Heat and Pipes

Introduction
Mechanisms of heat transfer
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Heat transfer and pipe ow

Professor Eric S Fraga
Room 2.05 Engineering Front Building
Department of Chemical Engineering
UCL
c 2009

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Introduction
Objectives
Heat exchangers
Pumps
What is heat transfer?

How is heat transferred?
What equipment is used to transfer heat between two uids
and how does it work?
What is the power required for pumping a uid?
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Reading material
Pumps
Coulson, J.M and Richardson J.F. Chemical Engineering Vol.

1, Pergamon Press.
Pitts, D. and Sissom, L. Heat Transfer, Schaum's Outlines,
McGraw-Hill.
Cengel, Y.A. Heat transfer a practical approach,
McGraw-Hill.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Heat transfer
Pumps
Heat transfer is concerned with

temperature: represents the thermal energy, or heat, that is
available, and
ow of heat: represents the movement of thermal energy from
one place to another.
Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a
!temperature dierence!.
Temperature dierence is the driving force that causes heat to
be transferred.
Heat transfer plays a major role in the design of process
equipment.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
How is heat transferred?
Pumps
Heat may be transferred in three dierent ways:

conduction transfer of heat as a result of molecular motion
and the subsequent transfer of kinetic energy.
Conduction is predominant in solid materials and
in static uids.
convection the ow of heat as a result of macroscopic
movement of matter from a hot to a cool region
radiation transfer of energy in the form of rays or waves or
particles (, , )
We will consider only conduction and convection.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Conduction through a wall
Consider a wall of thickness x and surface area A that has a

uniform temperature T1 on one side and T2 on the other:
The heat transfer, q (W ), through the wall is
k
q = AT
x
(1)
where k (in mWK ) is the thermal conductivity of the material

which gives a measure of the ability of the material to conduct
heat and T T1 T2 .
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Thermal conductivity
Materials with a large thermal conductivity,
Pumps
k , are good
thermal conductors. These will transfer large amounts of heat

over time, e.g. copper.
Conversely, materials with low thermal conductivities are poor
thermal conductors. These will transfer small amounts of heat
over time, e.g. concrete.
The ratio
k
x
is called the heat transfer coecient.
The inverse of the heat transfer coecient,

resistance.
x
k,
is the thermal
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Composite wall example
Pumps
Applying eq. 1 to each section of the

composite wall:
k
q = i A(Ti Ti +1 ) i = 1, . . . , 3
xi
1
q = P xi AT
ki
so overall thermal resistance is sum

of the individual resistances
(analogous to electrical circuits).
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Heat transfer through convection
Pumps
Example: heating a pot of water.

At rst, when the water is cold and
still, it behaves as a solid and heat
is transferred by conduction
through the bottom of the pot.
Bubbles, when created, will transfer
heat from the bottom to the top
by convection due to buoyancy.
Cooler, more dense water at the
top will sink to the bottom.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Types of convection
Pumps
Natural convection occurs when the motion of uid is due to

buoyancy eects. Example, the cooling of a heated pipe:
Forced convection is when the uid motion is produced by an

external agent.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Convective heat transfer
Heat transfer by convection, q , is
q = hAT
(2)
where
A (m2 ) is the characteristic area of contact.

T
K ) is the temperature dierence between the solid and
the uid.
h ( mW2 K ) is the convective heat transfer coecient and is a
property of the system, not a property of the uid as is the

thermal conductivity,
k.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Convective heat transfer coecient
Pumps
The value of h depends on the surface geometry, the

properties of the uid and the uid motion regime:
Type of convection Material h mW2 K
Natural
Gases
2-25
Liquids
50-1000
Forced
Gases
25-250
Liquids 100-20000
Liquids transfer greater amounts of heat than gases, which are

good thermal insulators and forced convection gives greater
heat transfer than natural convection for both gases and
liquids.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
What aects convective heat

transfer?
h is a function of the properties of the system and depends on:

geometry of the system, i.e. a characteristic length
physical properties of the uid: i.e. viscosity,
heat capacity,
uid regime, i.e. a characteristic velocity

To determine
cp , and thermal conductivity, k .
L.
density,
v.
h is therefore a complex task and we rely on
experiments.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Prandtl and Nusselt numbers
Pumps
The properties of the uids and the dierent forms of heat

transfer can be described by some dimensionless numbers:
Prandtl the ratio between uid ability to store heat and to
transfer heat through conduction, independent of
the system geometry:
Pr =
cp
Nusselt ratio between heat transfer through convection

and conduction:
Nu =
hL
k
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Reynolds and Grashof numbers
Other numbers describe uid ow properties:

Reynolds The ratio between inertial and viscous forces in
the uid which identies the uid ow regime:
Re =
vL
(3)
High values correspond to turbulent ow regime,

and therefore to high convection h.t.c.
Grashof replaces Re when uid motion is driven by
thermal expansion of the uid:
Gr =
T 2 gL3
2
where is the volumetric thermal expansion

coecient.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Flow patterns and temperature

proles
Pumps
Consider the ow of air over an innite at plate.
Ts
Tf is the air ow

Ts > Tf .
is the temperature of the plate, while
temperature away from the plate, with
Regardless of the type of convection, we analyse the ow

pattern and the temperature proles at the wall and away
from it.
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Introduction
Flow layers
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Adjacent to the wall, a laminar sub-layer forms with no uid

mixing. Heat transfer across the sub-layer is by conduction
only with large resistance to heat transfer and large
temperature change.
Away from the wall, turbulent ow with large eddies and high
uid mixing. Heat transfer is by convection with low
resistance to heat transfer and small temperature change.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Overall heat transfer coecient
Given a at wall of uniform, homogeneous material having

constant thermal conductivity, k , exposed to uids h, at
temperature Th , and c , at Tc , on either side:
with convective heat transfer coecients hh and hc , wall

thermal conductivity, k , and wall thickness, x . What is the
overall heat transfer coecient, U ( mW2 K ), for the combined
conductive-convective heat transfer:
q = UAT
(4)
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Assumptions
In steady state, the same amount of heat
Pumps
q must pass through
each section.
Heat transfer is by convection across the hot and cold lm
and by conduction through the solid wall.
Th and
Tc , are unaected by the heat transfer and are known.
The uid temperatures suciently far from the wall,
The surface temperatures

The heat transfer area,
T1 and T2 are unknown.
A, is the same for all sections.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Overall heat transfer

q = hh A(Th T1 )
k
q = A(T1 T2 )
x
q = hc A(T2 Tc )
Pumps
hot lm
solid wall
A(T T )
q = 1 h x c1 = UAT
cold lm
(solve)
hh + k + hc
Note: U can be calculated in a manner similar to resistances

in electrical networks:
1 X 1
(5)
Ui
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Example: double-paned glass

window
Pumps
Consider a 0.8m-high and 1.5m-wide double-pane glass

window consisting of two 4 mm thick layers of glass
W ) separated by a 10 mm wide stagnant air space

kg = 0.78 mK
W
(ka = 0.026
mK ).
(
Determine the steady rate of heat transfer,
q , through the
double-pane window and the temperature of its inner surface,
T1 , for a day during which the room is maintained at 20 C

while the temperature outside is
10 C.
Take the convection heat transfer coecients on the inner and

outer surfaces of the window to be
h2
= 40 mW2 K .
h1 = 10 mW2 K
and
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Solution: Diagram
Pumps
Assume that the heat transfer through the window is steady

state since the surface temperatures remain constant.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Solution: overall thermal resistance
From eq. 5,
where
h1
L1
kg
L2
k2
L3
kg
1
h2
h1
=
=
=
=
=
Pumps
L1 L2 L1 1
+
+
+
kg k2 kg h2
1
m2 K
= 0.100
W
W
10 m2 K
0.004m
m2 K
=
0
.
00513
W
0.78 mWK
0.01m
m2 K
= 0.385
W
W
0.026 m K
0.004m
m2 K
=
0
.
00513
W
0.78 mWK
1
m2 K
= 0.025
W
W
40 m2 K
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Solution: heat transferred
Pumps
m2 K
= 0.52026
U
W
W
U = 1.92 2
mK
A = 0.8 m 1.5 m = 1.2 m2
q = UA(Ti To )
W
= 1.92 2 1.2m2 30 K
mK
= 69.12W
1
and
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Solution: inner surface temperature
Pumps
q = h1 A(Ti T1 )
T1 = Ti
q
h1 A
= (20 + 273) K
= 287.24 K
= 14.24 C
69.12W
10 mW2 K 1.2 m2
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Non-uniform heat transfer area
Pumps
In some cases, the area for transfer applicable to each media

could dier.
For example, the radial ow of heat through a thick pipe wall
or cylinder.
The area of transfer in these cases is a function of position.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Example: curved wall
Pumps
Consider a curved solid wall with constant thermal

conductivity k exposed to a convective hot outer uid and a
convective cold inner uid:
To
and
Ti
ho
and
hi
are the temperatures at
ro
and
ri
respectively.
are the convective heat transfer coecients in the
outer and inner lm, and impact of the thickness of these

lms is assumed to be negligible.
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Introduction
Derivation
Start with eq. 1,
Heat exchangers
Pumps
q = kx AT , and let x r .
Consider heat transfer over a small part of the pipe and the
corresponding change in temperature:
dT
q
dr
kA
Integrate over the pipe wall:
Z To
Z ro
ro q
q
dT =
dr =
dr
ri kA
ri 2 rLk
Ti
q
To Ti =
(log ro log ri )
2 Lk
k
q=
2 L (To Ti )
log(ro /ri )
Z
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Combined system
Pumps
Assuming thin lms on either side of the pipe, we can write

three equations:
q = ho 2ro L(Th To )
k
2 L(To Ti )
q=
log(ro /ri )
q = hi 2ri L(Ti Tc )
which have three unknowns, To , Ti and q , so we can solve as
usual.
Note: the heat transfer coecient will often be given with
respect to a specic reference area.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Engineers and heat transfer
Pumps
In practice, engineers often have to design equipment to eect

heat transfer, say to achieve a specic temperature change in
a uid stream of known mass ow rate,
Such equipment will typically be in the form of a heat
exchanger and the engineer will need to
determine the surface area to transfer heat at a given rate for

given uid temperatures and ow rates.
predict the outlet temperatures of hot and cold uid streams
for a specied heat transfer.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Heat exchangers
Pumps
A heat exchanger is any device that eects transfer of thermal

energy between two uids that are at dierent temperature.
The two uids do not come in direct contact but are
separated by a solid surface or tube wall.
Common heat exchangers include:
Shell-and-tube (single pass or multi-pass)

Flat-plate
Finned tubes
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Double pipe heat exchanger
Pumps
The simplest form of an heat exchanger consists of two

concentric cylindrical tubes, the double pipe heat exchanger:
Heat transfer involves convection in each uid and conduction

through the wall separating the two uids.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Parallel or co-current ow
Pumps
The uids both ow in the same direction:
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Counter-current ow
Pumps
The uids ow in opposite directions:
In both cases, the uids are forced to ow using pumps or fans.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Shell and tube single pass
Pumps
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Multi-pass shell and tube
Pumps
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Multi-pass ow arrangement
Pumps
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Plate heat exchangers
Pumps
Plate heat exchangers are built up from individual plates

separated by gaskets, assembled in a pack and clamped in a
frame.
They are applied in the energy recovery section of many

processes because of low initial cost, high eciency and low
maintenance costs.
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Introduction
Plates
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Thin sheet material, resulting in economic

units, particularly when expensive material
is involved.
Plates are especially corrugated to
promote turbulence also at low
Re ,
resulting in:
very high heat transfer coecients

reduces fouling
facilitates chemical cleaning
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Finned tube heat exchangers
Pumps
Finned tubes exchangers are

employed in large air/liquid heat
exchanger systems to give greater
heat transfer area because gases,
which are good thermal insulators,
transfer smaller amounts of heat
than liquids.
There are various types of nned
tubes, depending on the
application.
Applied in various systems:
large air conditioning systems

radiators for large truck.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Heat transfer in a heat exchanger
Pumps
Heat exchangers operate for long periods of time with no

change in the operating conditions, thus they can be modelled
as steady-ow devices:
1
The overall heat transfer coecient,
U , is constant
throughout the exchanger.
The mass ow rate of each uid remains constant.
The specic heats of the uids are constant.
The temperature of the two uids are constant over a specic

cross-section.
The outer surface is perfectly insulated, so that any heat

transfer occurs between the two uids only.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Energy balance
Under these assumptions, it follows that the rate of heat

transfer from the hot uid to be equal to the rate of heat
transfer to the cold one.
The basic design equations for heat exchangers are therefore
the energy balance for each uid:
q = m h cph (Tho Thi )

q = m c cpc (Tco Tci )
where
(Energy given up by hot uid)

(Energy gained by cold uid)
m (kg/s) is the mass ow rate and cp
specic heat.
But what is the driving force,
kJ
kg K )
is the
T ?
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Temperature prole: co-current ow

The temperature dierence
is
large at the inlet but decreases

exponentially towards the outlet.
Temperature of the hot uid
decreases and the temperature of
the cold uid increases along the
heat exchanger.
The outlet temperature of the cold
uid can never exceed that of the
hot uid, no matter how long the
heat exchanger.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Temperature prole: counter-current

ow
The hot and cold uids enter the
heat exchanger from opposite ends.

uid may exceed the outlet
temperature of the hot uid,
temperature cross.
uid can never exceed the inlet
temperature of the hot uid.
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Introduction
Design
Recall eq. 4,
Heat exchangers
Pumps
q = UAT .
Need to calculate
for either
co-current or counter-current
exchange.
However, the temperature
dierence varies across the range of
operation.
We introduce the log mean
temperature dierence (LMTD),
TLM ,
as an expression of
T .
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Log mean temperature dierence

derivation I
At any point along the
exchanger:
h cph Th
q = m
c cpc Tc
q = m
q = U (Th Tc ) A
(6)
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Introduction
LMTD II
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Rearrange for T in each equation and nd the dierence:

Th =
m h cph
q
Tc =
m c cpc
Th Tc = q
m h cph
m c cpc

(Th Tc ) = U A(Th Tc )
+
m h cph m c cpc

(Th Tc )
1
1
= U A
+
(Th Tc )
m h cph m c cpc
+(6) :
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Introduction
LMTD III
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Let the terms be dierentials and integrate along the length

of the exchanger:
log (Tho Tco ) log (Thi Tci ) = UA
m h cph
m c cpc
which, when combined with overall energy balance on each

p term and substitute):
uid (solve for mc
log (Tho Tco ) log (Thi Tci ) = UA
log T2 log T1 = UA
(Thi Tho ) + (Tco Tci )
T2 T1
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
q = UA
T2 T1
log T2 log T1
or
q = UA
LMTD IV
The term in the box is
Pumps
T2 T1
T2
log
T1
TLM ,
the log mean temperature
dierence (LMTD).
For counter-current exchangers, the same result is obtained
although for dierent
T1
and
T2 .
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Correction factor for complex heat

exchangers
Determination of the average temperature dierence,
Pumps
TLM ,
is dicult for complex heat exchangers.

It is practice to introduce a correction factor,
Ft .
The heat
transfer rate is then given by:
q = UA Ft TLM
where
TLM
is that for the counter ow double-pipe heat
exchangers with the same uid inlet and outlet temperatures

as in the more complex design.
Ft
values for several congurations are given in reference
books (cf. Perry or Kern).
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Example: area comparison
Pumps
Suppose we wish to exchange heat between a hot stream, with
Thi = 200 C and Tho = 150 C, and a cold stream, with

Tci = 80 C and Tco = 120 C.
Assuming the same heat transfer coecient,
and the same amount of heat,
U , in both cases
q , to be exchanged, what is the
ratio of area required for co-current exchange to area required

for counter-current exchange?
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Introduction
Solution
co-current
Heat exchangers
Pumps
T1 = 200 C 80 C = 120 C
T2 = 150 C 120 C = 30 C
30 C 120 C
Tco-current =
65 C
30 C
log 120
C
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Introduction
Solution
co-current
Heat exchangers
T1 = 200 C 80 C = 120 C
T2 = 150 C 120 C = 30 C
30 C 120 C
Tco-current =
65 C
counter-current
T1 = 200 C 120 C = 80 C
Pumps
30 C
log 120
C
T2 = 150 C 80 C = 70 C
70 C 80 C
Tcounter-current =
75 C
C
log 70
80 C
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Introduction
Solution
co-current
Heat exchangers
T1 = 200 C 80 C = 120 C
T2 = 150 C 120 C = 30 C
30 C 120 C
Tco-current =
65 C
counter-current
T1 = 200 C 120 C = 80 C
Pumps
30 C
log 120
C
T2 = 150 C 80 C = 70 C
70 C 80 C
Tcounter-current =
75 C
C
log 70
80 C
q
U Tco-current
Aco-current
=
q
Acounter-current U T
counter-current
=
Tcounter-current
Tco-current
1.15
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Example: Cooling a hot process uid

in a counter-ow heat exchanger
A counter-ow double-pipe heat exchanger is used to cool a

hot process uid using water. The process uid ows at 18 kgs
and is cooled from 105 C to 45 C. The water ows
counter-currently to the process uid, entering at 25 C and
leaving at 50 C.
1
Assuming no heat losses, calculate the required ow-rate for

the cooling water. The specic heat for water is 4.2
that of the process uid is
kJ
3.4
kg K .
kJ
kg K
and
Neglecting the tube wall curvature, calculate the required area

for heat exchange. Under these conditions, the process uid
W
m2 K , the cooling
W
water side heat transfer coecient is 1200 2 . The tube wall
mK
W
thickness is 3 mm and the thermal conductivity is 220
mK .
side lm heat transfer coecient is 2500
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Solution: Diagram
Pumps
56 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Solution: 1. required water ow rate
q = Gf cpf (Tho Thi ) = 3672kW (heat from hot stream)

= Gw cpw (Tco Tci )
(energy balance)
Gw
= 34.97
kg
s
(water ow rate required)
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Solution: 2. heat exchanger area

q = UATLM
T2 T1
TLM =
= 34.6 K
x 1
+
(thermal resistance)
U hf k hw
W
U = 802 2
(overall htc)
mK
q
= 132.3m2
A=
U TLM
1
T2
log
T1
Pumps
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Introduction
Fouling
Heat exchangers
Pumps
The performance of a heat exchanger depends upon surfaces

being clean but deposits form over time.
The layer of deposits presents additional resistance to heat
transfer and must be accounted for by a fouling factor,
Rf
(cf.
Perry, Kern).
1
= Rconv,hot
uid
+ Rcond,wall +
Rf
+ Rconv,cold
uid
Deposits can occur by the precipitation of solid deposits (e.g.

calcium in a kettle), corrosion or chemical fouling due to
chemical reactions, and the growth of algae, biological fouling.
Can apply water treatment, coatings and chemical treatments.
Periodic cleaning of exchangers and the resulting down time
are additional penalties associated with fouling.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumping of liquid uids
Pumps
Pumps are the devices used to add energy to a uid in order

to maintain ow.
Fluids ow in the direction of decreasing pressure.
Pumps direct a uid from one vessel to another or through a
long pipeline.
The energy added to the uid compensates for the mechanical
energy losses due to friction and provides an increase in the
velocity, the pressure, or the height of the uid.
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Introduction
Valves
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Valves are used to control the ow rate:

On/O valves: gate (30% of all on/o valves) and ball
Throttling valves: globe (50%), needle and diaphragm
Check valves: allow ow only in one direction
Automatic valves
Relief valves (for safety): spring loaded, bursting disk.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumping devices for liquids
Pumps
Liquids used in the chemical industry dier considerably in

physical and chemical properties so a variety of pump types
exists.
Most pumps fall into one of two major classications:
Positive-displacement pumps
Centrifugal pumps
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Positive-displacement pumps
Pumps
Reciprocating pumps involve a back-and-forth motion of a

piston in a cylinder.
Rotary pumps depend upon a rotating motion.
The ow from these pumps is pulsating. The higher the speed
of the pump, the higher the ow rate delivered.
Deliver a controlled amount of liquid for each stroke or
revolution.
Used when nearly constant delivery rates are required.
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Introduction
Examples
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Reciprocating pumps:
Diaphragm pump
Piston pump
Rotary pumps:
Gear pump
Lobe pump
Peristaltic pump
Screw pump
For details on other types of pump refer to Coulson &

Richardson.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
The Piston pump
Pumps
In these pumps, the motion of a rotor is converted into a

back-and-forward motion of a piston.
The rate of liquid delivery is a function of the volume swept
out by the piston in the cylinder and the number of strokes
the piston make per unit time.
For each stroke of the piston, a xed volume of liquid is
discharged from the pump.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Piston pumps
Pumps
Piston pumps may be single-acting, with the liquid admitted

only to the portion of the cylinder in front of the piston.
When the piston moves towards the disk it creates a partial

vacuum in the chamber. This allows atmospheric pressure to
push the uid from below.
On the return half of the cycle the top check valve opens and
the bottom one closes. The water is forced up through the
pipe.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Double-acting piston pumps
Pumps
Piston pumps can also be double-acting, in which case the

feed is admitted to both sides of the piston.
As the piston moves downwards, it forces the uid out

through the bottom right valve and creates at the same time a
partial vacuum in the upper chamber, pushing the uid
through the top left valve.
When the piston is moving upwards it forces the uid out
through the top right valve, while creates at the same time a
partial vacuum in the lower chamber, pushing the uid in
through the bottom left valve.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Piston pump applications
Pumps
These pumps can deliver the highest pressure of any other

pump.
Piston reciprocating pumps have long been used in many
applications, including pumping of oil, feed water and mud.
However, their capacities are relatively small compared to
centrifugal pumps.
Not used with liquid containing abrasive material as it can
damage the machined surfaces of the cylinder and piston.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Diaphragm pump
Pumps
In one section a piston operates in a cylinder

in which an inert liquid is displaced.
The movement of the uid is transmitted by
means of the exible diaphragm.
They have been developed to handle corrosive
liquids or suspensions with abrasive solids.
They are used for example to move gasoline
from the gas tank to the carburetor.
They are not used for high pressure
applications.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Rotary pumps: the Gear pump
Pumps
Has been developed to deal with

viscous uids.
Two gears operate within a casing.
Small packages of uids are carried
between the teeth and the casing
from the low pressure inlet side to
the high pressure delivery side.
70 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
The 3 lobe pump
Pumps
Works on the same principle of the

gear pump but the gear teeth are
replaced by two or three lobes.
A small clearance between the
lobes can be maintained and wear
is reduced.
71 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
The Peristaltic pump
Pumps
Delivers ow precisely controlled by the

speed of a rotor.
An elastic tube is compressed in stages by
a rotor.
As the rollers rotate, they atten the tube
against the track at the points of contact.
These ats move the uid along the tube.
They are mainly used in labs.
They are particularly good in handling
biological uids, where all forms of
contacts must be avoided.
72 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
The screw pump
Pumps
One of the oldest pumps: its usage goes back 2000 years. It
consist of a helical screw. Suitable for very viscous uids (e.g.
polymers) and also for sewage uids. The uid is sheared in
the screw channel and so is raised to the delivery side.
73 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Figure: Example of a screw pump used in a waste water treatment

plant.
74 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Centrifugal pumps
Pumps that cause the pumped uid to
rotate
Pumps
are called
centrifugal pumps.
Centrifugal pumps are the most widely applied in the chemical
and petroleum industry.
They are applied for large capacity applications.
They pump liquids with very wide-ranging properties and
suspensions with high solids content.
They cannot handle highly viscous uids.
75 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
A Centrifugal pump has an impeller enclosed by a casing or

volute. The impeller consists of a series of curved vanes. The
greater the number of vanes, the greater is the control over
the direction of motion of the uid.
76 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
The uid is fed to the centre of the

rotating impeller and is thrown
from the impeller vanes into the
casing by centrifugal force.
As a result, the liquid acquires a
high kinetic energy. This velocity
energy is converted in pressure as
the uid leaves the impeller and
enters the casing.
77 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Turbine pump
Pumps
In the turbine pump, the liquid

ows from the impeller into a series
of xed vanes, called diusers.
These give more gradual change in
direction to the uid and more
ecient conversion of kinetic
energy into pressure energy.
78 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Summary of types
Pumps
79 / 104
Introduction
Pumps
Pump characteristics
Centrifugal
Head
Heat exchangers
High, single stage

up to 600 ft
Multistage
up to 6000 psi
Capacity Low (100 gal/min)
to very high
(200,000 gal/min)
Liquids Clear or dirty,
non viscous
Reciprocating
(piston)
Highest available
100,000 psi
Rotary
(gear or screw)
Intermediate
up to 600 psi
Intermediate
(500 gal/min)
Low (1 gal/min)
to intermediate
(500 gal/min)
High viscosity,
non abrasive
Clean
no solids
80 / 104
Introduction
Pump
Heat exchangers
Summary of characteristics
Pressure
delivered
Piston
very high
Diaphragm not high
Rotating
not high
Centrifugal not high
Flow
delivered
pulsating
pulsating
pulsating
continuous
Pumps
Capacity
Fluid
not high
not high
not high
very high
non-corrosive
corrosive
highly viscous
not viscous
81 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Operating characteristics of
centrifugal pumps
Pumps
Centrifugal pumps are the most widely applied in the chemical

and petroleum industry.
Centrifugal pumps operate at constant speed and the capacity
depends upon the total head,
H , the design and the suction
conditions.
Pumps usually achieve maximum eciency at one particular
ow rate.
Operating characteristics are described through use of
characteristic curves.
82 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Characteristic curves
Pumps
For a pump at a particular speed, the characteristic curves

show the inter-relation between:
Total head and capacity, the H Q curve.

Power input and pump capacity, the P Q curve.
Pump eciency and capacity, the Q curve.
The duty point shows the optimum conditions for operation.
This is the point where the head curve cuts the ordinate
through the point of maximum eciency.
83 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Characteristic curve graph
Pumps
For a pump having the characteristics shown above: maximum

eciency would occur at a capacity of 2500 gal/min and a
total head of 80ft.
84 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Variable speeds
Pumps
When a pump is capable of being operated at variable speeds,

then, at higher speed of rotation gives higher capacity and
requires more horsepower to supply the increased supply of
liquid.
85 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pump design
Pumps
The energy required for a pump will depend on

the height through which the uid raises,
the pressure required at the delivery point,
the length and diameter of the pipe,
the rate of ow, and
the physical properties of the uid, density and viscosity.
86 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
General scenario for pumping
Pumps
87 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Energy balance
Pumps
The work done on a uid by a pump is expressed as head, H

(m), and is given by the mechanical energy balance (per unit
mass):
p u2
H=
+
+ z + hfT
g
2g
P2 P1 u22 u12
+
+ (z2 z1 ) + hfT
(7)
=
g
2g
where hfT represents the total friction loss in the system and

is the sum of the losses in the whole pipe length and other
losses due to ttings:
hft = hf + htting loss
where hf is the frictional head loss.
88 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Frictional losses
Pumps
hf is expressed as a frictional pressure drop:

hf = 2cf
1 u2
dg
pf
g
where the Fanning friction factor, cf , is given as a function of

the Reynolds number, Re (eq. 3):
16
Laminar ow cf = Re
Turbulent ow cf = 0.079Re 0.25
Rough pipes use Moody diagram to estimate the value
89 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Fitting losses
Loss due to ttings, such as bends and valves, can generate

large-scale turbulence in which energy is dissipated as heat.
For turbulent ow, these losses are proportional to the square
of the uid velocity and can be expressed as the frictional loss
due to an
equivalent length of straight pipe, le ,
estimated
as a multiple of the pipe diameter:
le = nd
so that
htting
loss
= 2cf
le u 2
d g
90 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Total friction losses
Total friction loss is therefore equal to
l + le u 2
hfT = 2cf
d g
(8)
which in terms of pressure losses is

pfT = g hfT = 2cf
l + le 2
u
d
91 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Power requirements
Pumps
Thus, from eq. 7, the head, H , that must be supplied by the

pump is:
P2 P1 u22 u12
l + le u 2
H=
+
+ (z2 z1 ) + 2cf
g
2g
d g
The power required by the pump to deliver H is given by:
Power = Pp Q = H g Q
where Q is the volumetric owrate of the uid that the pump
moves and is known as the capacity of the pump.
92 / 104
Introduction
Example
Heat exchangers
Pumps
2.32 mh of water is pumped in a 35 mm internal diameter pipe

through a distance of 125 m in a horizontal direction and then
up through a vertical height of 12 m. The friction loss in the
90 square elbow may be taken as equivalent to 60 pipe
diameters. Also in the line there is a control valve fully open
and frictional losses may be taken equivalent to 200 pipe
diameters.
Calculate the total head hfT to be developed to overcome
the total frictional losses in the pipeline. You may assume that
for this pipe f = 0.079Re 0.25 . Assume the water to ow in
turbulent regime through the pipe. Density and viscosity of
water in the pipe are 1000 mkg3 and 0.65 mN
m2 s respectively.
3
93 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Solution: data collection
Quantity
Volumetric Flow rate
Density of water
Viscosity of water
Value
Q
2.32
1000
0.65
0.65 103
Internal pipe diameter
d
35
0.035
Horizontal pipe length
lh
125
Vertical pipe length
lv
12
90 square elbow friction loss

60d
Control valve friction loss
200d
Friction coecient
cf 0.079Re 0.25
Units
m3
h
kg
m3
mN s
m2
N
m2 s
mm
m
m
m
m
m
94 / 104
Introduction
Solution
Heat exchangers
Pumps
The total friction losses, eq. 8, in the pipeline for turbulent

ow regime is expressed as:
hfT =
2cf (l + le )u 2
gd
with l = lh + lv = 125m + 12m = 137m and le from the

denition of the equivalent pipe length:
le = 200d + 60d = 200x 0.035m + 60x 0.035m = 9.1m

The velocity of the water in the pipe is given by the volumetric
ow rate divided by the pipe cross-section area:
u=
=
d 2
2
1h
2.32 mh 3600
s
3
= 0.67
0.035m 2
2
m
s
95 / 104
Introduction
Solution
Heat exchangers
Pumps
The friction coecient depends on Re , the Reynolds number

(eq. 3):
0.035m 0.67 ms 1000 mkg3
Re =
= 36076
=
0.65 103 mN2 s

cf = 0.079Re 0.25 = 0.079 360760.25 = 0.0057
2cf (l + le )u 2
du
hfT =
=
gd
2 0.0057 (137 + 9.1)m (0.67 ms )2

= 2.17m
9.81 sm2 0.035m
pfT = hfT g = 2.17m 9.81
m
kg
1000
s2
m3
= 21287
N
m2
96 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Cavitation in centrifugal pumps
Pumps
Cavitation is the formation of cavities or bubbles in a pumped

uid when the pressure on the uid falls below the vapour
pressure of the liquid,
Pv
(or
p ).
When a centrifugal pump is operated at high capacity, low

pressure may develop at the impeller eye or vane tips and so
vapourisation may occur.
Cavitation leads to:
A reduction in pump capacity.

A reduction in the head of the pump.
A noise that can be heard when the pump is running.
Mechanical damage that can be seen on the pump impeller
and volute.
To avoid cavitation, the pressure at the pump inlet must
exceed the vapour pressure of the liquid.
97 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pump congurations
Pumps
Negative suction head
Positive suction head
Pump is placed above the

reservoir of uid to be pumped,
drawing uid up with suction:
Pump is placed below the

reservoir of uid to be pumped
and is fed by gravity action:
98 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Net positive suction head (NPSH)
Pumps
To avoid cavitation, the pressure at the pump inlet must

exceed the vapour pressure of the liquid. There are two cases:
NPSH is the amount by which the pressure at the suction
point of the pump must exceed the vapour pressure of the
liquid and is expressed as a head of the liquid to be pumped.
For any pump, the manufacturers specify the minimum value
of the NPSH required at the impeller eye to avoid cavitation.
99 / 104
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Typical conguration
Pumps
P1 , pressure at the tank

liquid surface.
h1 , height of the liquid

surface above the pump
centre-line at the suction
inlet.
u1 , liquid velocity on the

surface.
u2 , velocity at the pump

inlet.
hf , total piping friction loss

between (1) and (2).
100 / 10
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Available NPSH
Start with energy balance (per unit mass):
P1
g
u12
+
2g
P2 u22
+ h1 hf =
+
+ h2
(9)
g
2g
If the reference plane is taken at h2 , and the liquid velocity in
the reservoir, u1 , is negligible compared with u2 :
P1
g
+ h1 hf =
P2
g
u22
2g
(10)
The available NPSH is the dierence between the static head

and the head corresponding to the vapour pressure of the
liquid at the suction inlet.
NPSHA =
P2
g
u2
+ 2
2g
Pv
g
P1 Pv
g
+ h1 hf
(11)
101 / 10
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Required NPSH - I
From eq. 10, the total head at the suction inlet is:
P2
g
P1
g
+ h1 hf
u22
2g
(12)
Cavitation usually occurs at the impeller eye where the

pressure will be less than at the suction inlet by
P =
u32
2g
(13)
Where is a pressure drop coecient characteristic of pump

geometry and u3 is the uid velocity at the eye.
102 / 10
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Required NPSH II
Pumps
Cavitation is probable if the total head at the impeller eye (rhs

of eq. 12 minus eq. 13) is equal to or less than the vapour
pressure:
P1
g
+ h1 hf
Limiting case therefore is
P1 Pv
g
u22
2g
+ h1 hf =
u32
2g
u22
2g
Pv
g
u32
2g
where the right hand side is the NPSH required at the impeller
eye:
NPSHR =
u22
2g
u32
2g
103 / 10
Introduction
Heat exchangers
Avoiding cavitation
Pumps
In order to avoid cavitation, the NPSHA available has to be
greater than the NPSHR required at impeller eye:

NPSHA
> NPSHR
The value of the required NPSHR for the particular pump

being used may be obtained from the pump manufacturer.
If NPSHA is too low, then cavitation can be avoided by
increasing
h1 .
This is why pumping uids that are close to saturated

conditions require that the vessel upstream be elevated . . .
. . . or, more generally, that the pump be lowered.
104 / 10

Heat and Pipes

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Heat and Pipes

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Introduction

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Mechanisms of heat transfer

What is heat transfer?

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Coulson, J.M and Richardson J.F. Chemical Engineering Vol.

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Heat transfer is concerned with

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Mechanisms of heat transfer

How is heat transferred?

Heat may be transferred in three dierent ways:

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Conduction through a wall

Consider a wall of thickness x and surface area A that has a

The heat transfer, q (W ), through the wall is

where k (in mWK ) is the thermal conductivity of the material

Mechanisms of heat transfer

thermal conductors. These will transfer large amounts of heat

is called the heat transfer coecient.

The inverse of the heat transfer coecient,

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Composite wall example

Applying eq. 1 to each section of the

so overall thermal resistance is sum

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Heat transfer through convection

Example: heating a pot of water.

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Natural convection occurs when the motion of uid is due to

Forced convection is when the uid motion is produced by an

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Convective heat transfer

Heat transfer by convection, q , is

A (m2 ) is the characteristic area of contact.

K ) is the temperature dierence between the solid and

h ( mW2 K ) is the convective heat transfer coecient and is a

property of the system, not a property of the uid as is the

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Convective heat transfer coecient

The value of h depends on the surface geometry, the

Liquids transfer greater amounts of heat than gases, which are

Mechanisms of heat transfer

What aects convective heat

h is a function of the properties of the system and depends on:

uid regime, i.e. a characteristic velocity

cp , and thermal conductivity, k .

h is therefore a complex task and we rely on

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Prandtl and Nusselt numbers

The properties of the uids and the dierent forms of heat

Nusselt ratio between heat transfer through convection

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Reynolds and Grashof numbers

Other numbers describe uid ow properties:

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Coulson, J.M and Richardson J.F. Chemical Engineering Vol.

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat may be transferred in three dierent ways:

is called the heat transfer coecient.

The inverse of the heat transfer coecient,

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Natural convection occurs when the motion of uid is due to

Forced convection is when the uid motion is produced by an

Heat transfer and pipe ow

K ) is the temperature dierence between the solid and

h ( mW2 K ) is the convective heat transfer coecient and is a

property of the system, not a property of the uid as is the

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Convective heat transfer coecient

What aects convective heat

uid regime, i.e. a characteristic velocity

Heat transfer and pipe ow

The properties of the uids and the dierent forms of heat

Other numbers describe uid ow properties:

High values correspond to turbulent ow regime,

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Consider the ow of air over an innite at plate.

Tf is the air ow

Regardless of the type of convection, we analyse the ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Adjacent to the wall, a laminar sub-layer forms with no uid

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Overall heat transfer coecient

Given a at wall of uniform, homogeneous material having

with convective heat transfer coecients hh and hc , wall

The uid temperatures suciently far from the wall,

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Take the convection heat transfer coecients on the inner and

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

are the convective heat transfer coecients in the

outer and inner lm, and impact of the thickness of these

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Assuming thin lms on either side of the pipe, we can write

In practice, engineers often have to design equipment to eect