body. As the particles reach the stagnant
boundary layer at the wall, they leave the flowing gas stream and presumably slide down the
wall, although some particles may be re-entrained as they bounce off of the wall back into the
gas stream. As the gas loses energy in the swirling vortex, it starts spinning inside the vortex and
exits at the top.
The vortex finder tube does not create the vortex or the swirling flow. Its function is to prevent
short-circuiting from the inlet directly to the outlet. Cyclones will work without a vortex finder,
although the efficiency will be reduced.

Fig. 2.2 Schematic of standard cyclone.

23

2.1 Flow Pattern

In a cyclone, the gas moves in a double vortex with the gas initially spiraling downward at the
outside after it enters the inlet; then, the gas flows upward in the center of the cyclone before it
exits. When the gas enters the cyclone, its velocity undergoes a redistribution so that the
tangential component of velocity increases with decreasing radius, as expressed by .
The tangential velocity in a cyclone may reach a value several times the average inlet gas
velocity. Theoretical considerations indicate that n should be equal to 1.0 in the absence of wall
friction. Actual measurements [Shepherd and Lapple, Ind. Eng. Chem. 31: 972 (1939); 32: 1246
(1940)], however, indicate that n may range from 0.5 to 0.7 over a large portion of the cyclone
radius. Ter Linden [Inst. Mech. Eng. J. 160: 235 (1949)] found n to be 0.52 for tangential
velocities measured in the cylindrical portion of the cyclone at positions ranging from the radius
of the gas outlet pipe to the radius of the outer wall. Although the velocity approaches zero at the
wall, the boundary layer is sufficiently thin that pitot-tube measurements show relatively high
tangential velocities there, as shown in Fig. 17-37. The radial velocity is directed toward the
center throughout most of the cyclone, except at the center, where it is directed outward.
Superimposed on the double spiral, there may be a double eddy [Van Tongran, Mech. Eng.
57: 753 (1935); and Wellmann, Feuerungstechnik 26: 137 (1938)] similar to that encountered in
pipe coils. Measurements on cyclones of the type shown indicate, however, that such doubleeddy velocities are small compared with the tangential velocity (Shepherd and Lapple, op. cit.).
Recent analyses of flow patterns can be found in Hoffman et al., Powder Technol. 70: 83 (1992);
and Trefz and Muschelknautz, Chem. Eng. Technol. 16: 153 (1993).
The inner vortex (often called the core of the vortex) rotates at a much higher velocity than the
outer vortex. In the absence of solids, the radius of this inner vortex has been measured to be 0.4
to 0.8 r. With axial inlet cyclones, the inner core vortex is aligned with the axis of the gas outlet
tube. With tangential or volute cyclone inlets, however, the vortex is not exactly aligned with the
axis. The nonsymmetric entry of the tangential or volute inlet causes the axis of the vortex to be
slightly eccentric from the axis of the cyclone. This means that the bottom of the vortex is
displaced some distance from the axis and can pluck off and re-entrain dust from the solids
sliding down the cyclone cone if the vortex gets too close to the wall of the cyclone cone.
At the bottom of the vortex, there is substantial turbulence as the gas flow reverses and flows up
the middle of the cyclone into the gas outlet tube. As indicated above, if this region is too close
to the wall of the cone, substantial re-entrainment of the separated solids can occur. Therefore, it
is very important that cyclone design take this into account.
The vortex of a cyclone will precess (or wobble) about the center axis of the cyclone. This
motion can bring the vortex into close proximity to the wall of the cone of the cyclone and
pluck off and reentrain the collected solids flowing down along the wall of the cone. The
vortex may also cause erosion of the cone if it touches the cone wall. Sometimes an inverted
cone or a similar device is added to the bottom of the cyclone in the vicinity of the cone and
dipleg to stabilize and fix the vortex. If it is placed correctly, the vortex will attach to the cone
and the vortex movement will be stabilized, thus minimizing the efficiency loss due to plucking
the solids off the wall and erosion of the cyclone cone.
24

Hugi and Reh [Chem. Eng. Technol. 21(9): 716719 (1998)] have reported that (at high solids
loadings) enhanced cyclone efficiency occurs when the solids form a coherent, stable strand at
the entrance to a cyclone. The formation of such a strand is dependent upon several factors. They
reported a higher cyclone efficiency for smaller (dp,50 = 40 _m) solids than for larger solids
(dp,50 = 125 _m). This is not what theory would predict. However, they also found that the
smaller particles formed coherent, stable strands more readily than the larger particles, which
explained the reason for the apparent discrepancy.

Fig. 2.3 Variation of tangential velocity and radial velocity at different points in a cyclone. [Ter
Linden, Inst. Mech. Eng. J., 160, 235 (1949).]
2.2 Collection Efficiency

When a particle moves at a constant speed in a circular direction, the velocity vector changes
continuously in direction, although not in magnitude. This creates acceleration resulting from a
change in direction of the velocity, which is just as real and just as much an acceleration as that
arising from the change in the magnitude of velocity. By definition, acceleration is the time rate
of change of velocity, and velocity, being a vector, can change in direction as well as magnitude.
Force, of course, is defined by Newtons Second Law (F = ma). Centrifugal force is given by:
2
=
2.1

where
F = centrifugal force
25

m = mass of particle
V = velocity of particle, assumed to equal inlet gas velocity
r = radius of cyclone body

Fig. 2.4 Single particle collection efficiency curve. (Courtesy of PSRI, Chicago.)
2.3 Factors Affecting Collection Efficiency

Several factors that affect collection efficiency can be predicted. Increasing the inlet velocity
increases the centrifugal force, and therefore the efficiency, but it also increases the pressure
drop. Decreasing the cyclone diameter also increases centrifugal force, efficiency, and pressure
drop. Increasing the gas flow rate through a given cyclone has the effect of efficiency shown in
Equation 2.2:
2
1 0.5
= ( ) 2.2
1
2

where
26

 = penetration ( = 1 )

= particle removal efficiency

Q = volumetric gas flow

Interestingly, decreasing the gas viscosity improves efficiency, because drag force is reduced.
Centrifugal force drives the particle toward the wall of the cyclone, while drag opposes the
centrifugal force. The terminal velocity of the particle toward the wall is the result of the force
balance between the centrifugal and drag forces. Increasing gas to particle density difference
affects penetration as shown in Equation 2.3:

2
2 0.5
= ( ) 2.3
1
1

where: = gas viscosity. Note that decreasing the gas temperature increases the gas density, but
contrary to intuition, decreases the gas viscosity, which reduces drag force and results in a small
efficiency improvement. However, decreasing the gas temperature also decreases the volumetric
flow rate, which affects efficiency as described above in Equation 2.2.

Finally, particle loading also affects efficiency. High dust loading causes particles to bounce into
each other as they move toward the wall, driving more particles toward the wall and their
removal.

2
1 0.18
=( )
2.4
1
2

where L = inlet particle concentration (loading).

27

Fig. 2.5 Effect of inlet loading on collection efficiency for Geldart group A and group C
particles. (Courtesy of PSRI, Chicago.)

Fig. 2.6 Effect of inlet loading on collection efficiency (Geldart group B and group D) particles.
(Courtesy of PSRI, Chicago.)
28

Relative dimensions are based upon the diameter of the body of the cyclones. High-efficiency
cyclones tend to have long, narrow bodies, while high-throughput cyclones generate less
pressure drop with fat bodies.

Fig. 2.7 Generalized efficiency relationships.

2.4 Theoretical Collection Efficiency

The force balance between centrifugal and drag forces determines the velocity of the particles
toward the wall. Resident time of particles in the cyclone, which allows time for particles to
move toward the wall, is determined by the number of effective turns that the gas path makes
within the cyclone body. An empirical relationship for the number of effective turns is provided
in Equation 2.5:

( + ) 2.5

where
= number of effective turns
29

 = height of the tangential inlet

= length of cyclone body
= length of cyclone lower cone

Cyclones work by using centrifugal force to increase the gravity field experienced by the solids.
They then move to the wall under the influence of their effectively increased weight. Movement
to the wall is improved as the path the solids traverse under centrifugal flow is increased. This
path is equated with the number of spirals the solids make in the cyclone barrel. Figure 17-38
gives the number of spirals Ns as a function of the maximum velocity in the cyclone. The
maximum velocity may be either the inlet or the outlet velocity depending on the design. The
equation for , the theoretical size particle removed by the cyclone at 50 percent collection
efficiency, is

9
2.6
( )

Fig. 2.8 Ns versus velocitywhere the larger of either the inlet or outlet velocity is used.

30

The theoretical efficiency of a cyclone can be calculated by balancing the terminal velocity with
the residence time resulting from a distance traveled in the cyclone. This force and time balance
results in Equation 2.7:

Fig. 2.9 Cyclone dimensions.

Table 2.1

31

0.5

9
=[
]
100 ( )

2.7

where
= diameter of a particle with x% removal efficiency
= viscosity
= inlet width
= number of effective turns
= inlet velocity
= density of particle
= density of gas
2.5 Lapples Efficiency Correlation

Unfortunately, the theoretical efficiency relationship derived above does not correlate well with
real data. The relationship works reasonably well for determining the 50% cut diameter (the
diameter of the particle that is collected with 50% efficiency). To better match data with
reasonable accuracy, the efficiency of other particle diameters can be determined from Lapples
empirical efficiency correlation. This correlation can be set up for automated calculations using
the algebraic fit given by Equation 2.8:

1
50 2
1+(
)

2.8

where
= collection efficiency of particle with diameter j
50 = diameter of particles with 50% collection efficiency
= diameter of particle j

32

Fig. 2.10 Lapples efficiency curve.

Lapples efficiency curve was developed from measured data for cyclones with the standard
dimensions shown in Table 2.1. The efficiency curve can be tailored for different industrial
cyclone dimensions by adding a slope parameter, B, to the correlation:

1
50
1+(
)

2.9

where B = slope parameter, typically ranging from 2 to 6.

33

Figure 2.1 below llustrates the effect of the slope parameter, B. Note that the larger value for B
results in a sharper cut. Since more mass is associated with larger particles, the sharper cut
results in higher overall mass removal efficiency.

Fig. 2.11 Effect of slope parameter, B.

2.6 Leith and Licht efficiency Model

Other models have been developed to predict cyclone performance. One is the Leith and Licht
model shown in Equation 2.10:

= 1 exp( ) 2.10

= 1 [(1

1
+1
0.3
) ]
283

0.670.14 ) (

34

( + 1) 2
= 2[
]
183

where
= particle diameter in meters
= cyclone body diameter in meters
T = gas temperature, K
K = dimensional geometric configuration parameter
Q = volumetric gas flow
= particle density
C= cunningham slip correction factor
= gas viscosity
The geometric configuration parameter is estimated based on the cyclone configuration. Table
2.2 shows relative dimensions for three types of cyclones: the standard cyclone, the Stairmand
design, and the Swift design.Note that the Stairmand and the Swift cyclones have smaller inlet
openings than the standard design, which means a higher inlet velocity for the same size body.
This results in more centrifugal force and increased efficiency. In the Leith and Licht model, a
larger geometric configuration parameter results in a higher predicted efficiency.

Table 2.2
35

Fig. 2.12 Cyclone efficiency curves.

2.7 Comparison of efficiency model results

Efficiency models are adequate for getting a fair idea of performance, but there can be a rather
wide variation in model predictions. Part, but not all, of the variation can be explained by
empirical factors for the cyclone configuration. Figure 2.12 shows cyclone efficiency curves as a
function of particle diameter based on several sources. Each curve is based upon the same gas
flow and gas and particle conditions. The lowest efficiency is predicted by Lapples curve for a
standard cyclone. Interestingly, the Leith and Licht model for the same standard cyclone predicts
a significantly higher efficiency. The Leith and Licht model for the higher efficiency Stairmand
and Swift cyclone designs shows incremental improvement over the standard design. Vendor
data also were collected for the same set of gas and particle conditions, with significant predicted
performance improvement. Perhaps the vendors were being overoptimistic about their designs,
or perhaps there have been significant improvements in cyclone design over the years. It does
point out that performance guarantees for cyclones must be written with specific information
about the gas and particle properties, including the particle size distribution, to ensure that
vendor guarantees can be measured and substantiated after installation.
Pressure Drop

Pressure drop is first determined by summing five pressure drop components associated with the
cyclone.
1. Inlet contraction
2
2
2
) 2.11
= 0.5 (

+

36

where K is taken from Table 17-3. Using SI units gives the pressure drop in Pa. In English units,
the factor of 32.2 for g must be included. This loss is primarily associated with cyclones located
in the freeboard of a fluidized bed. If the cyclone is located external to a vessel and the high
pressure tap used to measure the cyclone pressure drop is in the inlet pipe before the cyclone, the
measured pressure drop will not include this pressure loss, and this term should not be used to
calculate total cyclone pressure drop. However, if the high-pressure tap to measure the cyclone
pressure drop is located in the freeboard of the bed, this component will be included in the
measured pressure drop, and it should be included in the calculation of the total cyclone pressure
drop.

2. Particle acceleration

= ( ) 2.12

For small particles, the velocity is taken as equal to the gas velocity and L is the solids loading,
kg/m3.

3. Barrel friction

The inlet diameter din is taken as 4 (inlet area)/ inlet perimeter. Then

2
2

=
2.13

where the Reynolds number for determining the friction factor f is based on the inlet area.

4. Gas flow reversal

37

2

=
2.14
2

5. Exit contraction

2
2
) . .2.15
= 0.5 (
2 +

where K is determined from Table 17-3 based on the area ratio of barrel and exit tube of the
cyclone. The total pressure drop is the sum of the five individual pressure drops.
However, the actual pressure drop observed turns out to be a function of the solids loading. The
pressure drop is high when the gas is free of solids and then decreases as the solids loading
increases up to about 3 kg/m3 (0.2 lb/ft3). The cyclone then begins to increase with loading.
The cause of the initial decline is that the presence of solids decreases the tangential velocity of
the gas [Yuu, Chem. Eng. Sci., 33, 1573 (1978)].When solids are absent, the observed pressure
drop can be 2.5 times the calculated pressure drop with solids present.
2.8 Cyclone Design Factors

Cyclones are sometimes designed to meet specified pressure drop limitations. For ordinary
installations, operating at approximately atmospheric pressure, fan limitations generally dictate a
maximum allowable pressure drop corresponding to a cyclone inlet velocity in the range of 8 to
30 m/s (25 to 100 ft/s). Consequently, cyclones are usually designed for an inlet velocity of 15 to
20 m/s (50 to 65 ft/s), although this need not be strictly adhered to.
Because of the relatively high gas velocities at the inlet of cyclones, particle attrition in fluidizedbed systems is generally dominated by the attrition produced in the cyclone. In some catalytic
systems with very expensive catalysts, the economics of the process can be dependent on low
attrition losses. In such cases, reducing the inlet velocity of the cyclone will significantly reduce
the attrition losses in the process. To compensate for the reduction in inlet velocity, the exit gas
velocity will generally be increased (by reducing the diameter of the outlet tube) in order to
maintain high cyclone efficiencies. Reducing the outlet tube diameter increases the outlet gas
velocity and increases the velocity in the vortex of the cyclone-increasing collection efficiency.
However, as the vortex velocity is increased, its length is also increased. Therefore, care must be
taken to ensure that the cyclone is long enough to contain the increased vortex length. If it is not,
the vortex can extend far into the cone and can entrain solids flowing on the sides of the cone as
it comes near them.

38

2.9 Cyclone Roughness

Large weld beads, etc., can also reduce cyclone efficiency. If the solids flow along the wall of a
cyclone encounters a large protuberance such as a weld bead, the weld bead acts as a type of ski
jump and causes the solids to be deflected farther into the center of the cyclone, where they can
be thrown into the vortex and carried out of the cyclone. In small pilot or research cyclones, this
is especially common, because the distance between the wall of the cyclone and the vortex tube
is very small. Because of their detrimental effect on cyclone efficiency, weld beads should be
ground off to make the cyclone inner wall smooth.
In high-temperature processes, cyclones are often lined with refractory to both minimize heat
loss and protect the metal surfaces from abrasion. These refractory surfaces are not as smooth as
metal, but after a few days of operation, the refractory becomes smoother because of the abrasive
action of the solids.
With very small laboratory or pilot cyclones, some solids (large polymer beads, spherical
particles, etc.) can sometimes bounce off the cyclone wall immediately across from the cyclone
inlet and be deflected into the vortex. Very large particles can be found in the gas outlet stream
of the cyclone with these very small cyclones and with particles that bounce. To increase cyclone
efficiency with these types of solids, the cyclone barrel diameter can be increased. This increases
the distance between the cyclone vortex and the wall and prevents most of the solids from
bouncing back into the vortex.
Theoretically, a primary design factor that can be utilized to control collection efficiency is the
cyclone diameter. A smaller-diameter unit operating at a fixed pressure drop has a higher
efficiency than a larger diameter cyclone [Anderson, Chem. Metall. 40: 525 (1933); Drijver,
Warme 60: 333 (1937); and Whiton, Power 75: 344 (1932); Chem. Metall. 39: 150 (1932)]. In
addition, smaller-diameter cyclones have a much smaller overall length. Small-diameter
cyclones, however, will require multiple units in parallel to give the same capacity as a large
cyclone. In such cases, the smaller cyclones generally discharge the dust into a common
receiving hopper [Whiton, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng. 63: 213 (1941)]. However, when
cyclones discharge into a common hopper, there is a tendency of the gas to produce cross-talk.
This occurs when the gas exiting from one small cyclone passes up the exit of an adjoining
cyclone, thus reducing efficiency. Various types of mechanical devices are generally added to
the bottom of these small cyclones in parallel to reduce the cross-talk. The final cyclone design
involves a compromise between collection efficiency and the complexity of equipment. It is
customary to design systems for a single cyclone for a given capacity, resorting to multiple
parallel units only if the predicted collection efficiency is inadequate for a single unit or single
units in series.
Reducing the gas outlet diameter should increase both collection efficiency and pressure drop.
To exit the cyclone, gas must enter the cyclonic flow associated with the outlet tube. If the outlet
diameter is reduced, the outlet vortex increases in length to compensate. Therefore, when the
outlet area is less than the inlet area, the length of the cyclone must increase. Too short a cyclone
is associated with erosion of the cone and reentrainment of solids into the exit flow. Table 17-4
39

gives the required increase in cyclone length as a function of outlet-toinlet area. The cyclone
length is measured centrally along a cylinder 10 cm larger than the inner diameter of the outlet
tube to prevent interference with the cone. If the cone interferes with this extended vortex, the
barrel must be lengthened.
As discussed above, theoretically a smaller-diameter cyclone should be able to collect smaller
particles because it can develop a higher centrifugal force. However, using smaller cyclones
generally means that many have to be used in parallel to accommodate large gas flows.
The problem with parallel cyclones (as indicated above) is that it is difficult to get even
distribution of solids into all the cyclones. If maldistribution occurs, this can cause inefficiencies
that can negate the natural advantage of the smaller cyclones.
Cyclone diameters can be very large. Perhaps the largest cyclones are those used in circulating
fluidized-bed combustors, where cyclone diameters approach 10 m. Large-diameter cyclones
also result in very long cyclones, and so these large-diameter, long-length cyclones are really not
feasible as internal cyclones in fluidized beds (they make the vessel too tall).
The minimum cone angle of the cyclone should be 60. It is generally greater, with steeper cone
angles appropriate to materials that are more cohesive. The cyclone inlet is usually rectangular
(more efficient at getting material to the wall), but in some cases has been circular. In either case,
projection of the inlet flow path should never cause interference with the outlet tube. This
generally means that the inlet width of a cyclone should always be less than the distance between
the wall and the outside diameter of the outlet tube. If a very heavy solids loading is anticipated,
the barrel diameter should be increased slightly to minimize interference with the outlet gas tube.
Collection efficiency is normally increased by increasing the gas throughput (Drijver, op. cit.).
However, if the entering dust is agglomerated, high gas velocities may cause breakup of the
agglomerated solids in the cyclone, so that efficiency remains the same or actually decreases.
Also, variations in design proportions that result in increased collection efficiency with dispersed
dusts may be detrimental with agglomerated dusts. Kalen and Zenz [Am. Inst. Chem. Eng. Symp.
Ser. 70(137): 388 (1974)] report that collection efficiency increases with increasing gas inlet
velocity up to a minimum tangential velocity at which dust is either reentrained or not deposited
because of saltation. Koch and Licht [Chem. Eng. 84(24): 80 (1977)] estimate that for typical
cyclones the saltation velocity is consistent with cyclone inlet velocities in the range of 15 to 27
m/s (50 to 90 ft/s). Lapple (private communication) reports that in cyclone tests with talc dust,
collection efficiency increased steadily as the inlet velocity was increased up to a maximum of
52 m/s (170 ft/s). With ilmenite dust, which was much more strongly flocculated, efficiency
decreased over the same inlet velocity range. In later experiments with well-dispersed talc dust,
collection efficiency continued to increase at inlet velocities up to the maximum used, 82 m/s
(270 ft/s).

Another effect of increasing the cyclone inlet gas velocity is that friable materials may
disintegrate (or attrit) as they hit the cyclone wall at high velocity. Thus, the increase in
40

efficiency associated with increased velocity may be more than lost due to generation of fine
attrited material that the cyclone cannot contain.
Internal cyclones have the advantages that they require no inlet piping (their inlets can be open to
the freeboard) and no high-pressure shell, and they have straight cyclone diplegs. Internal
cyclones are generally smaller in diameter than external cyclones because their size is limited by
the headspace available in the freeboard above the fluidized bed. These size limitations result in
using several smaller cyclones in parallel instead of one large cyclone. In addition, it is difficult
to aerate second-stage cyclone diplegs (generally an advantageous technique) when internal
cyclones are used. Aerating secondary cyclone diplegs can improve the operation of the diplegs
significantly.
The advantages of external cyclones are that
(1) they can be much larger than internal cyclones,
(2) they are more accessible than internal cyclones, and
(3) their diplegs can be aerated more easily.
The disadvantages of external cyclones are that
(1) they require a pressure shell and
(2) external cyclone diplegs generally require a section with an angled or a horizontal pipe to
return the solids to the bed. The angled or horizontal dipleg sections can result in poor dipleg
operation, if not designed correctly.

2.10 Cyclone Inlets

The design of the cyclone inlet can greatly affect cyclone performance. It is generally desired to
have the width of the inlet Bc as narrow as possible so that the entering solids will be as close as
possible to the cyclone wall where they can be collected. However, narrow inlet widths require
that the height of the inlet H be very long in order to give an inlet area required for the desired
inlet gas velocities. Therefore, a balance between narrow inlet widths and the length of the inlet
height has to be struck. Typically, low-loading cyclones (cyclones with inlet loadings less than
approximately 2 to 5 kg/m3) have height/width ratios H/Bc of between 2.5 and 3.0. For highloading cyclones, this inlet aspect ratio can be increased to as high as 7 or so with the correct
design. Such high inlet aspect ratios require that the cyclone barrel length increase.
41

A common cyclone inlet is a rectangular tangential inlet with a constant area along its length.
This type of inlet is satisfactory for many cyclones, especially those operating at low solids
loadings. However, a better type of inlet is one in which the inner wall of the inlet is angled
toward the outer cyclone wall at the cyclone inlet. This induces solids momentum toward the
outer wall of the cyclone. The bottom wall of the inlet is angled downward so that the area
decrease along the inlet flow path is not too rapid and acceleration is controlled. In addition, the
entire inlet can be angled slightly downward to give enhanced efficiencies. This type of inlet is
superior to the constant-area tangential inlet, especially for higher solids loadings (greater than 2
to 5 kg/m3).
Hugi and Reh [Chem. Eng. Technol. 21(9):716719 (1998)] report that continuous acceleration
of the solids throughout the inlet is desired for improved efficiency and that the angled inlet
described above achieves this. If the momentum of the solids is sufficient and the solids are
continuously accelerating along the length of the inlet, the stable, coherent strand important for
high collection efficiencies is produced.
The best inlet for high solids loadings is the volute cyclone inlet. At high inlet loadings (above
approximately 2 to 3 kg/m3) in a tangential cyclone inlet, the gas-solids stream expands rapidly
from its minimum width at the point of contact. This rapid expansion disturbs the laminar gas
flow around the gas outlet tube and causes flow separation around the tube. At some loadings,
the inlet stream can expand to such an extent that the solids can impact the gas outlet tube. Both
effects result in lowered cyclone efficiency. However, when a volute inlet is used, the expanding
solids stream is farther from the gas outlet tube and enters at an angle so that the solids do not
induce as much flow separation or asymmetric flow around the gas outlet tube. Therefore,
cyclone efficiency is not affected to as great a degree. If a tangential cyclone is used at high
solids loadings, an extra distance between the gas outlet tube and the cyclone wall should be
designed into the cyclone to prevent the solids from impacting on the gas outlet tube. At low
solid loadings, the impacting on the gas outlet tube does not occur. Because tangential cyclone
inlets are less expensive than volute inlets, the tangential cyclone is typically utilized for low
loadings-and the volute inlet cyclone is used for high loadings.
The nature of the gas solids flow in the inlet ducting to the cyclone can affect cyclone efficiency
significantly. If the solids in the inlet salt out on the bottom and result in dune formation and the
resulting unsteady or pulsing flow, cyclone efficiency is adversely affected. To minimize the
possibility of this occurring, it is recommended that the inlet line to the cyclone operate above
the saltation velocity [Gauthier et al., in Circulating Fluidized Bed Technology III, Basu, Horio,
and Hasatani (eds.), 1990, pp. 639644], which will prevent the solids from operating in the dune
or pulsing flow regime. If this is not possible, then the inlet line can be angled downward
(approximately 15 to 20) to let gravity assist in the flow of the solids. Keeping the inlet line as
short as possible can also minimize any pulsing of the solids flow.

42

A cyclone will operate equally well on the suction or pressure side of a fan if the dust receiver is
airtight. Probably the greatest single cause of poor cyclone performance, however, is the leakage
of air into the dust outlet of the cyclone. A slight air leak at this point can result in a tremendous
drop in collection efficiency, particularly with fine dusts. For a cyclone operating under pressure,
air leakage at this point is objectionable primarily because of the local dust nuisance created.
For batch operation, an airtight hopper or receiver may be used. For continuous withdrawal of
collected dust, a rotary star valve, a doublelock valve, or a screw conveyor may be used, the
latter only with fine dusts. A collapsible open-ended rubber tube can be used for cyclones
operating under slight negative pressure. Mechanical trickle and flapper valves at the end of
cyclone diplegs can also be used for continuous withdrawal into fluidized beds or into the
freeboard of fluidized beds. Open diplegs simply immersed in a fluidized bed can be used in
cases where start-up losses are not excessive and are the simplest type of discharge system
returning solids to a fluidized bed (see Fluidized-Bed Systems: Solids Discharge). Special
pneumatic unloading devices can also be used with dusts. In any case it is essential that sufficient
unloading and receiving capacity be provided to prevent collected material from accumulating in
the cyclone.
2.11 Solids Loading

Cyclones can collect solids over a wide range of loadings. Traditionally, solids loadings have
been reported as either kilograms of solids per cubic meter of gas (kg/m3), or as kilograms of
solids per kilogram of gas (kgs/kgg). However, loading based on mass is probably not the best
way to report solids loadings for cyclones. This is so because the volume of solids processed by a
cyclone at the same mass loading can vary greatly, depending on the density of the solids. For
example, many polymers have a bulk density of approximately 400 kg/m3, and iron ore has a
bulk density of approximately 2400 kg/m3. This is a factor of 6. Therefore, a cyclone operating
with polymer would have to process 6 times the volume of solids that a cyclone operating with
iron ore would process at the same mass loading. If the cyclone operating with the polymer were
designed to operate at high loadings on a mass basis, it would probably plug. In addition, the
diplegs below the cyclone operating with the polymer may experience operational problems
because of the high volumetric loading.
At ambient conditions, cyclones have been operated at solids loadings as low as 0.02 kg/m3
(0.0125 kg/kg) and as high as 64 kg/m3 (50 kgs/kgg) or more. This is a factor of 3200. In
general, cyclone efficiency increases with increasing solids loading. This is so because at higher
loadings, very fine particles are trapped in the interstices of the larger particles, and this
entrapment increases the collection efficiency of the small particles. Even though collection
efficiencies are increased with increased loading, cyclone loss rates are also increased as loading
is increased. This is so because the cyclone efficiency increase is almost always less than the
increase in the solids loading.
Generally cone-and-disk baffles, helical guide vanes, etc., placed inside a cyclone, will have a
detrimental effect on performance. However, a few of these devices do have some merit under
special circumstances. Although an inlet vane will reduce pressure drop (and may result in
significant erosion), it generally causes a correspondingly greater reduction in collection
43

efficiency. Its use is recommended only when collection efficiency is normally so high as to be a
secondary consideration, and when it is desired to decrease the resistance of an existing cyclone
system for purposes of increased air handling capacity or when floorspace or headroom
requirements are controlling factors. If an inlet vane is used, it is advantageous to increase the
gas exit duct length inside the cyclone chamber.
A disk or cone baffle located beneath the gas outlet duct may be beneficial if air in-leakage at the
dust outlet cannot be avoided. A heavy chain suspended from the gas outlet duct has been found
beneficial to minimize dust buildup on the cyclone walls in certain circumstances.
Such a chain should be suspended from a swivel so that it is free to rotate without twisting.
Substantially all devices that have been reported to reduce pressure drop do so by reducing spiral
velocities in the cyclone chamber and consequently result in reduced collection efficiency.
At low dust loadings, the pressure in the dust receiver of a single cyclone will generally be lower
than in the gas outlet duct. Increased dust loadings will increase the pressure in the dust receiver.
Such devices as cones, disks, and inlet vanes will generally cause the pressure in the dust
receiver to exceed that in the gas outlet duct. A cyclone will operate as well in a horizontal
position as in a vertical position. However, departure from the normal vertical position results in
an increasing tendency to plug the dust outlet. If the dust outlet becomes plugged, collection
efficiency will, of course, be low. If the cyclone exit duct must be reduced to tie in with proposed
duct sizes, the transition should be made at least five diameters downstream from the cyclone
and preferably after a bend. In the event that the transition must be made closer to the cyclone, a
Greek cross should be installed in the transition piece to avoid excessive pressure drop.
2.12 Cyclone Length

As described above, the cyclone length should be great enough to contain the vortex below the
gas outlet tube. It is generally advisable to have the cyclone somewhat longer than required so
that modifications to the gas outlet tube can be made if required. Either the barrel or the cone can
be increased in length to contain the vortex. However, cyclone barrels can be made too long. If
the barrel is too long, the rotating spiral of solids along the wall can lose its momentum. When
this happens, the solids along the wall can be re-entrained into the rotating gas in the barrel, and
cyclone efficiency will be reduced.
Hoffman et al. [AIChE J. 47(11): 24522460 (2001)] studied the effect of cyclone length on
cyclone efficiency and showed that the efficiency of a cyclone increases with length. However,
they also found that after a certain length, cyclone efficiency decreased. They reported that
cyclone efficiency suddenly decreased after a certain cyclone length, which in their cyclone was
at a length/diameter ratio of 5.65. (Although many researchers employ this length/diameter ratio
as a correlating parameter to make the length parameter dimensionless, it is likely that it is the
actual length of the cyclone that is important.) Hoffman et al. stated that the probable reason for
the sudden decrease in cyclone efficiency was the central vortex touching and turning on the
cyclone cone. When this occurred, the efficiency collapsed, causing increased solids reentrainment.

44

Hoffman et al. also reported that cyclone pressure drop decreased with increasing cyclone length.
This probably occurs for the same reason that cyclone pressure drop decreases with increasing
cyclone loading. For long cyclones, the increased length of the cyclone wall results in a longer
path for the gas to travel. This creates greater resistance to the flow of the gas in the cyclone
(much as a longer pipe produces greater resistance to gas flow than a shorter pipe) that results in
reducing the tangential velocity in the cyclone and, therefore, the cyclone pressure drop.
2.13 Saltation

The concept of saltation by Kalen and Zenz indicates that, more than just diminishing return
with increased velocity, collection efficiency actually decreases with excess velocity. At
velocities greater than the saltation velocity, particles are not removed when they reach the
cyclone wall, but are kept in suspension as the high velocity causes the fluid boundary layer to be
very thin. A correlation for the saltation velocity was given by Koch and Licht:

0.333

= 2.0550.067 0.667 [4

( )
]
32

0.4
()
0.333
[1 ( )]

} 2.16

where
= saltation velocity, ft/s
D = cyclone diameter, ft
= inlet Velocity, ft/s
g = acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft/s2
= gas viscosity, lbm/ft-sec
= particle density, lbm/ft3
= gas density, lbm/ft3
W = width of inlet opening, ft

The maximum collection efficiency occurs at Vi = 1.25Vs, which typically is between 50 and
100 ft/s.

45

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Design and Application of Wet Scrubbers
In wet scrubbing, an atomized liquid, usually water, is used to capture particulate dust or to
increase the size of aerosols. Increasing size facilitates separation of the particulate from the
carrier gas. Wet scrubbing can effectively remove fine particles in the range from 0.1m to 20
m. The particles may be caught first by the liquid, or first on the scrubber structure, and then
washed off by the liquid. Because most conventional scrubbers depend upon some form of
inertial collection of particulates as the primary mechanism of capture, scrubbers when used in a
conventional way have a limited capacity for controlling fine particulates. Unfortunately inertial
forces become insignificantly small as particle size decreases, and collection efficiency decreases
rapidly as particle size decreases. As a result, it becomes necessary to greatly increase the energy
input to a wet scrubber to significantly improve the efficiency of collection of fine particles.
Even with great energy inputs, wet scrubber collection efficiencies are not high with particles
less than 1.0 m in size.
Wet scrubbers have some unique characteristics useful for fine particulate control. Since the
captured particles are trapped in a liquid, re-entrainment is avoided, and the trapped particles can
be easily removed from the collection device. Wet scrubbers can be used with high-temperature
gases where cooling of the gas is acceptable and also with potentially explosive gases. Scrubbers
are relatively inexpensive when removal of fine particulates is not critical. Also, scrubbers are
operated more easily than other sophisticated types of particulate removal equipment.
Wet scrubbers can be employed for the dual purpose of absorbing gaseous pollutants while
removing particulates. Both horizontal and vertical spray towers have been used extensively to
control gaseous emissions when particulates are present. Cyclonic spray towers may provide
slightly better particulate collection as well as higher mass transfer coefficients and more transfer
units per tower than other designs. Although there is theoretically no limit to the number of
transfer units that can be built into a vertical countercurrent packed tower or plate column, if it is
made tall enough, there are definite limits to the number of transfer units that can be designed
into a single vertical spray tower. As tower height and gas velocities are increased, more spray
particles are entrained upward from lower levels, resulting in a loss of true counter-currency.
Achievable limits have not been clearly defined in the literature, but some experimental results
have been provided. There have been reports of 5.8 transfer units in a single vertical spray tower
and 3.5 transfer units in horizontal spray chambers. Researchers have attained 7 transfer units in
a single commercial cyclonic spray tower. Theoretical discussion and a design equation for
cyclonic spray towers of the Pease-Anthony type are available. Whenever more transfer units are
required, spray towers can be used in series.
When heavy particulate loads must be handled or are of submicron size, it is common to use wet
particulate collectors that have high particle collection efficiencies along with some capability
for gas absorption. The Venturi scrubber is one of the more versatile of such devices, but it has
absorption limitations because the particles and spray liquid have parallel flow. It has been
indicated that venture scrubbers may be limited to three transfer units for gas absorption.

46

The liquid sprayed wet electrostatic precipitator is another high-efficiency particulate collector
with gas absorption capability. Limited research tests have indicated that the corona discharge
enhances mass-transfer absorption rates, but the mechanism for this has not been established.
The disadvantages of wet scrubbers include the necessity of reheating cooled scrubber effluents
for discharge up a stack. Furthermore, the water solutions may freeze in winter and become
corrosive at other times. In some cases, the resultant liquid sludge discharge may have to be
treated for disposal. It should be noted also that operating costs can become excessive due to the
high energy requirements to achieve high collection efficiencies for removal of fine particulates.
3.1 Collection Mechanisms And Efficiency

In wet scrubbers, collection mechanisms such as inertial impaction, direct interception, Brownian
diffusion, and gravity settling apply in the collection process. Most wet scrubbers will use a
combination of these mechanisms, therefore, it is difficult to classify a scrubber as predominately
using one particular type of collection mechanism. However, inertial impaction and direct
interception play major roles in most wet scrubbers. Thus, in order to capture finer particles
efficiently, greater energy must be expended on the gas. This energy may be expended primarily
in the gas pressure drop or in atomization of large quantities of water. Efficiency of collection
may be unexpectedly enhanced in a wet scrubber through methods that cause particle growth.
Particle growth can be brought about by vapor condensation, high turbulence, or thermal forces
in the confines of the narrow passages in the scrubber structure. Condensation, the most common
growth mechanism, occurs when a hot gas is cooled or compressed. The condensation will occur
preferentially on existing particles rather than producing new nuclei. Thus, the dust particles will
grow larger and will be more easily collected. When hydrophobic dust particles must be
collected, there is evidence that the addition of small quantities of nonfoaming surfactants may
enhance collection. The older literature is contradictory on this point, but careful experiments by
Hesketh and others indicate enhancement can definitely occur.
3.2 Collection Mechanisms And Particle Size

When a gas stream containing particulates flows around a small object such as a water droplet or
a sheet of water, the inertia of the particles causes them to move toward the object where some of
them will be collected. This phenomenon is known as inertial impaction, which customarily
describes the effects of small-scale changes in flow direction. Because inertial impaction is
effective on particles as small as a few tenths of a micrometer in diameter, it is the most
important collection mechanism for wet scrubbers. Since this mechanism depends upon the
inertia of the particles, both their size and density are important in determining the efficiency
with which they will be collected. All important particle properties may be lumped into one
parameter, the aerodynamic impaction diameter which can be calculated from the actual particle
diameter by the following relationship:

= ( )

1
2

2.17

47

where
= aerodynamic impaction diameter in m-gm/cm3
= physical diameter in m
= density of particle in gms/cm3
= Cunninghams correction factor

By a fortunate circumstance, most methods for measuring particle size determine the
aerodynamic impaction diameter. The Cunningham correction factor is given by the following
formulas:

= 1 +

0.55
2
[1.257 + 0.400 (
)] .2.18

8/
0.499

Where
= mean free path of the gas in m
= diameter of particle in m
= gas viscosity in N-s/m or kg/m-s
= mean molecular weight of the gas
= gas density in kg/m3
= universal gas constant (8.3144 J/kg-mol-K)
= gas temperature in K
For air at room temperature and pressure, Equation 22-4 is a good approximation of C:

= 1.0 +

48

0.16

Knowing the value of the mean free path of molecules at a given temperature and pressure, the
mean free path at other conditions can be calculated from Equation 22.5:

1
2

= ( ) ( )
0

( )

Where

= 0.0653 m for air at 23C and 1.0 atm

, , =viscosity, temperature, and pressure, respectively, at the same conditions for which is
known
3.3 Selection And Design Of Scrubbers

Calvert and co-workers have prepared an extensive report of wet scrubbers from both theoretical
considerations and literature data. In considering the types of scrubbers to use for a particular
application, the designer must have in mind the required collection efficiency for a particular size
emission. The data of Table 3.1 can be used as a rough guide for initial consideration of
adequacy of different devices.
3.4 Devices For Wet Scrubbing

The following material is a compilation of facts and figures for typical wet scrubbers. Table 3.1
serves as a guideline to the general operational characteristics of various types of devices.

49

Fig. 3.1 Packed Tower.

50

Table 3.1

Table 3.2
51

3.5 A Model For Counter-Current Spray Scrubbers

Drops are formed by atomizer nozzles and then sprayed into the gas stream. In the countercurrent tower, drops settle vertically against the rising gas stream which is carrying the particles.
Atomization provides a wide variety of droplet size. It is customary to take the Sauter mean drop
diameter equivalent to the volume/surface area ratio and defined by the following equation to
represent all the droplets.

0.45
58600 0.5

1.5
=
( ) + 597 [
]
[1000 ] 3.1
( )0.5

Where
= Sauter mean droplet diameter,
= Density of the liquid, gm/cm3
= Liquid surface tension, dyne/cm
= Liquid viscosity, poise
= Superficial gas velocity, cm/s
= Volumetric liquid flow rate, M3/s
= Volumetric gas flow rate, M3/s

Inertial impaction is depicted in the figure, primary capture mechanism. In this case of inertial
impaction, a particle is carried along by the gas stream. Approaching the collecting body which
is a water droplet in the case of a spray scrubber, the particles tend to follow the streamlines.
However, for many particles, their inertia will result in the particle separating from the gas
stream and striking the water droplet. The result is for the water droplet to collect the particle.
The separation number in, , is the same as the inertial impaction parameter, Kp, defined by
the following equation:

= =

=
=
3.2
18
18
18

Where
= Cunningham correction factor
52

 = particle density, gm/cm3

= physical particle diameter, cm
= particle velocity, cm/s
= gas viscosity, poise

The curves apply for conditions in which Stokes Law holds for the motion of the particle.
Equation 3.3 is an approximate equation for a single-droplet target efficiency,
2

= (
) 3.3
+ 0.35

Fig 3.2 Bubble cap trays

53

3.6 A Model For Venturi Scrubbers

Calvert et al.3 have developed a model similar to Equation 3.4 for several different types of
scrubbers. Following is a model for Venturi scrubbers.

= [

] 3.4
55

+ 0.7
0.49
1
= [(0.7 + 1.4 (
)+
) ]
0.7
0.7 +

Where
= inertial impaction parameter at throat entrance
f= empirical factor
(f = 0.25 for hydrophobic particles, f = 0.50 for hydrophilic particles)

This model works well for f = 0.50 for a variety of large-scale venturi scrubbers and other spray
scrubbers where the spray is atomized by the gas.

54

Fig. 3.3 Optimum droplet size for collection by inertial impaction when droplets are moving in
the gravitational field of the earth in a spray tower. (With permission from Stairmand, C. J.,
Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, 28, 130, 1950.)

55

Fig. 3.4 Venturi scrubber

Gas accelerated at throat

Atomized water droplets added at throat as a spray or jet, collect particles
Can be combined with a cyclonic collector to disengage water droplets from air stream
Has a large pressure drop

56

Fig. 3.5 Venturi jet scrubber:

Used for fume scrubbing

High pressure water atomized from a jet nozzle into a throat of a Venturi which induces
the
flow of the gas to be scrubbed
57

Fig. 3.6 Relative velocities of a water droplet and a particle.

Fig. 3.7 Mass in Mass out Mass collected = Accumulation

( + ) = 0

58

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Summary of the process
4.1.1 Reactor with cyclone Separator
There is a fluidized bed inside the reactor. The fluidized bed consists of particles of iron oxide
which are kept in a turbulent state by the combustion gas. In this fluidized bed, the concentrated
venturi liquid is pumped through a titanium lance. As result of the high temperature of 850C in
the fluidized bed the 2which has been brought is split up into 2 3 and . Thus the
reverse of pickling reaction takes place in the reactor.
1
22 + 22 + 2 2 3 + 4
2

About 95% of this splitting up takes place on the surface of the oxide particles present, and only
approximately 5% in the gap. While the oxide reacting on the surface of the oxide particles
contributes to the growth of oxide particles, the iron formed in the gas phase generates fine iron
oxide dust which is carried out of the reactor with the combustion gases. In the cyclone, the dust
is again removed from the gas flow and send back more to the fluidized bed by means of dust
recirculation pendulum flaps.
The iron oxide formed in the reactor is constantly drawn off by means of vibration channel and
conveyed into the oxide tank via spiral conveyor.
Constant drawing off the iron oxide keeps the amount of the material in checks and thus the
height of the fluidized bed remains constant.

4.1.2 Venturi
The reaction gases drawn out of the reactor at a temperature of 850C are cooled in the venturi
down to approximately 100C. This cooling process is achieved by the evaporation of water out
of the venturi liquid. At the same time, the extremely fine particles of dust in the waste gas are
washed out. The venture liquid needed for cooling is taken in from separator by means of venturi
pump and pumped to venturi. The venturi liquid flow through narrow position of the venture
together with the gas flow, thereby cooling the hot waste gases. In separator the venture liquid is
separated from the gas flow while the gas from separator thus goes into absorber. The venturi
liquid is again pumped to the narrow position of the venturi. As a result of the evaporation of
water during the cooling process, the venturi liquid becomes very concentrated. Adding rinse
water sets a density of approximately 1.48kgldm3 in the venturi circulation system. A split
stream is taken out of this venturi circulation system and conveyed to the reactor. The waste acid
stacked in the storage station is pumped by means of pumps into receiver vessel. This receiver
vessel communicates with the separator. Any reduction in the level of the separator as a result of
the consumption of venturi liquid in reactor is thus automatically equalized by the addition of
waste acid. Any excess waste acid conveyed to the receiver vent flows back into the approximate
acid storage tank.
59

4.1.3 Absorption tower including scrubbing

The hydrochloric acid present in the waste gas flow is scrubbed out in the absorber in stages. To
accomplish this, the upper part of the absorber is impinged with rinse water which then flows
through the absorber from top to bottom against the flow of the gas. In doing so, the hydrochloric
and carried in the gas flow is scrubbed out. This recycled regenerated acid flows from the
bottommost part of the absorber into the acid stage station.
The waste gases coming out of the absorber are then impinged in further scrubbing stage with
freshwater thus washing out the traces of hydrochloric acid it has been carrying.

4.1.4 Fan
The waste gas flow now free of hydrochloric acid is blown through fan via fume stack and from
there via drop separator into the open air. The condensates arising from cooling are separated out
by the built-in drop separator and reprocessed in the regeneration Unit.

Fig. 3.7 Fluidized-bed process for regeneration of hydrochloric acid pickling solutions
a) Separating tank; b) Venturi scrubber; c) Reactor; d) Cyclone; e) Absorber; f) Scrubbing stage;
g) Off-gas blower; h) Stack; i) Mist collector

60

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Safety
Safety generally means being safe or freedom from danger or risk. It is an area
of safety engineering and public health that deals with the protection of workers' health, through
control of the work environment to reduce or eliminate hazards.
Chemical process safety refers to the application of technology and management practices;

To prevent accidents in plants

To reduce the potential for accidents.

Work place hazards can generally be grouped into:

Mechanical hazards
Chemical hazards
Physical hazards
Biological hazards
Psycho-Social hazards

Unsafe working conditions and production may lead to industrial accidents and can result in:

Temporary or permanent injuries.

Fatalities.
Loss of future productivity by training new personnel
Loss of valuable work hours
Cost implications due to compensation, medical fees, insurance etc.

The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA, 2007) stipulates the guidelines for ensuring
favorable and bearable working conditions in Kenya. The Act establishes occupational, safety
and health standards to be adhered to in places of work.
Major provisions of this Act include:

Inspection of work places

Maintenance of accurate records of employees
Maintenance of accurate records of any toxic or harmful material whose levels exceed
those prescribed by an applicable standard.
Provides for the rights of employees to be informed of any violations by employers cited
by inspectors of work places.

The provisions of this Act are enforced by inspection officers who carry out inspections for work
places.
Potential hazards in the aloe vera products processing plant include the following:

61

Electrical components malfunction, electrocution and risk of electrical fires

Failure of instruments and process equipment
Risk of fires
Odour
Leakages from equipment causing spills
Slips, trips and falls
Corrosion

Spillages and wastes

Spillages are to be taken note off, contained and collected.
When opening valves, the risk of spillages should be considered.
Any spillage is to be reported to the Health Safety & Environment Department immediately
while possible control and containment of the spill is carried out.
First Aid
All emergency handling team members are trained in first aid.
First Aid boxes are available in all departments
Safety Signs and Instructions
To create the Health, Safety and Environment awareness at all levels of management and to
communicate the specific risk / hazards, at relevant locations Health, Safety and Environment
Signs, Warning Labels, Instruction to be displayed.
Labeling
All equipment and chemicals should be classified according to their risk and labeled accordingly.
Lighting
Illumination sufficient for maintaining safe working conditions are provided where ever
personnel is required to work or pass , including in passageways, stairways and landings.
No work area has illumination of less than 50 lux or otherwise specified.
Chemical Safety
All employees know the hazards of the chemicals they may deal or work with.
All employees make sure that they have a copy of the MSDS (Material Safety and Data Sheets),
read and understand it.
All employees use appropriate personal protective equipment while handling the chemicals.
All chemical containers and bottles are labeled correctly.
Store the chemical as per the incompatibility.
62

Obey warning and danger signs.

Try to stop the spillage, if any, and report the same to the shift in-charge and safety department
simultaneously through your colleagues earliest possible.

Spacing
There is adequate spacing between equipment and pipelines.
Emergency Contact Numbers
List of key personnel is available at emergency control center, main gate.
Safety Relief Vents, Interlocks and trip systems
For pressure vessels, relief vents are installed. Interlocks and trip systems are installed in case of
failure of the instruments.
Control valves
There are remote control valves to isolate equipment and areas of the plant in case of emergency.
Inspection of equipment
There is regular inspection of equipment such as storage vessels and pipelines
Training of workers
Specialized training of workers on chemical safety, personal protection equipment, fire
prevention and protection techniques, accidents prevention and safety management can
contribute significantly to risk management in the plant.
Accident Documentation
All accidents should be reported to the relevant section managers and eventually to the safety
manager for effective investigation.
Laboratory Safety
All chemicals and regent bottles are clearly labeled. They are stored in their appropriate places.
Volatile, combustible, flammable chemicals must are stored away from direct flame and other
sources of heat.
Exhaust fans and blowers must be kept continuously on to drive out any fumes or vapours if
present.
While handling toxic and corrosive chemicals, proper personal protective equipment.
There are energy lines and taps in laboratory. Get them inspected periodically and see that leaks
are detected and rectified quickly.
63

Equipment Safety
All new equipment are procured as per user's safety requirement and designed accordingly.
The equipment should be qualified for installation, operation and performance.
The Persons working on the equipment should undergo the operation training.

Employee Requirements
It shall be a requirement for each worker to have the following PPEs (personal protective
Equipment) within the factory premises.
Masks: for protection against solvent vapour or fumes
Protective clothing: these include overalls and dust coats to be replaced weekly for cleaning
purposes.
Protective shoes: special shoes to prevent any damage due to falling objects and also to prevent
falling or sliding.
Ear plugs: Prevent damage caused by vibration or noise produced by equipment.
Safety helmet: mandatory inside the factory to protect the head from metal objects.

Management and Safety

Management at the forefront in enforcing safe engineering practices.
Organizing safety trainings and safety promotional campaigns.
Enacting rules and policies to be adhered to concerning safety, for which there are repercussions
for violations committed.
Management should ensure that they get a safety report periodically.
There should be an independent inspector doing regular safety audits.
Ensuring there is proper and regular inspection and maintenance of equipment.

64

SITE PLAN AND LOCATION

FG-Factory Gate

65

Road

MG-Main Gate

COLOR
COATING
COLOUR
COATING
LINELINE

WB-Weighbridge

CONTINUOUS
CONTINUOUSGALVANIZING
LINE
GALVANIZINGLINE
ADB

ADB-Administration Block

TENSION
TENSION LEVELING
LEVELING LINE
LINE
ADB

PICKLING
LINELINE
PICKLING

ACID REGENERATION PLANT

Wall Fence

Key

WB
FG

References
Don W. and Robert H Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 8th edition.
Karl B. and Charles A Pollution Control Technology Handbook
ASME steel books volume 1-23
Ullmann-'s-Encyclopedia-of-Industrial-Chemistry-(Wiley,-2007)
Robert T. Mass Transfer
Company Process Manual
www.steelitems.com

66