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Electrical Safety
Agenda
Introduction
Physiological Effects of Electricity
Susceptibility Parameters
Distribution of Electric Power
Macroshock Hazards
Microshock Hazards
Electrical-Safety Codes and Standards
Approaches to Protection Against Shock
Power Distribution
Equipment Design
Introduction
ES as elemetary protection
Physiological effects
Current can heal and harm
Human body with contact to el. circuit at left and right hand
Body weight: 70 kg
Current frequency: 60 Hz
Physiological effects
Current can heal and harm
6
5
4
3
2
1
Figure 14.1 Physiological effects of electricity Threshold or estimated mean values are given
for each effect in a 70 kg human for a 1 to 3 s exposure to 60 Hz current applied via copper
wires grasped by the hands.
Physiological effects
Threshold of Perception (1)
0.5 mA at 60 Hz
2 mA to 10 mA DC
Physiological effects
Let-go Current (2)
Physiological effects
Respiratory Paralysis, Pain, Fatigue (3)
Physiological effects
Ventricular Fibrillation (4)
Physiological effects
Sustained Myocardial Contraction (5)
Physiological effects
Burns and Physical Injury (6)
Susceptibility Parameters
Introduction
The current needed to produce each effect depends on these parameters
Threshold of Perception and Let-Go Variability
Frequency
Duration
Body Weight (and gender)
Points of Entry
Macroshock
Microshock
Susceptibility Parameters
Variability of threshold and Let-go current
Figure 14.2 Distributions of perception thresholds and let-go currents These data depend on
surface area of contact (moistened hand grasping AWG No. 8 copper wire). (Replotted from C. F.
Dalziel, "Electric Shock," Advances in Biomedical Engineering, edited by J. H. U. Brown and J.
F. Dickson III, 1973 3, 223-248.)
Susceptibility Parameters
Frequency
Susceptibility Parameters
Duration
Geddes and Baker (1989) presented the excitation behavior of
myocardial cells by a lumped parallel RC circuit that represents the
resistance and capacitance of the cell membrane.
This model determines the cell excitation thresholds that exceed about
20 mV for varying rectangular pulse duration d by assigning the
rheobase currents Ir and cell membrane time constant =RC.
The strength-duration equation
Susceptibility Parameters
Duration
Figure 14.4 Normalized analytical strengthduration curve for current I, charge Q, and energy U.
The x axis shows the normalized duration of d/ (From Geddes, L. A., and L. E. Baker, Principles
of Applied Biomedical Instrumentation, 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1989).
Susceptibility Parameters
Body weight
Susceptibility Parameters
Points of Entry
Susceptibility Parameters
Points of Entry - Example
Result
Intermittent capture with a minimum current of 20 A
Continuous capture with a minimum current of 49 A
Resulting Regulation
The widely accepted safety limit to prevent microshocks is 10 A
Susceptibility Parameters
Points of Entry - Example
Figure 14.7. Percentile plot of thresholds for continuous
capture and VF (or sustained VT). Cumulative percent of
patients is shown on abscissa and root-mean-square AC
current (in A) on ordinate. Squares denote unipolar data;
circles, bipolar data. Solid symbols identify data from patients
in whom the only clinical arrhythmia was atrial fibrillation
(AF). Top, Thresholds for continuous capture. Current
strength of 50 A caused continuous capture in 5 patients
(12%) with unipolar AC and in 9 (22%) with bipolar AC
(P=0.49). Bottom, Thresholds for sustained VT/VF. These
plots do not reach 100% because sustained-VT/VF thresholds
exceeded maximum output of stimulator in 6 patients (15%)
with bipolar AC and 8 (20%) with unipolar AC. From
Swerdlow, C. D., W. H. Olson, M. E. OConnor, D. M. Gallik,
R. A. Malkin, M. Laks, Cardiovascular collapse caused by
electrocardiographically silent 60-Hz intracardiac leakage
current Implications for electrical safety. Circulation.,
1999, 99, 25592564.
BUT
Medical devices underlie special safety regulations as they might stay
in special contact to and with patients, applicants and third persons
1. Overvoltage protection
2. Special ground
Example
A lightning causes an overvoltage at the public power supply. The
overvoltage is transferred directly to the patients heart by applied
ECG-Electrodes.
=> Over voltage protection
Figure 14.8 Simplified electric-power distribution for 115 V circuits. Power frequency is 60
Hz.
Macroshock Hazards
Macroshock = current spreads through the body
Reduce the skin resistance with ionic gel (good electrode contact), or
Bypass the natural protection by bypassing the skin (thermometer in the mouth,
intravenous catheters, etc.)
Result
Patients in medical-care facilities are much more susceptible to
macroshocks
Macroshock Hazards
Protection
Microshock Hazards
Microshock = all current flows through the heart
Result
Patient is only in danger of microshock if there is some electric
connection to the heart
Microshock Hazards
Protection
Leakage-current flows
a. through the ground wire no microshock occurs
b. through the patient if he touches the chassis and has a grounded catheter etc.
c. through the patient if he is touching ground and has a connected catheter etc.
Microshock Hazards
Conductive Path to the Heart
Specific types of electric connections to the heart can be identified
Epicardial or endocardial electrodes (i.e. temporary externalized
pacemakers)
< 1 Ohm
Electrodes for intracardiac electrogramm (ECT)
< 1 Ohm
Liquid-filled catheters placed in the heart (i.e. measure blood
preassure, withdraw blood samples, inject substances, etc.)
usually 50 kOhm to 1 MOhm
Internal resistance of the body is about 300 Ohm
Microshock Hazards
Conductive Path to the Heart
Microshock Hazards
Example of patient in the intensive-care unit
Maximized impedance from patient leads to hot conductors and from patient
leads to chassis ground
Double-Insulated equipment
2. Optical isolation
3. Capacitive isolation
Blood-pressure sensors with triple insulation between the column of liquid, the
sensor case, and the electric connections
Catheters with conductive walls all the way inside the patient to distribute the
shock throughout the body (enlarged surface)
Receptacles
Grounding system
Ground-pin-to-chassis resistance
Medical appliances
Medical devices
Special use-cases
Figure 14.17 Three-LED receptacle tester Ordinary silicon diodes prevent damaging
reverse-LED currents, and resistors limit current. The LEDs are ON for line voltages from
about 20 V rms to greater than 240 V rms, so these devices should not be used to measure line
voltage.
Resistance between the ground pin of the plug and the equipment
chassis and exposed metal objects should not exceed 0.15 Ohm
during the life of the appliance
Conclusion