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Manual
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Manual
Steve Devereux
newcopyrt.indd 1
6/20/08 9:45:03 AM
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[ ]
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Introduction
List of Acronyms
Section 1: Well Design
xi
xiii
xv
xix
1
3
4
17
21
1.3.1.
1.3.2.
1.3.3.
1.3.4.
1.3.5.
1.3.6.
22
25
28
29
30
34
37
1.4.1.
1.4.2.
1.4.3.
1.4.4.
1.4.5.
38
41
42
43
51
1.4.6.
1.4.7.
1.4.8.
1.4.9.
1.4.10.
1.4.11.
1.4.12.
1.4.13.
54
57
60
63
65
71
71
73
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1.4.14.
1.4.15.
1.4.16.
1.4.17.
1.4.18.
1.4.19.
1.4.20.
1.4.21.
1.4.22.
1.4.23.
1.4.24.
107
2.1.1.
2.1.2.
2.1.3.
2.1.4.
2.1.5.
108
110
115
116
118
118
119
121
123
123
130
132
133
133
145
2.2.1.
2.2.2.
2.2.3.
2.2.4.
Shallow Gas
Drilling with a BOP Stack
High Pressure, High Temperature Wells (HPHT)
Well Control in High-Angle and
Horizontal Wells
2.2.5. References for Well ControlShallow Gas
2.3. Directional Planning
2.3.1.
2.3.2.
2.3.3.
2.3.4.
2.3.5.
81
84
85
86
87
87
90
91
96
98
98
145
151
153
155
156
157
157
163
173
177
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[Contents]
2.4.1.
2.4.2.
2.4.3.
2.4.4.
2.4.5
2.4.6.
2.4.7.
2.4.8.
2.5.1.
2.5.2.
2.5.3.
2.5.4.
2.5.5.
2.5.6.
2.5.7.
2.5.8.
2.5.9.
2.5.10.
2.5.11.
2.5.12.
2.5.13.
2.5.14.
181
181
183
187
190
192
194
200
201
201
203
204
205
206
206
210
226
232
233
240
240
244
246
248
251
253
253
254
257
2.7.1.
2.7.2.
2.7.3.
2.7.4.
2.7.5.
Slurry Properties
Chemical Washes and Spacers
Factors for Ensuring a Good Cement Job
Cementing Design for Casings and Liners
Cementing Design for Cement Plugs
and Squeezes
2.7.6. Special Purpose Cementing
2.7.7. References for Cementing Program Design
vii
258
263
264
267
274
278
280
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281
293
293
302
307
3.1.1.
3.1.2.
3.1.3.
3.1.4.
3.1.5.
3.1.6.
3.1.7.
3.1.8.
3.1.9.
3.1.10.
3.1.11.
281
284
290
311
313
Kick Prevention
Kick Detection and Response
Drilling Below Normal Kick Tolerance Levels
Well Killing in a High-Angle Well
General Considerations for BOP Equipment
Surface BOP Stack Configurations
Surface Stack Control System Specifications
Surface BOP Stack and Accumulator Testing
Well Control: Other Equipment Requirement
Suggested Rig Takeover Checklist
Minimum Mud Chemical Stock Levels
Held on Rig
313
315
319
320
323
328
327
328
333
334
334
337
337
345
347
3.3.1.
3.3.2.
3.3.3.
3.3.4.
3.3.5.
3.3.6.
3.3.7.
Stuck Pipe
Lost Circulation
Washout Detection Procedure
Backing Off
Fishing Operations
Using Cement to Stabilize the Wellbore
Making Connections to Minimize Wellbore
Instability and Losses
3.3.8. Preplanned Wipertripping
3.3.9. Baryte Plugs
3.3.10. Diesel Oil Bentonite Plugs (Gunk Plug)
viii
347
359
364
365
368
373
374
375
376
379
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[Contents]
3.4. Casing
3.4.1.
3.4.2.
3.4.3.
3.4.4.
381
Conductor Placement
Equipment Preparation for Casing
Job Preparation for Casing
Casing Running Procedures
3.5. Cementing
3.5.1.
3.5.2.
3.5.3.
3.5.4.
3.5.5.
3.5.6.
397
3.6. Drillbits
3.6.1.
3.6.2.
3.6.3.
3.6.4.
3.6.5.
3.6.6.
381
385
386
388
398
398
399
400
402
403
407
407
409
413
413
414
415
421
421
423
424
425
426
428
428
429
430
435
441
445
447
457
Glossary
459
Index
505
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[ ]
Preface
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3. I have not gone far into the deep theoretical aspects behind the
work. While it is valuable to intimately understand the theoretical
background, it is not strictly necessary for practical application
during your everyday work. I have included references where
applicable. Also, a few of the topics are covered to give some background and to show how they impact the well design and drilling
program, but are not in themselves meant to be an authoritative
text on the subject. For instance, completions are not usually
designed by drilling engineers, but the completion requirements
impact the whole well design because the completion dictates the
hole sizes. Therefore, the design needs to be understood, questions
need to be asked, and parts of it should be checked. Cementing is
a huge topic and a nonspecialist book like this cannot cover it comprehensively; reference can be made to one of the excellent specialist books on cementing (recommended in the relevant section).
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Acknowledgments
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Among my mentors I count and thank Ken Fraser. Ken was a Shell
toolpusher on one of my first rigs as a trainee in Holland, and I later
worked for him in Brunei as a driller. I learned a lot from him.
Another good friend and teacher is Frank Verlinden, who spent
more years in Brunei than any other Shell employee. Frank talked of
things forgotten in todays industry and knew from many years of experience how to handle any situation you could throw at him. Given a
glass of wine and a small prompt, he could recount endless stories,
which were fascinating as well as educational.
I hope my other friends and colleagues, too numerous to thank
individually, will forgive me for not compiling a huge list here.
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Introduction
The drilling industry is changing rapidly in the areas of technology, safety, environment, management, contractual relationships, training, etc. The driving forces are largely economic; there are probably few
giant fields left undiscovered (especially in mature areas) and therefore
the search moves to frontier areas and to exploiting smaller fields.
Increased government regulations also play a large part. All of these
factors increase the cost to discover and produce hydrocarbons. Add to
this the pressure of low oil prices, and we are expected to continually
reduce costs while improving drilling and production performance. We
have to become more efficient by improving our skills and by developing new technologies and ways of working.
Computers have also caused dramatic changes for us. The computing power now available means that, if properly used, computers can
help us to make better decisions. We can store, access, analyze, and
summarize huge volumes of data and make complex calculations easy,
even for the nonmathematically inclined. The downside is that some
engineers use their PCs as a senior partner to make decisions for them
rather than as a tool to help them make better-informed decisions themselves. This trend is increasing for reasons that I will come to shortly.
Early in the 1990s, operators and drilling contractors slowed down
or stopped their ongoing training programs. This was largely due to
low oil prices and high drilling costs. With less activity, many skilled
people left the industry. The accountants decided that funds spent on
training should be assigned elsewhere (perhaps on recruiting more
accountants?) and so the major sources of highly trained, well-rounded drilling people dried up. To continue operating, new contracting
schemes transferred responsibility from the operators to the contractors. This led to an exodus of people from the operators to the contractors and into the consulting market, depleting those skills within
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the operators much faster than by natural attrition and without replacing them, except by employing consultants. Some operators may end
up with no one to properly supervise the core business of drilling. This
will expose them to risks associated with major incidents such as
blowouts without being able to manage that risk. Even on a turnkey
well, the operator still has risks.
Alliancing contracts are becoming common, where a lead contractor is employed to subcontract and manage all the services needed to
drill a well, but the operator still stays closely involved. Effectively, the
lead contractor provides most of the resources of a drilling department,
plus areas of specialist expertise.
There are some positive benefits from these strategies. If a true
team spirit emerges where people work cooperatively together for
achieving the same goals, costs can possibly be cut on long-term
(development) projects. However, one guiding principle should be that
the operator retains the technical ability to plan and supervise the wells.
This means keeping competent drilling people in place.
There are at least three necessary factors for an alliance: commitment, communication, and competence. These take time to get in
place. An alliance will not swing smoothly into action from the start
therefore management also needs the commitment to see it through the
initial hiccups.
Another clear trend is that many people planning and supervising
wells do not have significant wellsite exposure. You can take the
smartest person there is, put them through a degree program, and send
them to all possible classroom courses. However, without the practical knowledgethe feel for drilling that comes from years on the rig
they are unlikely to become first class drilling people. They will tend
to use their PCs as a senior partner to make decisions for them rather
than as a tool to help them make better-informed decisions themselves, and they will be unduly influenced by the people around them.
The attention paid to safety, the environment, and quality control
has advanced immeasurably. Running an operation that is safe minimizes environmental impact and concentrates on all aspects of quality,
which is ultimately more cost effective. Even now this is still sometimes
a hard sell; many people pay lip service to these things but are not
committed to them. I remember years ago, working offshore Brunei as
a driller, being told to wait until after dark and then dump a reserve
tank containing about 50 bbls of oil-based mud into the sea. The line to
the pump was plugged, and we had to clean it out. We ran a hose in and
used a small pump over several hours to recover this mud back into the
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[Introduction]
active system so that none was lost overboard. I was chewed out for
this initiative the following morning because I did not follow instructions, even though we had saved valuable mud and not polluted the
South China Sea. This lip-service attitude still exists in some places.
There are two keys to drilling a cost-effective well and your wellplanning efforts should be directed at these two keys. The first key is
avoiding problems, which is chiefly related to the mud properties and to
good drilling practices (but not by being overly cautious!). Do the job
properly, avoid unplanned short cuts that often lead to unnecessary
problems, and pay that extra bit to get the most suitable mud system.
The second key is maximizing progress, which is more related to optimum bit/BHA selection, optimum drilling parameters, good forward
planning, and good drilling practices.
The success of a well is determined first by the effort devoted to
producing the best possible well plan, and second by the competence
of the supervision while drilling, bearing in mind the two keys. This
book is about those thingseffective well planning and managing/
supervising the drilling operation. I hope that this book will be a useful tool to drill safer, fit for purpose, cost-effective wells, and I look forward to your feedback on how well I have achieved this.
Steve Devereux, CEng, MIMinE, MIMgt
http://www.drillers.com
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List of
Acronyms
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A
Ac
ADEPT
AFE
AIT
AMS
AS
ASI
ASP
assy
AV
bar
bbl(s)
bent
BHA
BHF
BOP
BP
bpm
BSW
BTC
btm
Butt
Ca
CBT
CBU
CCM
CDN
CDR
CEC
CERT
CET
cent
chk
circ
Cl
CNL
co
COOH
cp
cmt
Area
Constant of proportionality
Adaptive Electromagnetic Propagation
Authority for Expenditure
Array Induction Imager Tool
Auxiliary Measurements Service
Array Sonic
Array Seismic Imager
Anticipated Surface Pressure
Assembly
Annular Velocity
Unit of barometric pressure.
Barrel(s)
Bentonite
Bottom hole assembly
Braden head flange
Blowout preventer
Bridge plug
Barrels per minute
Bottom sediment and water
Buttress threaded and coupled
Bottom
Buttress (threads)
Calcium
Cement Bond Tool
Circulate bottoms up
Circulate & condition mud
Compensated Density Neutron Tool
Compensated Dual Resistivity Tool
Cation Exchange Capacity
Correlated Electromagnetic Retrieval Tool
Cement Evaluation Tool
Centralizer
Choke
Circulate, circulation
Chloride
Compensated Neutron Log
Change out
Chain out of hole
Centipoise
Cement
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[List
CS
CST
csg
Dexp
dia
DC
DHT
DIL
DLL
DLS
DP
DPT
DSI
DST
dwks
EU
F or Fin
FC
FCTA
FG
FL
FMI
FMS
fph
FPIT
fpm
fps
FS
FTP
GIH
GLT
GOR
GPM
GS
GST
Hgr
hd
HLDT
HP
HHP
HTHP
of Acronyms]
Casing shoe
Chronological Sample Taker
Casing
D exponent
Diameter
Drill collar
Dry hole tree
Dual Induction Resistivity Log
Dual Laterolog tool
Dog leg severity
Drill pipe
Deep Propagation Tool
Dipole Shear Sonic Imager tool
Drill stem test
Drawworks
External upset
Finish
Float collar
First crystal to appear
Fracture gradient
Flow line or fluid level
Formation Micro Imager tool
Formation MicroScanner tool
Feet per hour
Free Point Indicator Tool
Feet per minute
Feet per second
Float shoe
Flowing tubing pressure
Go in hole
Geochemical Logging Tool
Gas/oil ratio
Gallons per minute
Guide shoe
Gamma Ray Spectrometry Tool
Hanger
Head
Hostile Environment Litho Density Tool
Horsepower, high pressure
Hydraulic horsepower
High temperature and high pressure
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HW
IBOP
ID
IEU
IOEM
ISIP
IU
JB
jt
KB
KOP
LCM
LCTD
LD
LDL
Lig
LIH
LP
LTC
LWD
MD
MDT
ML
MSCT
mu
MUT
mw
ND
NGS
NML
NPLT
NU
NV
OBDT
OBM
OD
OS
P&A
PAC
PBR
PBTD
Heavyweight
Inside blowout preventer
Inside diameter
Internal-external upset
Invert oil emulsion mud
Initial shut-in pressure
Internal upset
Junk basket
Joint
Kelly bushing
Kickoff point
Lost circulation material
Last crystal to dissolve
Lay down
Litho Density Log
Lignosulphonate
Left in hole
Low pressure
Long thread and coupling
Logging while drilling
Measured depth
Modular Formation Dynamics Tester
Mudline
Mechanical Sidewall Coring Tool
Makeup
Make up torque
Mud weight
Nipple down
Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry Log
Nuclear Magnetism Log
Nuclear Porosity Lithology Tool
Nipple up
Nozzle velocity
Oil Base Dipmeter Tool
Oil based mud
Outside diameter
Overshot
Plug and abandon
Poly anionic cellulose
Polished bore receptacle
Plug back total depth
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[List
Pe
Pf
PHPA
PI-SFL
pkr
PM
POB
POOH
ppg
PPM
psi
psia
psig
PTD
PU
PV
Rt
RAB
RFT
RIH
RKB
RM
RST
RU/RD
SFJ
SHRDT
SITP
sk/sx
SLM
SO
sow
SP
SPM
sssv
sscsv
St
TA
TCT
TD
TDT
TFNB
of Acronyms]
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TIH
TOF
TP
TTBP
TVD
USI
VBR
VSP
vis
w/o
wo
WL
WOB
WOC
WOE
WOO
WOW
wt
YP
Trip in hole
Top of fish
Toolpusher
Through tubing bridge plug
True vertical depth
Ultrasonic Imager
Variable bore rams
Vertical seismic profile
Viscosity
Without
Workover
Wireline, water loss
Weight on bit
Wait on cement
Wait on equipment
Wait on orders
Wait on weather
Weight
Yield point
xxiv
[Section 1:]
Well Design
This section covers topics related to
analyzing offset data and applying it
with other relevant information to produce a well design and a drilling program. The major subjects that need to
be covered for planning the well are
described in some detail. References are
made to other sources for users who
may need higher levels of detail.
[]
1.1
Well proposal
Offset data
Area experience
Area reference data
Well Design Meeting
Assemble team:
Discuss all aspects of the
design
Agree on who does what
3
[ 1.1.1]
Well Design
Circulate the Program for Comment
Pre-spud Meeting
Onshore briefing
Distribute the program
Offshore briefing
Distribute the program to
each person in supervisory
position (drillers, geologists, T/P, mud loggers, etc.)
The success or failure of a well, from a drilling viewpoint, is heavily dependent on the quality of well planning prior to spud. The quality of the well planning in turn is heavily dependent on the quality and
completeness of the data used in planning. The successful drilling
engineer is a natural detective, snooping around for every snippet of
useful data to analyze.
The starting point in your data analysis trail is the well proposal.
Usually the need for drilling a well starts as a request from the exploration or production department. They will put together a package of
information for drilling that will define what the well should achieve
and where it should be.
Well proposal checklist. The proposal should contain the following elements as relevant to the particular well:
1. Well objectives (exploration, appraisal, development, or
workover)
2. Envisaged timescale (earliest/latest spud date desired)
4
[1.1.2 ]
[ 1.1.2]
Well Design
First, review the proposal and ensure that all necessary elements
are present as per the above checklist. Then try to identify any surface
or subsurface hazards arising out of the proposal and discuss these
with the sponsoring department to see if their proposal can be modified to eliminate or reduce the hazards. Review each element of the
proposal in detail. Is there any clarification required? Look in particular at the directional targets; these should be as large as possible and
ideally will indicate what defines the target boundaries (faults, proximity to other wells, etc.). If hard target boundaries are given then
you know that if the well heads outside of that target, you may have to
sidetrack to get back into the target. This also gives you the largest possible target so you can later design your well to achieve the target at the
lowest cost. This becomes more important if multiple targets or intermediate constraints on the wellpath are given. Often what happens is
that the target is a circle of stated radius around a defined location and
no indication is given as to where you can stray out of, which direction
is most critical, etc.
Explorationists rarely appreciate the effect on well cost that an
unnecessarily tight target can give. They know that if necessary you
can drill very accurately to a target and therefore that is what they spec6
[1.1.2 ]
ify. In reality, if you are given the maximum area to go for, you may aim
not at the center but at a place that gives you the most leeway for directional performance that does not go quite as planned.
For an offshore well (except for a platform), a seabed survey is
required to check for bathymetry, seabed obstructions, seabed composition, likely leg penetration (if applicable), and shallow gas indications. Generally, this would cover a 2 km x 2 km square, centered
on the proposed well location. Local currents should be checked (historical data may be available in mature areas) both at surface and at
seabed level. Surface currents will affect rig positioning and marine
operations; seabed currents may cause scour. Apart from the seabed
survey, shallow seismic may be required to spot shallow gas anomalies and estimate leg penetration. In an area of soft seabed, the
drilling contractor may require a soil boring analysis to ensure that
the rig can be jacked up with minimal risk of punching through a
hard crust during preloading.
Sources of offset data. Now that the location and target depths/formations are known, you can look for relevant offset wells. Except for a
rank wildcat well, quite a lot could be available from company sources.
This includes final well reports (which, if written properly, will be your
best source of information), daily drilling reports, etc. If people who
worked on the well are still with the company, make a note of it so you
can contact them later if queries arise.
Other data on offset wells may be available from sources outside
the company. For instance, if the mud records are missing or incomplete, ask the mud service company which was on the well if they still
have information such as daily reports from that well. Bit records are
often available from bit vendors. Wireline logs are usually archived for
at least ten years prior to disposal by the logging contractor. IADC and
geolograph reports can be more useful than daily drilling telexes
because they will often hold more detailed information and are usually more accurate than the daily report telex to the drilling office. The
drilling contractor may still have these somewhere.
Other outside data may include maps showing structures, surface
features (for planning access to the site, locating water sources, and
avoiding sensitive areas), and offset wells. In addition, government
records are an important source of information. In many if not most
areas worldwide, regulations demand that well information be filed
7
[ 1.1.2]
Well Design
Shale streaks
to 18,000
Compressive
strength
LSt, Sh interbeds
Lst: RPM sensitive
Sh: WOB sensitive
Guitar
Formation
Details
ATM05, 20-13-13
Locked BHA
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
\/
Bit pulled at 1531
1010
Started drilling at
7m/hr
RPM 100150
Tight hole
on conns
WOB 3055
Parameters,
Comments
1084
Depth
BRT
Well 2
ATM05, 18-13-13
Locked BHA
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
-| |||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
\/
Bit pulled 1843, 759
@ 11.3
1/1/BT/M/F/I/ID/PR,
PI 29.0
----------
Bitrun Data
Checktrip @ 1353
no drags
720 m/hr
Parameters,
Comments
Locked BHA
||
||
---------ATM22GD, 20-13-13
Bitrun Data
Depth
BRT
Well 1
[1.1.2 ]
10
Compressive strength
69000 psi with
shale streaks to
15,000 psi
(244)
1902
---------MF27D, 20-15-15
\/
Bit pulled 2111; 52
@ 4.1
3/2/CT/H/E/I/NO/TQ,
PI 2.7
----------
0/0/NO/A/E/I/NO/
TW, PI 8.8
@ 7.6
\/
Bit pulled 2059; 95
1870
Locked BHA
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
RPM 100150
Crooked hole?
Existing crack in
DC? No torque
indication seen.
WOB 1050 (TQ)
RPM 110140
WOB 3055
RPM 100150
ROP increased to 12
ATM11HG, 18-13-13
WOB 3060
10 m/hr
10 m/hr average
Average parameters:
WOB/RPM 30
47/110130
GPM/PSI 600/2100
Mud 0.49 psi/ft
12 m/hr
7 m/hr
Started drilling at
7 m/hr
[ 1.1.2]
Plectrum
(892)
||
||
||
||
\/
Well Design
Comments: general,
problems casing and
cementing, etc.
2172
(26)
C strth 7500
12,000 psi
Lst w/Sst streaks
Bridge
2146
Gstring
SS84FD, 18/16/16
Locked BHA
||
||
||
\/
Bit pulled 2253; 142
@ 4.5
3/3/CT/H/E/I/BT/TQ,
PI 8.1
MF27DL, 20-15-15
2131
2107
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
\/
7.5 m/hr
Stab twistoff (ran with
this bit only)
4.5 m/hr
4.5 m/hr
11
[1.1.2 ]
[ 1.1.2]
Well Design
What were the contributing factors that can be seen from the
data?
What other factors may have been relevant but were not noted
in the records?
How can this problem be eliminated, or at least reduced?
What actions can be taken if the problem is seen on the next
well to mitigate the effects of the problem?
[1.1.2 ]
13
[ 1.1.2]
Well Design
ties. Logging will show large washouts (off-scale in places), but the
benefits in saved time with avoided losses more than compensates.
If losses occur in spite of good mud control, try reducing the circulation rate. You may find that a small reduction is all that is needed
to cure the losses. After an hour or two of drilling ahead, it may be
possible to slowly bring the circulation back to full rate. If total losses occur, first measure how much water is needed to fill the annulus.
If the hole is static and full with water on top, slowly kick in the
pumps and try to attain a circulation rate that will at least lift cuttings
up the hole to the loss zone and cool the bit with very low weight on
bit/revolutions per minute (WOB/RPM). Circulation of 250 gallons
per minute (GPM) will give 50 feet per minute annular velocity (FPM
AV) around 5 in drillpipe in 121/4 in hole; this should be used as the
minimum. Drill ahead at reduced parameters and monitor drags and
torques carefully for signs of drilled solids causing problems (potential stuck pipe). The losses are likely to cure themselves as generated
cuttings act as lost circulation material (LCM) to plug the loss zone.
Note that in past wells, LCM and cement have both been pumped, lost
lots of time, and did not work.
The shale interbeds need a fair amount of inhibition and by experience it has been determined that if KCl is maintained at 40-42 ppb
and shaledrill polymer at 1.0-1.5 ppb, there are no shale hydration
problems. Keep a close eye on the mud properties and have the mud
man run several tests throughout the day. The drilling engineer can be
delegated the specific task of keeping an eye on this and personally
supervising the tests to ensure that the tests are done properly and
accurate results are given. There have been cases of mud men giving
false results after a test to make it look as if the mud is in good shape
when in fact it needs treatment.
In order to get the best drilling performance, the driller has to have
the freedom to adjust the parameters for best ROP. The formation is
quite streaky and changes constantly. The limestone is more sensitive
to high RPM/lower WOB and the shales are better drilled with maximum WOB/lower RPM. If the driller is given a range of parameters to
work within and is constantly experimenting for best ROP, the overall
bit run will be far better.
14
[1.1.2 ]
15
[]
1.2
[ 1.2 ]
Well Design
Identify all potential hazards (surface and subsurface) and potential drilling problem areas. For each potential hazard or problem
gather as much information as possible, establish the root causes of
the problem, and determine how they can be addressed. Ensure
that the well design takes account of them to minimize impact and
allow safe recovery. At this stage the outline casing points and mud
performance requirements may start to become clear.
Identify completion design or drill stem test (DST) requirements,
including fluids, necessary sand control measures, or other downhole equipment (e.g., packers). This should be done before the casing design since it may have an impact on the casing.
Choose casing points that allow kick tolerances to be maintained,
minimize potential downhole hazards, and minimize potential
drilling problems. Identify casing properties (outside diameter,
weight, grade, connections, etc.) for each casing string, taking into
account the directional plan. This is an iterative process because
the directional plan may depend on the casing design and vice
versa. If the rig is known at this stage, ensure that the conductor
and casings can all be handled (rotary table inside diameter, derrick load, handling equipment).
Specify the cementing requirements. Tops of cement slurries; any
particular requirements (e.g., high compressive strength for perforating).
Define the wellhead and Xmas tree requirements. If the well has to
be suspended this might mean a mudline suspension or subsea
wellhead system offshore.
Check all items on the proposal and ensure that the well is
designed to meet them; obtain dispensations or amendments if
necessary from the sponsoring department.
Issue the well design document for approval.
Estimate times and costs to prepare an authorization for expenditure (AFE) and time/depth curve. (Note: a more accurate estimate
can be made after finishing the drilling program but timescales
usually dictate that an AFE is done sooner.)
Identify long lead time items and obtain approval to place orders in
good time.
18
[ 1.2 ]
19
[]
1.3
[ 1.3.1]
Well Design
The completion will affect the entire well design, especially the
casing design. The completion proposed must be considered for all
stages of the wells lifecycle: running the completion, pressure testing,
production, stimulation, workover, and abandonment.
Refer to the requirements of the well proposal in regard to what we
need to know about the completion.
Preparation for the completion. There may be work required after
the production casing or liner are cemented and before the completion
is run. This work may just be a bit and scraper run or it may be necessary to install packers, perforate, and gravel pack, etc.
The following preparations may affect the production casing
and/or liner string, including the cement:
[1.3.1 ]
Permanent packers set in the well will work over a range of casing
sizes and weights. The correct packer must therefore be used. If the
packer is only available to fit a certain casings inside diameter (ID),
it may affect the choice of casing. Where heavier wall casing
(smaller ID) is run higher up, the packer will have to clear through
the smaller ID when run and there must be sufficient clearance.
Special drift casing could also be used.
If the completion is to sting into the liner polished bore receptacle
(PBR) then the liner must incorporate a PBR and generally will
require a polishing mill to be run before the completion. This could
be combined with a bit and scraper run.
It is essential that the liner lap seals. Liner hangers can incorporate
integral packers, which are set after cementing; this may save time
compared to running a tieback packer and can isolate the formation from well pressures while the cement is still fluid (e.g., when
reversing out excess cement).
Other preparatory work that may affect the well design apart from
the casings includes:
Completion fluid characteristics may be dictated by the type of perforations, reservoir physical characteristics, and reservoir fluids
chemistry.
Tubing accessories outside diameters (ODs) (such as SSSV nipples, side pocket mandrels, packers, etc.) may dictate the possible
range of casing IDs. In some cases a tapered casing string is
required; for instance if a 7 in completion is run in 95/8 in casing,
the SSSV nipple may be too large for the 95/8 in casing ID. It may
be possible to run 103/4 in casing higher up, swaged down to 95/8
in below the SSSV depth. Of course this introduces further complications for running and cementing.
If a dual completion is run, the sizes of tubings, collars, and accessories must be carefully checked to ensure that sufficient clearance
exists inside the production casings. Remember that the strings
23
[ 1.3.1]
Well Design
[1.3.2 ]
25
[ 1.3.2]
Well Design
PBR Monobore
Completion
Openhole Prepacked
Screen Completion
Cemented
Completion
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
[1.3.2 ]
[ 1.3.3]
Well Design
[1.3.4 ]
Just above the dual packer, the long string side will have a telescopic joint (TJ). This is to allow the strings to be equalized before setting the slips, and because joint lengths vary slightly, if there was no TJ
then much effort would have to be made to pick up joints in matching
pair lengths. Sometimes the TJ may become fully opened or fully
closed and a pup joint has to be placed in one of the strings to put the
TJ around 50% open.
Another problem is with the placement of accessories. Side pocket mandrels can be a particular headache. Since they are not round
but rather elliptical in cross section, you have to be careful not to
place nipples where they could move opposite the side pocket mandrel during running (i.e., due to movement of the telescopic joint). It
is possible that the side pocket mandrel, if the opposite string is
aligned with its widest section, will crush nipples, collars, or sometimes even the tubing itself, depending on the clearance inside the
production casing.
If you are planning a well that would benefit from a dual completion, it would be worthwhile to find somebody who has operational
experience of running dual completions to aid in well design.
[ 1.3.5]
Well Design
1.3.5. Brines
30
[1.3.5 ]
[ 1.3.5]
Well Design
Temp (F)
60
93
127
161
194
228
262
295
329
365
Pressure (psi)
0
1,365
2,723
4,074
5,416
6,751
8,078
9,397
10,708
12,083
Density (ppg)
13.19
13.13
13.05
12.98
12.91
12.83
12.75
12.68
12.60
12.50
This report indicates that the average density in the hole is 12.85
ppg at TD.
Brine crystallization point and eutectic point. The crystallization
point of brine is the temperature at which salt crystals begin to fall out
of solution and thus reduce the density of the brine. The temperatures
at which the brine will be transported and stored should exceed the
crystallization point by at least 10F (6C). Crystallization can also
plug lines and damage pumps.
There are three temperatures relative to crystallization occurrence:
first crystal to appear (FCTA), true crystallization temperature (TCT),
and last crystal to dissolve (LCTD).
Adjusting the density of brine using dry salts affects the crystallization point. With single-salt solutions, adding more of the same salt
initially lowers the crystallization point temperature to the eutectic
point. This is the lowest temperature of the crystallization point of a
solution. For example, the lowest crystallization point obtainable for
32
[1.3.5 ]
calcium chloride brine is when the density reaches 10.8 ppg. Further
addition of dry calcium chloride to a 10.8 ppg brine solution raises the
crystallization point, even though the density continues to increase.
For two-salt brines with a crystallization point of 30F (-1C), the
addition of dry salt raises the crystallization point temperature. (See
Fig. 1-5)
Brine additives. A solids-enhanced fluid is necessary for completion or workover operations when the use of clear brine will result in
the loss of large fluid volumes to the formation. Sized calcium carbonate is often used because it is completely acid soluble.
Treating the finished brine with corrosion inhibitor, oxygen scavenger, and bactericide is recommended. Depending on the well conditions, other treatments such as a scale inhibitor or hydrogen sulfide
scavenger may be required.
Since oxygen scavenger will be treated out by oxygen from the
atmosphere, it should be added to the brine just before pumping on the
final circulation. Ideally additions should be made using an injection
pump directly into the suction line of the displacement pumps.
33
[ 1.3.6]
Well Design
While the drilling department does not usually design the precompletion and completion (because this is a specialist task as can be
seen from the factors mentioned in the previous section), it is important to check the design and make sure that there are no practical problems with it. Some specific points to check include:
Running
Pressure testing
[1.3.6 ]
Squeezing cement
Abandonment/fishing
Completion tubing should be checked under the different operating conditions for possible buckling. If an anchor seal assembly or
a tubing run packer is used, refer to Section 1.4.14, Calculating
for Buckling (Nb) to calculate whether the tubing will buckle just
above the packer. Include in the axial force calculations any
planned setdown weight that will be left on the seal assembly.
Force = P .7854 d 2
[ 1.3.6]
Well Design
36
[ ]
1.4
Casing Design
These two documents should be made available to anyone working on designs for casings and tubulars:
Ensure that the current issue of each is used. The following sections do not attempt to reproduce wholesale the contents of these
documents; rather references will be made and illustrations given
as appropriate.
Also, the following Bulletin may be referred to for the formulae
used by API for calculating the properties outlined in Bulletin 5C2.
However, in most cases the formulae are not needed because the tables
in 5C2 are comprehensive.
[ 1.4.1]
Well Design
There are two different jobs that casing must be designed for. The
first is to allow you to safely drill the well and resist any forces or conditions that are imposed on it during drilling, without sustaining significant damage. The second is to act throughout the life of the well to
meet the well objectives without requiring a workover. The design criteria for each string of casing are different during drilling and during the
remainder of the life of the well. It is your job to design the most economical casing that is fit for purpose for the full design life of the well.
Computer programs make detailed casing designs routinely possible, including triaxial analyses. This can give lower casing costs. While
it is recommended to use a recognized design program, it is important
to check the results with some hand calculations to confirm that the
results are in the right ballpark. Computer programs often have bugs
and a slip in data entry can also give invalid results.
It is useful first to briefly define the terms used in this manual and
to summarize the drilling and production purposes of each string of
casing. Some basic mechanical properties and formulae are discussed,
then each element of the design is considered and the calculations covered. Tables summarizing the suggested criteria for each casing for
drilling and production are given.
Stove pipe. The stove pipe is used in onshore drilling to protect the
surface soil from erosion and to allow fluid returns while drilling for
the conductor. It is usually set very shallow during location preparation, a couple of meters below the cellar floor, and no diverter or
blowout preventer (BOP) is nippled up on it. It does not support subsequent casing or wellhead loads and generally serves no purpose once
the conductor is in place. The only design criterion is that it is big
enough to allow the conductor to be run inside it.
Conductor pipe. On a land rig or bottom-supported offshore rig,
the conductor may be drilled and cemented in place (hard seabed) or
driven to refusal with a hammer. The setting depth has to be sufficient
to withstand the extra hydrostatic pressure imposed at the bottom by
bringing returns up to the flowline. The conductor then has a diverter
nippled up to it for drilling the next hole section for surface casing.
On a floating rig, the conductor may be drilled and cemented in
place or jetted into a soft seabed. Returns to the rig are not usually
established and the next hole section (for surface casing) is therefore
drilled with returns to the seabed. If the seabed is soft enough to jet
38
Casing Design
[1.4.1 ]
the conductor in, it is not likely to support the extra hydrostatic pressure imposed by closing the circulation system. No diverter is attached;
if shallow gas is encountered the rig will drop the drillstring and move
off location.
If cemented, the conductor is always cemented to the surface or to
the mudline. Sometimes losses may occur during cementing, and if this
causes the cement to drop below the surface, a top-up job is needed
where tubing is run outside the conductor from the surface and cement
is pumped into the annulus once the primary cement has set. This is
only possible where the annulus outside the conductor is accessible.
The conductor will have to resist the compressive loads imposed by
subsequent casing strings, completion strings, wellhead, and BOP
weights. Buckling may be a consideration if the conductor extends a
significant height above the soil and is not supported. On a bottom-supported offshore facility it will also be subjected to waves and currents as
well as severe corrosion conditions in the splash zone. If driven it must
handle the driving loads. It may have to resist collapse pressures if losses are encountered or if a diverted gas kick evacuates the conductor.
Surface casing. This is normally the first pipe that can take a
blowout preventer on top. The shoe must be set deep enough so that the
formation fracture pressure is high enough for the well to be closed in
on a kick while drilling for the next casing string. Any gas encountered
before a BOP can be nippled up is termed shallow gas.
As surface casing in some development areas is set quite deep
(sometimes deeper than 3000 ft), shallow gas can be encountered fairly deep. It is not correct to refer to gas as shallow gas if it occurs after a
BOP is nippled up on surface casing.
During the well life, surface casing may be subject to burst pressure
from well kicks, bad cement jobs (fluids migrating up outside subsequent casings), or to collapse pressure if the fluid level inside drops due
to losses or if bad cement jobs allow migration of gas outside the casing.
Surface casing is normally cemented to the surface or to the mudline.
Intermediate casing. Intermediate casing is run in deeper wells
where kick tolerances or troublesome formations make it unsafe or undesirable to drill from surface casing all the way to the production casing
setting depth in one hole section. Therefore, its primary drilling purpose
is to resist the forces imposed by kicks, losses, and mobile formations.
The top of cement may be planned below the previous casing shoe.
This gives you the option to cut and pull casing and sidetrack out without losing a hole size, as long as the wellbore remains stable enough for
39
[ 1.4.1]
Well Design
you to pull out the casing once it is cut. However, in some areas, government regulations may force you to cement off all exposed formation when abandoning the well (even if impermeable). If this is the
case then it may incur substantial extra cost on abandonment to get
cement in place and this may prevent the option to sidetrack under the
previous shoe.
On deeper vertical wells, buckling in intermediate casing may be a
consideration. Further, during production, intermediate casings may
be subjected to burst or collapse pressures as stated for surface casing.
Several intermediate casings may be required in a deep well.
Production casing. Production casing may be run at the total depth
of the well or it may be set above the reservoir prior to drilling to TD
without setting another full casing string. In the latter case, liner(s)
may be run or the well produced through an uncased hole or through
a sand control screen.
The completion tubing is run inside the production casing. If the
completion tubing were to leak, the production casing would be subjected to extra internal pressure. During its design lifetime this casing
may need to resist high burst pressures from leaking completions,
injection of gaslift gas or other fluids through valves in the completion
string, frac job support pressure, etc. There may be significant effects
from temperatures, wear, corrosion, and reactions to produced materials such as H2S or mobile formations (massive salts).
If it is set across the reservoir, the production casing must withstand collapse loads due to drawdown during production. On deeper
vertical wells, buckling in production casing may be a consideration.
Drilling liner. A drilling liner is run inside production casing but
is set above the reservoir. This is to permit deeper drilling without the
expense of running another full casing string. It forms part of the production pressure vessel as it could be subjected to all the loads (previously discussed in Production casing of this section), but not the
collapse loads due to production drawdown as detailed below. It might
also be set above the reservoir for a barefoot, slotted liner, or prepacked
screen completion.
Production liner. This is set inside the production casing or inside
the drilling liner if one has been run. It is set across the reservoir zones
to provide zonal isolation and, if necessary, may incorporate sand control measures such as internal or external gravel packs. Apart from
loads (previously discussed in Production casing of this section), the
production liner will have to resist collapse loads due to the pressure
40
Casing Design
[1.4.2 ]
[ 1.4.3]
Well Design
tor/team leader), exploration or production (operator), and key contractors (i.e., rig, drilling fluids, mud and wireline logging, logging
while drilling (LWD), coring, directional, completion, and testing as
relevant). It would be worth considering whether an outside consultant
can be used who can import experience onto the team for the first well
or two. A good consultant should be able to improve the plan, reduce
the cost, and ensure that all necessary data is captured from the well to
improve future slimhole planning. For instance, expert advice on wellbore stability, well control in slim high pressure/high temperature
(HPHT) horizontal situations as relevant, or drilling hydraulics may
help specific areas of the program. The team leader has to have the full
authority to manage the project and the responsibility to create the best
possible well design and drilling program.
Data capture is essential to make the learning curve as short as possible. A lot of data goes unreported or gets lost or ignored at evaluation
time. As requirements are specified from each area of expertise, ensure
that the data capture requirements are also addressed.
1.4.3. Hole and Casing Sizes: Selection
The first decision required is what should be the final hole size at
TD? This has to be decided first because casing sizes, kick tolerance
calculations for proposed setting depths, and directional work decisions
all depend on hole sizes.
The following considerations will apply when choosing the
planned final hole size, in order of importance:
1. The size of the desired production or test tubing (as defined in the
well proposal).
2. Whether a monobore or a conventional completion design is
anticipated.
3. Whether a contingency hole size is required (exploration well or
other reason; should be justified based on the risk of having to run
an unplanned casing string).
4. The requirements for gathering information from the well (e.g., logging, coring, DST tools) and any restrictions these place on the
minimum hole size.
5. Possibly the rig available and whether equipment, crew capability,
or other considerations apply. For instance in true slim holes, well
control considerations will dictate the need for accurate kick detection and capable crews.
42
Casing Design
[1.4.4 ]
Having defined the hole size at TD, once the casing points are
defined then the sequence of hole and casing sizes can be seen. The
actual sizes chosen may depend on available casing stocks, standard
company sizes, rig equipment, or other factors.
1.4.4. Pore Pressures and Fracture Gradients
Knowledge of how the pore pressures and fracture gradients are likely to change with depth is fundamental to a safe casing design. Discussed
here are ways of establishing the likely trends at the casing design stage.
If the pores in all formations from the depth of interest to the surface were hydraulically connected, the pore pressure of the fluids within the formations would be determined by the hydrostatic gradients of
those fluids. This would be termed normally pressured. In the
absence of more accurate data, a generally accepted average gradient of
formation fluid is 0.465 psi/ft; fresh water is 0.433 psi/ft.
The overburden stress (that is, the stress caused by the weight of all
the materials above a depth of interest) is supported partially by the pore
pressure and the rest by grain-to-grain contact within the formations.
The overburden stress divided by the depth will give the overburden gradient. In areas of low tectonic activity, the overburden stress is
generally accepted to be at around 1 psi/ft. In tectonically active areas it
may be as low as 0.8 psi/ft.
Conditions may exist that give pressures that are higher than normal (termed abnormally pressured) or may be lower than normal
(termed subnormally pressured) when compared to formation fluid
hydrostatic. In predicting where abnormal pressures may occur, two
conditions are necessary:
There must be an impermeable barrier above the abnormal or subnormal zone. In normal depositional basins, a layer of clean shale
(i.e., no sand within it) will commonly form this barrier.
There must have been a mechanism for creating the abnormal or
subnormal pressure regime.
[ 1.4.4]
Well Design
Casing Design
[1.4.4 ]
expected. The pressures can be so high that increasing the mud density
to control it and then drilling ahead may not be a viable option. However,
these are normally of relatively low volume and if it is possible to allow
the formation to flow, the pressure can deplete fairly quickly.
Shale
Impermeable Boundary
Gas
bearing
Sand
Gas gradient
Shale
Fig. 1-6 Pressure-Depth Graph Showing Abnormal Pore Pressure Due to Light
Fluid Column
Salt beds can also cause very high pressures underneath. Salt is a
low shear strength material that is nonporous (i.e., no pore pressure
to help support the overburden), impermeable (forms a sealone of
the conditions necessary for overpressure), and flows plastically under
pressure. As such it can transmit hydraulically the full overburden pressure from above the salt to formation fluids below it.
Mechanisms of subnormal pore pressure generation. Subnormal
pore pressures will occur as a reservoir is produced. The reservoir rock
has to compress since the overburden (which stays constant) has less
support from the pore fluids; therefore, as the pore pressure lessens,
the rock vertical stresses increase. The formation does not have to be
produced by a well; it could be that a fault could allow migration to a
higher zone (overcharging that zone) or to surface, leading to less than
normal pressure.
45
[ 1.4.4]
Well Design
Casing Design
[1.4.4 ]
[ 1.4.4]
Well Design
If rafts of other material can be seen within a massive salt, the wellbore may be moved to avoid them. Unfortunately, the sonic qualities of
massive salts make it hard to interpret features within it to give an
accurate assessment of the location. Where rafts are not frequent the
margin of error could be accounted for. In some cases, it may not be
possible to completely avoid any chance of drilling into a raft, with the
attendant danger of a high-pressure kick. In this case the best that may
be done is to ensure that casing is set as low as possible before reaching the critical depth so that at least a good shoe strength will be available if the well kicks.
Interpreting seismic is outside the scope of this book. The drilling
engineer planning a well should spend time with a competent seismic
interpreter and ensure that the proper questions are asked to obtain
the fullest picture of the subsurface features.
Examining offset well records for overpressure prediction. If a planned
well is in an area where offset wells have been drilled, these should
provide good data for flagging areas of abnormal pressure. Offset data
points should be plotted and marked with the well name on a depthpressure graph; these will give pore pressure (PP) and fracture gradient (FG) trends for the offset wells, which should give an indication
(when combined with overall field knowledge) of the likely trends in
the planned well. In some cases a full pore pressure-frac gradient
analysis may have been done and, if this is felt to be reliable, can be
plotted directly on the graph.
As with all other data, try to evaluate raw data rather than relying
on other peoples interpretations. Mistakes may have been made in the
earlier interpretation that could then mislead you. This does happen!
Direct measurements such as RFT or MDT pressures provide very
accurate and reliable pressure data points and formation fluid gradients. These can then act as a qualitative check on other data. If a kick
is taken then the formation pressures will be well known, and this also
should be reliable data.
If total losses were taken and the well was filled with water to find
a static level, then the pressure in the loss zone can be calculated if the
depth is known. It is commonly assumed that if losses are suddenly
taken while drilling that the loss zone is on bottom, but this is not necessarily the case. Before you rely on such data, try to establish whether
another potential loss zone was exposed higher up in the open hole.
Just as pore pressures and fracture gradients are intimately related,
frac data (from leakoff tests or frac jobs) provide data points that can
48
Casing Design
[1.4.4 ]
Wash the sample of shale and ensure no cavings are present (these
will come from another formation and would therefore affect the
result)
Add shale to the cup of a mud balance until the balance reads 0.433
psi/ft (fresh water) with the top placed on
Top up with fresh water and take the balance reading, W psi/ft
Calculate the shale density as follows:
SGshale =
0.433
0.866 W
Wireline logs can provide excellent indicators of pressure transition zones. As previously noted, the normal trends with increasing
depth are for porosity and resistivity to decrease and sonic transit times
49
[ 1.4.4]
Well Design
to increase. If these trends change then it is likely that the pore pressure trend is also deviating from normal. These indications may be
hard or impossible to interpret in streaky, nonhomogeneous formations. It is clearly very important to take all available offset data and
interpret it intelligently to arrive at a picture that is likely to be close
to reality.
Relationship between pore pressure and fracture gradient. When
a casing is drilled out, it is normal to perform a leakoff test. This test
applies pressure to the wellbore and should detect the point at which
formation fracture is initiated without actually causing deep fractures.
This pressure then dictates how far the well can be safely drilled ahead.
The fracture gradient is the pressure applied to the formation to
initiate failure divided by the true vertical depth (TVD) of the formation being tested.
The resistance of the formation to fracturing comes from the addition of the formation fluid pore pressure and the tensile strength of the
rock. The tensile strength of the rock at depth comes from the natural
(unconfined) rock strength plus the supporting stresses imposed on the
formation by field stresses. Therefore, by taking a formation test to the
start of leakoff, information can be gained on the minimum field stress.
In an increasing gradient transition, pore pressures start to increase
above normal. As pore pressure increases, so does the fracture gradient. If the lithology and the field stress gradient do not change during
the transition zone, the pore pressures and fracture gradients will plot
similar but diverging lines on a depth-pressure plot. So it is desirable
to set a casing shoe as far into the transition zone as possible. This
gives increased shoe strength for drilling the next section.
The following formula was proposed by Eaton to calculate formation fracture gradient:
where
Fg = Fracture gradient, psi/ft
S = Overburden load, lbs
D = Depth in feet (therefore S/D = overburden gradient)
Pp = Pore pressure (therefore Pp/D = pore pressure gradient)
v = Poissons Ratio
50
page051.qxd
1/18/05
8:05 AM
Page 51
Casing Design
[1.4.5 ]
f =
o pv
1 v
+ p
where
f = Fracture gradient, psi/ft
o = Overburden gradient, psi/ft (generally assume 1 psi/ft)
p = Pore pressure gradient, psi/ft (may be measured or estimated)
v = Poissons ratio
1.4.5. Casing Shoe Depth Determination: General Points
Defining the casing setting depths has to take several different factors into account. In a directional well, casing points and directional
planning are intimately entwined and may take several iterations to
achieve a good overall design.
The first step is to decide which formations would give a competent shoe (i.e., one that will hold a reasonable wellbore pressure assuming that the cement job is good). Refer to the geological information,
lithology column, pore pressure and frac gradient prognosis, hole section summaries of the offset wells, and any other available data. You are
normally looking for competent shales or unfractured limestones that
are impermeable and have a reasonable fracture gradient.
Of particular significance is the existence of a pressure transition
zone. If casing is set just above a transition zone then pore pressure in
the next section will increase shortly after drilling out and the kick tolerance will reduce as mud density is increased. It may reduce enough
to prevent drilling the following section to the planned depth. On the
other hand, if a transition zone is penetrated too deeply a kick may
result in the worst circumstances since there will be a lot of open hole
under the previous casing shoe. (See Fig. 1-7)
Ideally, casing should be set deeply enough in the transition zone
to give a sufficient kick tolerance for the next hole section, while maintaining enough kick tolerance in the current hole section.
Where a drop in pore pressure is expected, casing could be set just
above it to give the best shoe strength prior to drilling in to the weaker zone (see Fig. 1-7)
51
[ 1.4.5]
Well Design
The next step is to note which formations may give problems relating to wellbore stability, losses, mobile formations, differential sticking, etc. Examination of these may flag where separation of problem
areas is needed or where a hazard would be created by having two sets
of problems in the same section (e.g., a weak loss zone in the same
section as a hydrocarbon bearing zone). It might also show where dealing with the problems would cause serious incompatibility in the
required solutions (e.g., different/conflicting mud properties required).
Offset well data as presented in Hole section summaries in Section
1.1.2 will be helpful here.
Fracture Gradient
Overburden Gradient
Casing Design
[1.4.5 ]
[ 1.4.6]
Well Design
awaybecause they may give useful data. Now get together the lithology and pore pressure/fracture gradient prognoses for your well, with
the hole section summaries, well proposal, and site survey (including
shallow gas indicators, if any).
1.4.6. Individual Casing Points
Casing Design
[1.4.6 ]
[ 1.4.6]
Well Design
Casing Design
Gumbo
Clay
[1.4.7 ]
Conductor; driven
to refusal depth
Soft Sand
Surface Casing
Soft Clay
Sand
Shale
Sand
End of build
Intermediate Casing;
set in transition zone
& protects build
Shale
Salt
Production Casing;
set just above the
reservoir
Reservoir
Sand
[ 1.4.7]
Well Design
100000
At D; Ultimate Tensile
Strength reached
80000
At E; material fails
60000
40000
A to B; region of
elastic behaviour
(reversible)
20000
A
0
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
Casing Design
[1.4.7 ]
(stress) is a linear scale and the X axis (number of cycles) is a logarithmic scale.
An example of an S-N curve is shown below. In this example,
60,000 psi would cause almost immediate failure (10 cycles), 30,000
psi would fail at 800 cycles and 20,000 psi would allow an infinite
number of cycles before failure (see Fig. 1-10).
Example S-N curve
60,000
50,000
Stress, psi
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
10
100
1000
10000
100000
1000000
[ 1.4.8]
Well Design
hardening, then the crack will suddenly extend a little and stop. This
process repeats until finally the remaining steel cannot take the load
anymore. Thus, you can see the rusty original crack and a set of failure
marks, resembling rings in a cut-off tree. The final failure is a tensile
failure, which will show very rough edges characteristic of this over the
area where the final failure occurred. It is vital to clean with a bristle
brush and soapy water, dry off, and oil the failure faces lightly to preserve these indications. Cleaning with a wire brush and/or allowing
continuing corrosion may make identification of the failure mode
impossible later on.
Finally, thermal strain should be mentioned as it becomes relevant
to buckling in casing design. The Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (a)
gives the thermal strain in a uniform body subjected to uniform heating. The commonly accepted Coefficient of Thermal Expansion for
steel is given by
Strain e = 6.9 x 10-6/F (1.24 x 10-5/C)
So for every C uniform increase in temperature, steel will expand
by 0.0000124 of its original length.
1.4.8. Safety Factors
Safety factors are arbitrary figures that have evolved with experience. A safety factor is applied to casing yield strength by dividing the
yield strength by the safety factor. (Note that some authorities quote
safety factors as a percentage (e.g. 90%) or as a number less than 1 (e.g.
0.90). In this case, multiply by the safety factor so as to reduce the
available strength.)
Recommendations in various drilling literature and operator policies
on safety factors can be quite confusing and widely varying. Reasons for
various safety factors and clear recommendations are discussed in the
following section.
Many uncertainties exist about the actual forces that a casing may
be subjected to during its design life. Also, the casing strength is likely to deteriorate with time due to wear, erosion, corrosion, and reaction
with produced fluids. Therefore, when designing casings, the expected
forces are calculated and compared to the casing strength as stated in
API Bulletin 5C2 or other authoritative document that is downgraded
60
Casing Design
[1.4.8 ]
by a safety factor. The actual safety factors used may be stated by company or government policy and they should be substituted for the safety factors assumed below if applicable. Following is a discussion on the
most common safety factors.
Burst. Casings may be subjected to burst pressure throughout their
design life. With time, the burst performance of casings may degrade
due to wear, corrosion and other factors. API recommends 90% of the
minimum internal yield. Experience has shown that this safety factor is
sufficient. Biaxial effects increase the burst strength of casing under tension but this is not usually accounted for; casing tension can change
with time due to thermal expansion. API does not account for biaxial
effects on burst though it can of course be calculated.
Collapse. As with burst, casings may be subjected to collapse pressure throughout their design life and the same factors may degrade
performance with time. A safety factor of 1.1 applied to the minimum
collapse pressure is recommended. Experience has shown that these
safety factors are sufficient. In deeper casings, biaxial effects reduce
collapse strength of casing under tension (biaxial effects are covered
below) and in certain circumstances, they should be evaluated or the
safety factor should be increased. (Note that Table 4 of API Bulletin
5C2 has corrections for biaxial effects in collapse.)
Tension. A quick review of safety factors in tension recommended
by various authors and operating companies shows more variation
than for any other safety factor. This varies from 1.3 to 1.8, some
accounting for buoyancy and others not. Neal Adams, for instance, recommends a factor of 1.6 applied using the buoyant load or 100,000 lbs
of overpull, whichever is more conservative. Preston Moore recommends 1.8 using buoyant load. API recommends 90%, which interestingly does not reduce tension below the elastic limit. It makes sense to
examine what the safety factor covers under different circumstances
and to define safety factors for those particular circumstances. Using
too high a safety factor may result in overdesign of the casing, which
may increase costs unnecessarily. It can be seen from the recommendations below that the more effort put into the design, the lower the
safety factor needed and, perhaps, the lower the casings grade, weight,
and cost will be.
If a simple casing design on a deviated well is done using only uniaxial loads related to casing weight and pressure testing, then the
uncalculated factors that will increase the overall casing load will
61
[ 1.4.8]
Well Design
Casing Design
[1.4.9 ]
Corrosion. Corrosion may occur during production due to electrochemical reaction with corrosive agents. It may also occur as uniform reduction in wall thickness, localized patterns of metal loss, or
pitting. Of the three, pitting causes the greatest problem.
Corrosion rates increase with higher temperatures (rates approximately double for every 31C increase in temperature), higher fluid
velocities and/or abrasive solids (eroding away films forming on the
metal surface), and higher concentrations of corrosive agents such as
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide.
Collapse and burst pressures are determined by the thinnest part of
the wall, while tensile strength is determined by the remaining crosssectional area.
Corrosion in a particular fluid can be measured using a corrosion
coupon. This is usually in the form of a ring of metal that is weighed
accurately, exposed to the fluid under realistic conditions of temperature, etc. and re-weighed after a period of time. The metal loss is
recorded in weight loss (lbs) per square foot exposed per year.
If corrosion is considered a potential problem, then various treatments of the completion fluid can be made to reduce or eliminate it.
Wear. If significant wear is expected during drilling (monitoring
metal in the returns; using tooljoints with rough hardfacing; high/shallow doglegs, etc.) then a Kinley caliper, ultrasonic imaging tool (USIT)
log, or other tools can be run to measure wall thickness reduction.
Collapse and burst pressures will be determined by the thinnest part of
the wall while tensile strength will be determined by the remaining
cross-sectional area.
Wear is influenced by side forces (in turn influenced by dogleg
severity, inclination, and tension), number of rotating hours, roughness and hardness of the rotating surface, and number of round trips
carried out.
Wear reduction measures may include protectors (standard or
those that rotate on the pipe), using downhole motors, ensuring hardfacing is smooth and has been run in open hole first, and restricting
dogleg severities and inclinations.
Wear mitigation measures may include using thicker wall sections
and/or higher grade steels over the areas of potential wear. Experience
63
[ 1.4.9]
Well Design
Casing Design
[1.4.10 ]
Temperature C
20
50
100
150
200
Temperature F
68
122
212
302
392
Yield Strength
Correction Factor
1.0
0.95
0.88
0.84
0.81
BF = 1
SGliquid
SGsolid
65
[ 1.4.10]
Well Design
For steel (SG 7.87), the buoyancy factor when immersed in mud
can be simplified to:
Forces Up
Forces Down
- Weight of steel
- Weight of internal fluids
Casing Design
[1.4.10 ]
67
[ 1.4.10]
Well Design
Tension
0 Compression
Weight down, nominal weight x length
Hydraulic force down,
pressure x area
Casing Design
[1.4.10 ]
sectional area at 5000 ft.; this will be 3000 psi x (15.55 - 11.45) in2
= 12,300 lbs. Hydrostatic force will also apply downwards at 4000
ft. This will be 2400 psi x (15.55 - 11.45) in2 = 9840 lbs.
To calculate axial force Fa at 9000 ft, subtract forces down from
forces up:
Fa = [68,700] - [1000 x 40] = 28,700 lbs (positive, so in compression).
To calculate axial force at 3000 ft, subtract forces down from forces up:
Fa = [68,700 + 12,300] - [(5000 x 40) + (1000 x 53.5) + (1000 x 40) +
(9840)] = -222,340 lbs (negative, so in tension).
4. Calculate hydraulic force acting sideways only.
If the side force exerted by a casing lying in an inclined wellbore is
to be considered, then the hydraulic forces acting perpendicular to
the axis need to be calculated. This may be needed for instance to
calculate drags or torques when running in a deviated well. Refer to
Figure 1-13.
Equal
hydraulic
force
Equal
hydraulic
force
Case 2
Greater
hydraulic
force from
below
Case 1
Greater
hydraulic
force from
below
Casing
extends to
surface
Case 4
Case 3
Greater
hydraulic
force laterally
up
Greater hydraulic
force laterally up;
same as Case 3
Greater
hydraulic
force axially up
69
Greater hydraulic
force axially up
[ 1.4.10]
Well Design
page71.qxd
1/24/05
8:26 AM
Page 71
Casing Design
[1.4.11 ]
Net lateral
force = 409 lbs
Net upward
force = 600 lbs
Fig. 1-14 Resolving Net Axial and Lateral Forces in an Inclined Wellbore
So far you have determined what the directional plan will be,
where the casing shoes will be set, and what hole and casing sizes are
needed. The next step is to calculate the physical forces that the casings will be subjected to so that these can be compared to the casing
strengths, as modified by safety and correction factors.
Refer to API Bulletin 5C2 for minimum performance properties of
casing, including burst, collapse, collapse under axial load (biaxial),
and tensile strengths.
Note that lower tensile grades of pipe are required for an H2S environment at temperatures below 175F. Refer to 1.14.19, Material Grades.
1.4.12. Calculating Burst and Collapse Loads, Including Biaxial Effects
Burst and collapse loads can be applied to the casing from various
causes. Each situation should be calculated and combined to give the
net burst or collapse loading on the casing in that situation. Burst and
71
[ 1.4.12 ]
Well Design
Hydrostatic head. For a fluid of single density, the burst load equals
the vertical depth multiplied by the fluid gradient. If casing is full
of mud of 0.5 psi/ft gradient, the burst pressure from hydrostatic at
8000 ft TVD will be 8000 x 0.5 = 4000 psi. Where multiple fluids
are involved (e.g., in cementing), the hydrostatic pressure of each
is calculated separately and added up.
Applied surface pressure. This may occur from pressure testing,
from a kick while drilling, from a leaking production string, from
support pressure while fracturing, from injection pressure for
gaslift, or chemical injection in the production casing. This surface
pressure is added to the hydrostatic head to give the total internal
pressure at any particular depth. For instance, with 500 psi surface
pressure applied to the previous example, the internal pressure at
8000 ft TVD is 4500 psi.
Biaxial effects account for the change in burst and collapse resistance due to tension or compression of the casing. A pipe under tension will have increased burst and reduced collapse resistance; con72
Casing Design
[ 1.4.13 ]
Once the burst and collapse requirements are known, the weight
and grade of the casing needs to be estimated before tension and compression can be calculated. Use casing design tables (e.g., API Bulletin
5C2, Halliburton book, casing manufacturers data, etc.) to decide
which of the available casings will handle the worst case burst and collapse pressures. Use the lowest available weight/grade of casing that is
strong enough, apply the desired safety factor, and (for a mixed casing
string) apply the temperature correction factor to the minimum burst
pressures before comparing it to the calculated maximum pressures. In
a mature area, you will probably have a stock of your commonly used
casings, otherwise you need to know what casings are available in time
for the earliest possible spud date.
Tension due to weight in a deviated wellbore. In a vertical well,
clearly the tensile force at the top of the casing equals the entire buoyant weight of the casing. If the entire string was placed in a horizontal
bore, the tensile force at the top end would be zero. In a deviated well
greater than 0 and less than 90 inclination, calculate the actual tensile
force, accounting for the wellbore support and buoyancy.
Tensile force due to the weight of the casing in a deviated well, in
air and ignoring friction, resolves to (TVD x weight/foot). Forces due
73
[ 1.4.13]
Well Design
to the mud acting axially will equal (TVD x casing cross-sectional area
x mud gradient). (See Fig. 1-15)
Axial force,
4000 Cos 40 =
3064 lbs
40 degree inclination
Weight in air;
4000 lbs.
Fig. 1-15 Vector Diagram Illustrating the Effect of Inclination on Axial Load
Casing Design
[1.4.13 ]
[ 1.4.13]
Well Design
If you are not calculating further tensile forces then compare the
total tension to lesser of [API minimum yield or connection tensile
strength] safety factor (use SF of 1.50 for a vertical well, 1.75 for a
directional well).
For instance, intermediate casing string of 95/8 in casing, assuming
first choice is 47 lbs/ft N80 from TD at 15,000 ft measured depth; 80 ft
shoe track. Test pressure will be 3000 psi. Cement is 500 ft of 0.82
psi/ft (15.8 ppg) neat G cement from the shoe and 3500 ft of 0.70
psi/ft (13.2 ppg) cement above that. Mud in use is 0.65 psi/ft (12.5
ppg). Connection is buttress. Well is vertical.
Weight in air is 705,000 lbs, plus 100,000 lbs overpull allowance
equals 805,000 lbs. Minimum yield strength is 1,086,000/1.1 (safety
factor for overpull) = 987,000 lbs so the tension due to its own weight
plus overpull is within limits. Note also that for a regular buttress connection, pipe body strength is less than connection strength. If the
connection were a special clearance buttress, then the connection
would be weaker than the body strength and that would be the limiting factorin this case, 983,000 lbs, which is still adequate for this
example.
Weight of casing contents; casing capacity is 3.073 gals/ft. Weight
of mud therefore is 14,920 x 3.073 x 12.5 = 573,100 lbs. Weight of
cement in the shoetrack = 3900 lbs. Weight of steel = 705,000 lbs. Total
downward force = 1,282,000 lbs.
Casing displacement is 3.778 gals/ft. Weight of displaced fluids =
(500 x 3.778 x 15.8) + (3500 x 3.778 x 13.2) + (11000 x 3.778 x 12.5)
= 724,000 lbs total upward buoyant force. So the net tension due to
buoyant weight at the top is 558,000 lbs.
The force exerted by a 3000 psi test on an ID of 8.681 is 0.7865 x
8.6812 x 3000 = 178,000 lbs.
So after cementing the casing and bumping the plug, the tension at
the top joint will be 736,000 lbs. Applying a safety factor of 1.50 (safety factor for a vertical well) to the minimum body yield strength of
1,086,000 lbs gives an allowable tension of 724,000 lbsnot enough
in this case.
Without further calculations to reduce the safety factor or dispensation to allow a lower safety factor, a mixed casing string would have
to be run. P110 grade 47 ppf run at the top would give an allowable
tension of 995,333 lbs at a safety factor of 1.50. If a triaxial analysis
were to be done, it is possible that a mixed 53.5 or 47 ppf N80 string
76
Casing Design
[1.4.13 ]
could work. It can be seen that it would be worth the extra effort to calculate it out if the casing string could be kept to the lower grade as a
result, 53.5 ppf N80 usually being cheaper than 47 ppf P110.
Tension due to shock loading. Various authors have proposed formulae to calculate shock-loading forces on casings while running. By
experience, if the above safety factors and a reasonable overpull
allowance are used, they are adequate to cover shock loadings if the
drill crew follow normal procedures. In any case, calculating actual
shock loads probably cannot be done accurately due to the many
assumptions that have to be made or mitigating effects that have to be
ignored. The latter will include the damping effect of mud, frictional
forces against the wellbore (especially if deviated), and actual running
speed at the time that the casing is arrested.
Axial loads due to bending forces in a deviated wellbore. In a
deviated well, you could now account for extra tension due to bending.
Assume that our 15,000 ft well is kicked off at 1000 ft vertical depth,
angle is built at 2.5/100 ft to 25 inclination. The well is now drilled
tangent to 15,000 ft TVD. (See Fig. 1-16)
77
[ 1.4.13]
Well Design
e=
r c DLS
5730
where Rc is the radius of the casing in feet and DLS is dogleg severity in /100 ft.
Stress s = Youngs Modulus E x strain e, or
s = 30,000,000 x 0.000175 = 5248 psi, in the outer fibers due
to bending only.
Referring to the calculation above, the total tensile force at the top
of the kickoff point when bumping the plug to 3000 psi is calculated
using TVDs not measured depths due to the supporting effect of the
wellbore (see Fig. 114):
Tension due to casing weight below KOP without buoyancy =
14,000 ft (TVD) x 47 = 658,000 lbs.
Use TVD and actual ID/OD to calculate internal weights and external buoyancy forces:
78
Casing Design
[1.4.13 ]
[ 1.4.13]
Well Design
80
Casing Design
[1.4.14 ]
[ 1.4.14]
Well Design
Fs = AoPo AiPi
where
Ao = Area of a circle of tubing OD size = 0.7854D2
Po = Pressure outside tubing
Ai = Area of a circle of tubing ID size = 0.7854d2
Pi = Pressure inside tubing
Buckling will occur in unsupported tubing when the compressive
force exceeds the stabilizing force. The point where Fb = Fs is the neutral point for buckling (Nb). It is not the same as the neutral point for
axial force (i.e., where tensile stress = 0).
An open tube suspended in a fluid will not buckle, as long as the
fluid density does not exceed the density of the tube material. This is
not going to happen for casing unless you are using mercury instead of
mud! Nb is at the bottom of the tube. At the bottom end, Fb = tube
cross-sectional area x hydrostatic pressure (buoyancy force) and Fs =
(area of outside diameter - area of inside diameter) x hydrostatic pressure. Ao - Ai = cross-sectional area, Fb clearly equals Fs, which is the
neutral point for buckling, Nb.
A suspended, unsupported tube will buckle if the bottom end is
closed and internal pressure is increased. This will not occur during a
cement job when the cement is inside the casing because the bottom
end is not closed, fluid is exiting the bottom, the weight of the slurry
will increase tension, and the casing will almost always be supported
by centralizers.
In practical terms then, we do not need to consider buckling of casing during cementing. Once cemented, however, the picture changes.
Fb will increase with increased temperature (as the bottom end is fixed
and the casing expands). Fs will decrease with increased internal pressuresay as heavier mud is used while drilling the next hole section.
Nb will move up and if it moves above the point where casing is well
supported, buckling will occur.
For a deeper cemented casing string in a vertical well, carry out the
following calculations.
82
Casing Design
[1.4.14 ]
1. Identify the top of the supported casing. This may be at the top of
cement (if no centralizers above TOC) or at the top centralizer, if
centralizer spacing above TOC is relatively smallsay one per two
joints in gauge hole.
2. Calculate Fb and Fs once the cement has set at the top supported
depth, with the actual external and internal pressures. Unless very
heavy mud is inside then Fs should exceed Fb.
3. Calculate or estimate the maximum internal pressure in service
(due to heavier mud only; or completion fluid hydrostatic plus surface pressure if applicable) and use this to recalculate Fs.
4. Calculate the increase in Fb due to thermal expansion (refer
Revised Fb due to thermal expansion following in this section).
For tubings, also calculate the increase in Fb due to pump out force
at the packer if a nonanchored seal assembly is used.
5. If the revised Fb exceeds the revised Fs then the casing will buckle.
In this case calculate how much extra tension applied at the surface would cause Fb to reduce below Fs; this force can then be
applied as an overpull after the cement has set by setting the casing in slip type hangers.
Revised Fb due to thermal expansion. The coefficient of thermal
expansion (a) for steel gives the thermal strain in a uniform body subjected to uniform heating (refer to Section 1.4.7, Mechanical
Properties of Steel).
Strain e due to uniform thermal expansion of steel = 6.9 x 10-6/F
(1.24 x 10-5/C)
Youngs Modulus of Elasticity E = 30 x 106
With these two pieces of information we can calculate the effect on
the neutral point if we assume a uniform increase in temperature
throughout a length of pipe.
Assuming a length of 133/8 in 72# N80 casing with the top of
cement at 10,000 ft, subjected to an overall temperature increase of
20C. The thermal strain (stretch original length) = 20 x 0.0000124
= 0.00025, and if this is multiplied by the original length of 10,000 ft
then the increase in length = 20 x 0.0000124 x 10,000 = 2.48 ft.
Knowing Youngs Modulus, we can calculate the equivalent stress
by multiplying strain (0.00025) by E (30 x 106), which equals 7440 psi.
83
[ 1.4.15]
Well Design
Casing Design
[1.4.16 ]
the actual coefficients have been derived from data obtained while
drilling on the same or an offset well.
Actual m will depend on hole rugosity, lithology, wallcake thickness and lubricity, mud lubricity, and relative sizes of casing and hole.
To calculate the torque:
Torque, ft lbs =
L Fs
r
[ 1.4.17]
Well Design
Massive salts have two properties that may cause serious problems
during the life of the well. Salts may flow plastically when field stresses exert a force on the salt. Also, significant enlargement of the wellbore will occur through salt if unsaturated, water-based mud is used.
Salt mobility is affected by several factors, such as water content,
impurities, grain size, temperature, overburden pressure, and mud
density. Salt can be so mobile that the bit can get stuck in it during
drilling if the salt has closed around the bit gauge. Increasing mud density is one way of slowing this down, but salt will never be pushed
back out by increasing mud density.
From a casing design viewpoint, salts can exert large forces on the
casing. First, if we regard plastically deforming salt as a hydraulic
fluid, it will impose overburden pressure uniformly on the circumference of the casing. Thus, collapse design for massive salt assumes a 1
psi/ft collapse pressure. However, the fact that the salt may flow in a
particular direction can also cause problems of ovalled or even
sheared off casing sometime after the well has been completed. Also,
if the salt moves unevenly, then point loading will occur; the cement
must be competent to prevent this as no casing can resist the uneven
loading that will result.
86
Casing Design
[1.4.18 ]
If the casing has been designed for the 1 psi/ft collapse gradient and
if the casing has a good cement sheath throughout the salt interval then
failure probability is minimal. It is important to note that for preventing distortion and shear, a complete and competent cement job is as
important as the casing strength. Refer to Cementing against massive
salts in Section 2.7.4.
1.4.18. Casing Properties and Other Considerations
Having calculated the minimum strength requirements and preferred weights and grades of the casing, you now have to check against
other considerations. These include:
1. Inside diameter for running completion tools. In production casing
the ID is important to ensure that all required completion components can be run. For instance if a dual 31/2 in completion was to
be run, 95/8 in 57# casing may not give the required clearance to
run the completion accessories.
2. Seamless pipe vs. seamed, electric resistance welded (ERW) pipe. The
seamless method is most common for pipe production. Historically
seamed pipe was not used for casings below surface casing due to
considerations of quality of the pipe. Modern ERW pipe can now
be produced in quality equal to seamless pipe and because it is
cheaper, ERW pipe can save a lot on the cost of a well. Major operators such as Shell have decided that seamed pipe can be used as
casing for deeper strings where quality control is assured.
Whether or not you can use seamed pipe will probably be dictated
by company or government policy. It is certainly worth the effort
to consider seamed pipe.
3. Availability.
4. Cost. Of the casings that are both suitable and available in time, the
lowest cost string can be chosen.
[ 1.4.19]
Well Design
Pp =
ppm psia
1,000,000
Casing Design
API H40
[1.4.19 ]
Carbon steel. Strength characteristics given by normalizing (heat to 1650F and air cooling). Suitable for H2S
service at all temperatures for tubings up to 80,000 lbs
minimum yield strength or for all tubings above 175F.
API J55
Carbon steel. Strength characteristics given by normalizing (heat to 1650F and air cooling). Suitable for H2S
service at all temperatures.
API K55
Carbon steel. Strength characteristics given by normalizing (heat to 1650F and air cooling). Suitable for H2S
service at all temperatures.
J and K
Have the same minimum yield strength (55,000 psi)
but J has an ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of 75,000
psi and K has a UTS of 95,000 psi. The UTS is what dictates the connection strength and so API gives higher
tension values for K55 pipe. Note that for most other
steel grades, the ratio of minimum yield to UTS is 1.36
but for K55 it is 1.727.
API L80
Carbon steel. Suitable for H2S service at all temperatures.
API L80 13Cr Alloy steel with 13% chromium. Suitable for CO2 service. Susceptible to handling damage, galling, and
work hardening.
API N80
Carbon steel. Quenched and tempered to produce a
fully martensitic crystal structure; gives higher
strength, reduced carbon, and minimizes austenite
structure to reduce susceptibility to sulfide stress corrosion cracking. Suitable for H2S service at temperatures over 150F.
L and N
Have the same minimum yield strength (80,000 psi)
but L has an ultimate tensile strength of 95,000 psi and
N has a UTS of 110,000 psi. The UTS is what dictates
the connection strength and so API gives higher tension values for N80 pipe.
API C75/90/95 Carbon steel. Quenched and tempered to produce a
fully martensitic crystal structure; gives higher
strength, reduced carbon, and minimizes austenite
structure to reduce susceptibility to sulfide stress cor89
[ 1.4.20]
Well Design
Casing Design
[1.4.21 ]
[ 1.4.21]
Well Design
Casing Design
[1.4.21 ]
93
[ 1.4.21]
Well Design
Casing Design
[1.4.21 ]
These integral packers are quite reliable and can be routinely used.
Liners may also be set on bottom and cemented without hanging off
on the previous casing, though this is uncommon. A cementing shoe
with side passages is needed instead of the more conventional type.
Hangers (surface wellhead). The choice of hangers will be limited
to those compatible with the wellhead system. On a nonfloating rig, a
solid (mandrel) hanger may be used to allow the BOP to be safely nippled down without having to wait on cement, if other circumstances
allow. Setting these hangers is simpler and safer than lifting the stack
and setting a slip and seal assembly, trimming the casing, and running
a seal bushing for the next spool. More care is needed to space out, and
a landing joint of appropriate length to reach from the top of the hanger to the drillfloor is necessary.
If a solid hanger is to be run, a slip and seal backup will still be
needed to land the casing if, for some reason, the casing is not run all
the way to planned depth. Therefore, a slip and seal assembly and a seal
bushing should be kept handy for emergency landing. A solid hanger
cannot be used to land the casing under extra tension, which is sometimes done to prevent buckling.
Other accessories. If casing is to be reciprocated while cementing,
scratchers may help remove wall cake and induce turbulence.
External casing packers (ECPs) are designed to seal off the annulus to stop gas or fluid migration through the setting cement. The danger here is that below the ECP, hydrostatic pressure will drop very
rapidly as the cement sets unless special additives are used, so that the
cement below the ECP could become porous due to gas flow from the
formation into the setting cement. Consult the cement contractor and
consider all the factors carefully before choosing to use an ECP.
Special cement heads are available to allow you to rotate the casing during displacement. However, experience shows that reciprocation during displacement is more effective in displacing mud.
Reciprocation must be used with caution in sticky hole conditions,
especially if using a fixed hanger that may be in the BOP if the casing
gets stuck while reciprocating.
95
[ 1.4.22]
Well Design
Casing Design
[1.4.22 ]
[ 1.4.23]
Well Design
The following Tables 1-1 through 1-6 provide drilling and production criteria for casing design.
98
Casing Design
[1.4.24 ]
Drilling Criteria
Burst
Collapse
Tension
Production Criteria
Compression
Buckling
Other
99
Offshore; corrosion
protection in the
splash zone.
[ 1.4.24]
Well Design
Drilling Criteria
Burst
Collapse
Tension
Compression
Buckling
N/A.
N/A; cemented to seabed or surface.
100
Casing Design
[1.4.24 ]
Drilling Criteria
Burst
1.
Collapse
Tension
Buckling
Other
[ 1.4.24]
Well Design
Drilling Criteria
Burst
Production Criteria
1. Assume leak at top of production
tubing; calculate burst at the production packer with completion
fluid in the hole minus pressure due
to the mud used when casing run.
2. Calculate loadings imposed by
fracturing, injection, artificial lift,
or other production processes.
Safety factor 1.1.
Collapse
Tension
102
Casing Design
[1.4.24 ]
Drilling Criteria
Production Criteria
Other
103
[ 1.4.24]
Well Design
Drilling Criteria
Burst
Collapse
Tension
104
Casing Design
[1.4.24 ]
Production Criteria
Drilling Criteria
Burst
Collapse
Tension
105
1. Assume losses taken when perforated. Expected external pressure at the loss zone; planned
mud in use drops to height supported by thief zone pressure.
Maximum collapse may be at
the top of the mud column or at
the shoe. Calculate external
pressure exerted by mud in hole
when the casing was run.
2. Expected drawdown pressure
during production internally
and reservoir pore pressure
externally, up to production
packer depth.
Safety factor 1.1.
[ 1.4.24]
Well Design
Production Criteria
Drilling Criteria
3. Axial loads due to buoyant
weight plus test pressure plus
bending stress if deviated along
liner length.
Safety factor 1.5.
4. Triaxial analysis incorporating
temperature correction for yield
strengths.
Safety factor 1.25.
106
[]
1.5
Directional Design
Drilling a well directionally is more expensive than drilling to the
same reservoir depth vertically. The smaller the target(s) and the more
complex the resulting wellpath, the more it will cost. Discuss the targets with the reservoir engineers and establish the largest possible targeteven on a vertical well.
It may be that your target is significantly smaller than that what
would be acceptable. Exploration departments sometimes ask for a target of, say, 100 m radius simply because of tradition. However, it is
possible that there is room to err in a particular direction or that the
acceptable size is larger than given. Reservoir parameters rarely give
simple circles or rectangles, therefore, always ask what conditions
define the target boundary. You want to know the hard target, outside
of which is unacceptable and would if necessary call for redrilling part
of the well to achieve. Mark on the deviation plan all the boundary conditions that constrain or affect the well, such as other wells, faults, etc.
Many people assume modern surveying tools and calculation
methods are very accurate. While this is generally true, there are limits
on performance that may come about for various reasons such as mag107
[ 1.5.1]
Well Design
Directional Design
[1.5.1 ]
Wellbore profile. In the past, well profiles often built up, held
tangent for a while, then dropped off into the target (S profile). A
simple build and hold to target (J profile) is often better than an S
profile because:
1. An S profile is more complex with more directional work (rigtime,
rental tools expense).
2. More hole needs to be drilled.
3. The drop-off part will restrict your WOB, therefore, ROP will be
less. Also, rotary drop-off BHAs will lose some directional control
(due to their flexibility) and motor assemblies with bent subs
sometimes tend to flip over when orientated to drop. This is
worse when run lower down due to the length of flexible drillstring
above the BHA.
4. Maximum inclination is higher and there are more doglegs, with
increased hole drags. Good cement jobs are harder to achieve.
Wellbore stability becomes more of a problem at higher inclinations. Wear on casings and drillstrings is increased. Fatigue may
become a problem.
The S well may be called for if:
1. Intermediate targets are specified, which force you to adopt this
path.
2. The target is offset and the wellbore needs to be close to vertical
through the reservoir.
The wellbore directional profile has a major influence on the
torques and drags encountered during drilling, as well as the drags that
occur while running logs and casing. In high-angle wells or those with
significant changes of azimuth as well as inclination, the frictional
forces can cause serious problems. Mud lubricating additives and nonrotating protectors can be used to somewhat reduce torques and drag.
A computer program can also help to tune the wellpath to reduce frictional forces; the directional company should have access to this kind
of software so as to optimize the wellpath.
In-situ field stresses. The combination of in-situ stresses and hole
orientation govern the tendency to destabilize the rock (collapse
109
[ 1.5.2]
Well Design
mode) surrounding the borehole. In a tectonically relaxed area, a vertical well has equal horizontal stresses acting along the cross section
compared to a deviated well that will have unequal stresses (vertical
and horizontal) acting along the cross section. The stress concentration
at the borehole wall is higher in inclined wellbores, making it more
prone to collapse, and since deviated holes are likely to be open for
longer, there is more time for the wellbore to become unstable.
In an area where the horizontal stresses vary with direction (tectonically stressed), a deviated well tends to be more stable when drilled
in the direction of the highest horizontal stress, and least stable when
drilled perpendicular to it. The higher the wellbore inclination, the
more pronounced the effect. If the surface location is not fixed then the
surface location could be relocated to allow an azimuth that gives the
best stability.
The optimum mud density in a tectonically relaxed environment
tends to increase with hole angle. In general, field experience indicates
an approximate increase of the mud pressure gradient by 2 ppg (0.11
psi/ft) between vertical and horizontal. In a tectonically stressed environment this relation can be different.
Directional Design
[1.5.2 ]
pLT
where c is dogleg severity in /100 ft, F is the lateral force, L is half
the length of a joint of drillpipe in inches and T is the drillstring tension at the depth of interest. Using a maximum lateral force of 2000 lbs
as suggested by Lubinski and assuming 31 ft joints of drillpipe, the DLS
causing this lateral force would be (108,000 x 2000) (3.142 x 186 x
180,000) = 2.05/100 ft. From this, it can be seen that our initial
assumption about the desirable dogleg severity is ambitious and is likely to cause tool joint damage. We can also calculate the lateral force for
the initially planned dogleg severity by turning the above equation
round, so that:
F=
pxLxTxc
-----108,000
[ 1.5.2]
Well Design
Directional Design
[1.5.2 ]
pipe body has internal corrosion, external slip marks, or other damage,
the effect of these stress raisers will lower the fatigue resistance of the
pipe substantially, and a failure of the body may occur there rather than
at the upset to the tool joint.
Casing wear. In addition to tool joint damage and fatigue considerations, wear on the casing as a result of lateral forces also has to be
considered. Wear from tripping is much less than that from rotating
and in medium drillstring tensions in doglegs below 6/100 ft, the pipe
body does not touch the casing. Therefore, wear arises mainly from
rotating tool joints that are pushed against the casing.
Wear is affected by many different factors:
In new casing on the first bit run, the contact area between tool
joint and casing is very small. Wear rate is very high. Since the inside
of the casing is worn, contact area will rapidly increase and for the
same lateral force, the lateral pressure (in psi) will decrease. The initial
113
[ 1.5.2]
Well Design
very high wear rate will quickly become moderate; abrasive wear will
decrease as the tong marks on the pipe are worn down and contact
pressure drops. After a trip there will tend to be a temporary increase
in wear because new tong marks will be present.
The hard banding on tool joints is very important. It must be
smooth, hard, and flush with the tool joint. In the old days hard
banding could be very rough and stood proud of the tool jointan
efficient rotary file. If it is not flush then all of the lateral force is taken
on that small area so that contact pressure is extremely high. Never run
rough hardbanded tool joints inside casing while drilling.
Dull tong dies will tend to make marks worse on the tool joints as
more closing pressure is required to make these dies grip. Apart from
the safety aspect of slipping tongs, using dull dies is false economy. Slip
and tong dies should be inspected after every round trip and replaced
as soon as they become worn.
Casing wear should be monitored by placing two ditch magnets in
the return mud flowline or possum belly tank. At the same time each
day (usually midnight) the magnets are cleaned off and the metal
recovered. Make sure that the mud particles and crud adhering to the
metal is removed and then weigh the sample. The daily drilling report
should note the daily and cumulative amounts of metal in lbs or kgs.
Any sudden increase in the return metal trend should be investigated.
Examination of the metal from the ditch magnet should indicate which
kind of wear is taking place.
Lubinski proposed a limit of 2000 lbs of contact force, below
which damage to tool joints would not be substantial (as discussed
above). Wear rates should be moderate below this limit using solidsweighted mud, with smooth hardfacing that is level with the rest of
the tool joint OD, and using sharp-tong dies, wear rates should be
moderate. Use protectors to reduce lateral forces as described above to
below this limit.
If a solids-free mud or brine system is used then wear rates will
be much higher. Extra precautions in this case may include using
nonrotating protectors (i.e., free to rotate on the drillstring), downhole motors (to minimize rotating the drillstring), minimizing the
dogleg severities and running heavier wall casing over the build and
below the wellhead.
114
Directional Design
[1.5.3 ]
It is better to complete the deviation work in the upper hole sections unless the target displacement is small. Aim to kickoff below surface or upper intermediate casing and finish the build before setting the
next casing string. You can then use rotary locked assemblies for the
rest of the well. This approach (for a typical, one-target deviated well)
helps maximize ROP and minimize total footage drilled. The final
inclination should be over about 17 from vertical, otherwise direction
will be hard to control with rotary assemblies.
Deviating bottom hole assemblies only work predictably in an ingauge hole. If you are likely to have hole enlargement problems in the
kickoff part of the hole and if mud design and good drilling practices
cannot solve these instability problems, the kickoff may be hard to control, depending on how fast the wellbore enlarges and how fast you
drill. It would be better to get below these troublesome zones and case
them off before starting directional work. For example, if you preferred
to kickoff fairly shallow but had unconsolidated sand bodies at that
depth range, there might be problems not only in controlling direction
but in keeping the hole clean, problems tripping, or inadvertently sidetracking the well when reaming in with a rotary BHA through the sand.
Directional work is better done in good wellbore conditions.
Avoid setting casing either immediately above or within the kickoff section. This may lead to keyseating of the casing shoe, which is
tough to get out of if you get stuck in it.
Rotary tangent (locked or packed) drilling assemblies often have a
slight tendency to turn to the right (check your offset wells). This can
be compensated for by finishing your build section slightly to the left
of the planned azimuth to the target. Also, with a tangent BHA, using
high weights to maximize ROP normally gives a slight build tendency,
as does drilling into formations with dips below 40. Leaving the wellbore 2-3 below the planned inclination to the target center at the end
of the kickoff before locking up the BHA would compensate for this.
With good directional offset data you may consider aiming to finish the
build section with the wellbore pointing a bit above the lower edge of
the target, knowing that this will maximize penetration and allow
application of high WOB and capacity for a slow build and the maximum tolerance. With a circular target area, since the angle is slowly
115
[ 1.5.4 ]
Well Design
built in the tangent section, the left-right tolerance that is at a maximum when aligned with the target center is also increased.
One other thing to remember when planning to finish the build a
degree or two low is that building to the line (or above it) and later
having to drop angle will compromise ROP with the low weights
required for pendulum assemblies. If, however, building is needed, a
short build assembly needs weight to work so ROP will not be compromised. It is better to be too low than too high.
If corrections are required while drilling, they should be made
sooner rather than later. Corrections deeper down take longer and are
harder to control.
If possible, avoid having to drop angle lower down in the hole. If
circumstances dictate this, then try to avoid dropping to less than 10
from vertical. It will become increasingly hard to drop more angle the
closer to vertical you get.
Directional Design
3.
4.
5.
6.
[1.5.4 ]
[ 1.5.5]
Well Design
7. Plan to use less build rate than is possible with the downhole equipment. This gives some leeway if an increase in build rate is needed.
1.5.5. Multilateral Wellbores
Directional Design
[1.5.7 ]
Bay, took one look at the leaning derrick, and climbed straight back on
the chopper again!)
1.5.7. Targets and Wellpath
119
[Section 2:]
Well Programming
The first stage in drilling a well is to
design what the well needs to look like
when it is completed, which was covered in Section 1, Well Design. This
section discusses how to write a drilling
program, which defines the methods
necessary to ensure that the well design
and objectives will be met as safely and
cost effectively as possible. Section 3,
Practical Wellsite Operations and
Reporting, covers practical wellsiterelated operations; however, much of
this section is also directly relevant to
the rig. Cross-references between the
two sections are used where appropriate.
[]
2.1
[ 2.1.1]
Well Programming
General information:
Well identification:
Well objectives:
Well positioning:
[2.1.1 ]
General notes:
[ 2.1.1]
Well Programming
Deviation:
Notes on any potential high casing wear problems, how to monitor, preventative actions (such as protector requirements)
Reporting requirements (by job and post-well)
Conductordriven:
[2.1.1 ]
Type of hammer
Casings:
Liners:
Cementations:
[ 2.1.1]
Well Programming
Wellhead specifications
Diverter/BOP configuration for each hole section
BOP requirements and specifications including specific test
requirements for each hole section
Drills required
Kick tolerance calculation assumptions made (e.g., state how
much higher overpressure would be vs. mud gradient)
Acceptable levels of influx after kick tolerance calculated
Any special precautions (e.g., controlled ROP at certain points,
flowchecks, increased kick drills, etc.)
Shut-in procedures required
Leakoff or limit tests to be used and procedure
Minimum value of equivalent mud gradient and action to take if
not attained
Geological prognosis:
Expected lithology sequence with names and descriptions of formations, also information on anticipated hole problems (e.g., fractured, sloughing, washouts, etc.)
Anticipated pore pressure and fracture gradients with depthnote
also the level of confidence in the figures given
Geological characteristics of expected formations: permeability,
fluid type, hydrocarbon depths, gas zones, etc.
[2.1.1 ]
Mud logging:
Well completion/testing:
Normally, detailed completion/testing programs will be sent out
closer to the time. General notes should be made to allow some preparation to take place.
Well suspension/abandonment:
[ 2.1.2]
Well Programming
Miscellaneous:
Equipment checklists
Approval signatures:
[2.1.2 ]
131
[ 2.1.3]
Well Programming
Use clear, concise writing style; avoid long words and long
sentences
Do not include irrelevant material that does not help the rig
Paginate and include table of contents
Use diagrams such as well status
Print two sides (use less paper; lighter; easier to read)
Refer to standard documents that would be on the rig, where
applicable (e.g., company procedures)
132
[2.1.5 ]
[ 2.1.5]
Well Programming
06:00 AM
14:00
32.00
18.00
8-Mar
8-Mar
9-Mar
8:00
22:00
16:00
14.00
18.00
18.00
10-Mar
10:00
18.00
11-Mar
11-Mar
4:00
14:00
10.00
24.00
12-Mar
13-Mar
14:00
10:00
20.00
20.00
14-Mar
14-Mar
6:00
12:00
6.00
8.00
14-Mar
15-Mar
17-Mar
20:00
1:00
1:00
5.00
48.00
120.00
22-Mar
23-Mar
23-Mar
1:00
5:00
11:00
28.00
6.00
14.00
24-Mar
24-Mar
1:00
11:00
10.00
12.00
24-Mar
25-Mar
23:00
4:00
5.00
17.00
25-Mar
21:00
16.00
26-Mar
26-Mar
27-Mar
13:00
16:00
16:00
3.00
24.00
Drive conductor
N/U diverter, clean to shoe
9-5/8 in casing ready to
load
Pilot hole
Open hole
Run and cement 13.375 in
casing
N/D diverter, N/U and test
BOP
RIH, drill shoe, circ, FIT
Drill ahead to 975 m TVDSS,
POH
Logs inc. w/trip
Run and cement 9.625 in
casing, WOC
N/U and test BOP
MU new BHA, RIH, gyro
inside DP
Drill out, condition mud, FIT
Drill ahead to TD
Run logs APP, including 2
trips
Run and cement 7 in liner
Run 8-1/2 in bit to TOL
Run 6 in bit / 3-1/2 in DP;
drill flapper valve; RIH to
landing collar.
Run scrapers and PBR mill
Run USIT in 7 in and CBL in
9-5/8 in
VSP
RIH PH6 tubing; clean/circ, rack
back
Clean TOL, set tieback packer,
pressure test well, POH
L/D excess pipe from derrick
Rig up for well testing
Start first well test
134
Notes
[2.1.5 ]
135
[ 2.1.5]
Well Programming
BUDGET TITLE
Notes
DATE
12-Apr-97
$ 7,596,377
$ 5,916,929
$
851,099
Accuracy of estimate
15%
1) SUMMARY
This well cost estimate covers the drilling, logging, testing, and abandonment of
the first maximum concession commitment well.
2) ESTIMATES
Well time estimate:
Rig move, jack-up, preload
Drive 30 in conductor
NU diverter
Drill 26 in hole
20 in surface casing
17.5 in hole
13 3/8 in casing
at 50 m
at 135 m
at 1000 m
at 1700 m
136
2.0 days
2.0 days
1.0 days
2.0 days
1.0 days
2.0 days
1.5 days
12.25 in hole
9 5/8 in casing
8 1/2 in hole
TD logging
Testing
7 in liner
Abandon well
Release rig
Weather downtime 5%
Rig downtime 5%
TOTAL:
at 2450 m
at 2900 m
[2.1.5 ]
4.0 days
2.0 days
4.0 days
3.1 days
20.0 days
2.0 days
3.0 days
1.0 days
2.5 days
2.5 days
55.6 days
$
$
$
$
$
$
910,565
4,155,266
1,679,447
6,745,278
851,099
7,596,377
79,063
Costs broken down by cost code. The next level of detail gives a
cost breakdown by code. Times and depths relevant to the estimate are
carried forward from the front sheet. Some totals are calculated by this
sheet (such as rig rate x days), and some of the figures come from the
next sheet in the workbook.
The sheet is set out in three sections: the left column shows a code
and description for each line, the middle set of columns are used to
enter time or depth-dependent rates, and the right set of columns
either multiplies time or depth-related costs by the relevant figure, or
takes input from the next sheet. Most departments that require cost
estimates will be happy with the summary and costs by code sheets and
will not need further levels of detail. (See Fig. 2-3.)
137
Description
A/C no.
87201
87415
87230
87530
87524
87555
87665
87551
87554
87551
87506
87554
87554
Rig rate
Vessels
Additional (catering, etc.)
Cement serv. & pers.
Mud logging
Conductor driving eq
Dock fees & base overheads
Rental tools
Consultants on rig
Anderdrift survey tool
ROV mob; drill 26 in, set 20 in
Water
Fuel (rig and vessels)
TOTAL
Steve Devereux
138
3,000
5
500
1,400
4,400
45,000
8,000
Rig Move
Cost Rates
12-4-97
47,500
8,000
400
508
600
2,000
4,400
700
1,400
500
3,000
5
500
69,513
3,000
5
500
1,400
4,400
45,000
8,000
600
508
9,000
15
1,500
186,915
4,200
13,200
135,000
24,000
Drill/Suspd Compl/Test
Total
30.6 days
20.0 days 53.6 days
2,900 m
2,900 m
Cost Estimate
Date :
[ 2.1.5]
Reporter:
Well Programming
139
10,250
50,000
20,000
498,886
57,880
10,000
5,000
44
50,000
695,000
20,000
100,000
25,000
500,000
637,016
10,250
50,000
20,000
498,886
57,880
1,230,255
20,300
229,029
8,700
29,688
107,060
835,478
100,000
25,000
500,000
25,000
498,886
57,880
200,000 200,000
50,000
20,000
10,250
50,000
205,000 1,537,016
5,000
62,120
127,600
191,187
1,467
20,300
229,029
8,700
31,155
107,060
897,598
127,600
1,421,442
50,000
20,000
100,000
25,000
500,000
[2.1.5 ]
Communications
Air transport
89000
87665
87554
87420
GENERAL TOTAL
2,500
9,550
5,000
50
1,000
1,000
2,500
9,550
5,000
50
1,000
1,000
2,500
9,550
5,000
50
1,000
1,000
7,500
910,565
28,650
15,000
150
3,000
3,000
76,388
50,000
191,000
100,000
1,000
20,000
20,000
511,450
267,775
2,678
53,555
53,555
133,888
291,800
152,775
1,528
30,555
30,555
[ 2.1.5]
TOTAL
Office overhead
87554
Well Programming
140
141
Days
865
700
750
450
2,765
m
26.00 hole
17.50 hole
12.25 hole
8.50 hole
TOTAL
bbls
2
2
2
4
10
Time
Surface
bbls
500
0
1,500
0
2,000
Accessories
$
30,000
20,000
15,000
12,000
20,000
Losses
bbls
3,726
1,024
538
155
5,443
13-Apr-97
Total
$
112,428
198,900
235,294
211,856
42,120
Volumes
Hole Vol.
bbls
1,863
683
359
104
3,008
Date :
Interval
DRILLING FLUID
Hole section
Total
$
142,428
218,900
250,294
223,856
62,120
$ 897,598
$129/m
6,089
1,707
2,396
259
10,451
Total
Mud
Unit Cost
Mud
Type
$/bbl
Cost
Hivis PHB
6
$ 36,532
KCl Glycol
42
$ 71,712
KCl Glycol
45
$ 107,838
KCl Glycol
50
$ 12,947
$ 229,029
[2.1.5 ]
TOTAL
Cost/Meter
20.00
13.38
9.63
7.00
Cement Interval
btm
m
1,200
2,040
2,450
2,900
top
m
50
1,000
1,800
2,250
$/bbl
35
35
40
50
Cost/bbl
%
100
40
25
100
Excess
$ 31,155
$9/m
$
21,574
6,302
1,812
1,467
Total
[ 2.1.5]
m
26.00
17.50
12.25
8.50
CEMENT MATERIAL
Casing
Hole Size
Well Programming
142
[2.1.5 ]
Details. The third sheet shows how costs are arrived at for more complex items. This shows what assumptions have been made for the estimate. For instance, the cost per barrel of mud is matched against the
hole volume, assumed losses, and required surface volume to be built.
This is useful because if for instance it is decided to TD the well at a different depth, the depth on the Summary sheet is amended and then the
totals are automatically recalculated. Thus, it is very quick and easy to
revise the cost estimate when things change. New cost estimates can be
made by revising previous cost estimates by using a different cost mud,
inputting that cost, and updating the estimate.
In Figure 2-4, only the first few items are shown. The actual
spreadsheet shows logging, abandonment, and other costs.
Contingencies. This is the last part of the workbook. When calculating what contingency to add to a base case well cost, it is reasonable
to see what could possibly go wrong (use the offsets as a guide), estimate the cost of this event occurring, and multiply by a probability of
occurrence to get a contingency cost. This is much easier to justify than
adding a standard contingency amount or percentage to the base cost.
The contingency amount is added to the summary sheet (see Fig. 2-5).
Fig. 2-5 Contingencies Sheet Example
AFE Well Cost Estimate
Well:
Example Exploration Well
Reporter: Steve Devereux
Date :
Contingencies:
Problem Probability,
Problems running 20 in
casing into hole
Hole instability in 17-1/2
in. hole
Hole instability in 12-1/4
in hole
Kick in 12-1/4 in section
Kick in 8-1/2 in section
Losses in 6 in section
Set 5 in liner & TD in
4-1/2 in
13-Apr-97
25
$ 158,126
$ 39,532
25
$-
$ 395,315
$ 98,829
25
25
25
50
5
3
3
3
$$ 50,000
$ 50,000
$ 50,000
$ 395,315
$ 287,189
$ 287,189
$ 287,189
$ 98,829
$ 71,797
$ 71,797
$ 143,595
50
$ 100,000
$ 653,441
$ 326,721
143
[]
2.2
Well Control
The main objectives of the BOP program are to ensure that if primary well control (hydrostatic) is lost, personnel and equipment are
not endangered and the well can be brought back under primary control. In the case of drilling with a diverter, the well cannot be closed in
and the diverter system is for safe rig evacuation during an extended
flow rather than for bringing the well back under control. If a shallow
gas kick occurs on a nonfloating rig, nonessential personnel should be
evacuated until the situation is brought under control and preparations
are made to evacuate the remainder if necessary.
This section will consider well control from a drilling programming
viewpoint. Practical well control aspects are discussed in Section 3,
Practical Wellsite Operations and Reporting.
The most complex and dangerous well control situation is a shallow gas blowout, occurring before BOPs can be installed. A shallow gas
kick can occur with little warning, it may involve H2S and presents a
145
[ 2.2.1]
Well Programming
Well Control
[2.2.1 ]
not be connected until surface casing has been set. A jack-up will often
drive conductor pipe extended to surface and set a diverter on top. If
drilled and cemented rather than driven, it will be drilled riserless since
there is nothing to attach a diverter to. If shallow gas blows out during
riserless drilling, the well will flow to the sea until the gas accumulation is exhausted or until the well bridges itself off.
When drilling from a floating rig, riserless drilling is preferred
to using a surface diverter. The slip joint is especially vulnerable to
leaks and damage under diverted flow conditions, jeopardizing the
rig and personnel.
A small diameter pilot hole will reduce the gas flow and will be
more likely to bridge off due to produced formation. If the gas flow rate
causes instability or fire concerns, a floater can move off location. The
deeper the water, the more that the gas will disperse as it rises and any
current will take the gas bubbles away from the rig. It is unlikely that
rig stability will be seriously compromised except if there is a very
strong flow in shallow water.
Santa Fe in Kalimantan has used a technique for diverterless
drilling of a surface pilot hole for a jack-up rig. The rig is lightly pinned
in place on the seabed and the towboats left connected. With zero air
gap a small diameter bit is run in and the pilot hole drilled. If shallow
gas is encountered, the string is dropped, the legs lifted, and the rig
pulled off location by the towboats. This is only applicable where the
bottom is fairly hard and gives little spud can penetration. See references in Section 2.2.5, References for Well ControlShallow Gas.
Note that shallow gas can occur at any depth. Therefore, it is possible that shallow gas can be met while conductor driving.
Diverter drilling. If the shoe strength is insufficient to close in a
kick, flow must be diverted away from the rigpreferably downwind.
Two lines are needed to prevent diverting upwind, whichever way the
wind is blowing. A windsock should be visible to the driller. The
diverter lines must be large diameter (at least 12 inches ID), straight,
with no restrictions, and securely attached to the rig. Large pieces of
formation may be produced with the gas. Erosion from produced sand
can cut steel lines on bends. The line valve mechanisms must open
fully and quickly, or bursting disks can be used. The line has to be kept
clear of cuttings and debris.
147
[ 2.2.1]
Well Programming
Well Control
[2.2.1 ]
diverter to close. If the return flowline shares any part of the diverter
vent system, the flowline outlet must be closed, otherwise gas will reach
the shale shaker area. Regular diverter drills should be held.
Planning points (equipment).
[ 2.2.1]
Well Programming
Well Control
[2.2.2 ]
When the casing has a competent shoe, the blowout preventers can
be nippled up. The setup will depend on company policies, type of rig,
available equipment, etc. It should be possible to connect the choke
and kill lines above the bottom rams and have spare, valved outlets for
the choke and kill below the bottom pipe rams. If the choke and kill
lines are below the bottom rams and a leak occurs at the ram side outlet, the flow could not be controlled.
The blind rams should not be the bottom set. This allows the pipe
to land on the bottom pipe rams, be backed off (or sheared) higher up,
and circulation to be established. On a surface stack the blinds should
also not be the top set of rams, so that in the event of leaking upper
pipe rams, the blinds could be closed allowing the top pipe rams to be
changed out. On some BOPs (e.g., Shaffer), normal pipe rams are not
designed to support the weight of the drillstring. Check with the BOP
operating manual. Shaffer rams for supporting pipe weight have a special metal insert on the top edge where the tool joint will land.
Variable bore pipe rams (VBR) can close on a range of pipe sizes.
VBRs should not be run as the bottom set; a drillstring cannot be landed on closed VBRs. Using VBRs can avoid having to spring the bonnets
open and change rams for certain mixed drillstring configurations.
When drilling with BOPs, the casing shoe should be tested after
drilling out to determine the formation fracture pressure and the maximum allowable annular surface pressure (MAASP). This establishes
the point at which the formation will just start to take fluid and must
151
[ 2.2.2]
Well Programming
not break down the formation. This is a leakoff test. The test may be
stopped at a predetermined limit, which is a procedure known as a
limit test. Both of these tests are known as formation integrity tests. If
weak or fractured formation is exposed, a limit test is usually performed. The recommended procedure is described in Appendix 2,
Formation Integrity Test Recommended Procedure.
BOP equipment rating. The rating of the BOP equipment has to
take into account the degree of exposure to risk and the degree of protection needed.
IADC classifications require that the minimum BOP pressure rating shall be defined by the least of the following:
the burst pressure of the casing to which the BOP stack is connected
the formation breakdown pressure at the shoe minus the hydrostatic pressure of the casing filled with gas. (You can assume gas gradient to be 0.1 psi/ft.)
the maximum anticipated surface pressure to which the equipment
may be exposed
Sometimes a section of the well will be drilled with a certain mud
weight when field experience indicates that a kick is possible in one of
the formations in that section; one example would be potentially
drilling into an overpressured raft within massive salt. A casing seat
will be chosen so that the shoe is close to the potential kick zone. Some
operators under these circumstances prefer to keep a tank of heavy kill
mud standing by, ready to pump quickly. There are some reasons
against doing this:
1. If the surface to bit volume is more than the bit to shoe volume,
then heavy kill mud will enter the wellbore after the influx has
risen into the casing. Therefore, pressures on the shoe and open
hole will not be reduced. If this is the case then having kill mud
ready serves no advantage at all. It may even have to be dumped
afterwards if not used (water-based mud), wasting money.
2. It is unlikely that the gradient of the kill mud will be exactly what
is needed and so would not be pumped straight down the well anyway; if it were pumped down this would complicate the kill and the
annulus pressures would be more difficult to calculate. Rather than
pumping it neat, it could save some time if it is mixed into the
active system to reduce the time needed to add barite.
152
Well Control
[2.2.3 ]
3. One of the mud tanks is tied up for the time that the kill mud is
kept standing by.
The circumstances may, however, dictate that it would be more
prudent to have a tank of heavy mud standing by; if it is decided after
discussion that this should be done then the drilling program needs to
specify this.
[ 2.2.3]
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Well Programming
Well Control
[2.2.4 ]
[ 2.2.5]
Well Programming
Pump out whenever moving pipe out in horizontal hole, on connections, or when tripping out
Flow check at the shoe and before the BHA when pulling out, also
at the shoe and halfway in the horizontal section when tripping in
(if a long horizontal section is open)
Be particularly alert for a flow and trip gas after resuming drilling
If pressures and conditions allow, bullhead the influx back into the
producing formation
If the inclination is over 90 then bullheading, if possible, is preferable
and
Drilling
Manual
on
CD,
Unocal, Santa Fe Devise Diverterless Drilling Method for Jackups, article in Drilling Contractor magazine, published by IADC,
July 1996.
156
[]
2.3
Directional Planning
[ 2.3.1]
Well Programming
tion that the bit drills. Other tools that do not affect the directional performance directly but give us controlling information include wireline
run and/or retrieved survey tools, universal bottom hole orientating
(UBHO) subs, measurement while drilling subs, inclination only measurement subs (Anderdrift), and wireline deployed gyro tools.
In terms of directional performance, the influence at the bit of a
particular tool is greater the closer it is to the bit. For instance if the
nearbit stabilizer goes undergauge by 1/4 in, it will affect directional
performance far more than if the next stabilizer at, for example, 35 ft
up goes undergauge by the same amount. It is also the case that only
the bottom 90 ft of the BHA or the first three stabilizers (whichever
is shorter) actually affects directional performance. Undergauge stabilizers are run higher up above the bottom 90 ft to minimize dynamic buckling and hold the drill collars off the wall for differential sticking concerns.
Following are the individual components and their effect on directional performance.
Drill bits. Some drill bit features can generate forces that produce
deflecting or stabilizing forces. A roller cone bit which is dull or damaged will increase the natural tendency of rotary assemblies with rollercone bits to make the bit walk to the right.
Other features will help the bit to resist deflecting forces or allow
the bit to react more strongly to these forces. Long-gauge sections on
fixed-cutter bits or gauge pads on the shirttails of roller cone bits will
resist deflection forces. Parabolic or strongly convex fixed cutter bit
profiles stabilize the bit whereas a flatter bottom profile will have weaker or no resistance to side forces. Directional fixed cutter bits sometimes incorporate cutters around the gauge which help cut hole to the
side of the bit, helping to give stronger dogleg severities for a given bottom hole assembly and drilling parameters.
Some bits are designed to cut an overgauge hole; a bi-center bit has
the center of the cutting structure offset from the centerline of the BHA
for drilling in salts and very plastic shales. If the bit is cutting overgauge then the gauge area has no rock to work against and would be
expected to react more strongly to deflection forces.
Stabilizers and roller reamers. A nearbit stabilizer or roller reamer
is run immediately above the bit, as its name implies. The gauge of this
stabilizer is critical to build or drop performance. An undergauge NB
158
Directional Planning
[2.3.1 ]
[ 2.3.1]
Well Programming
stabilizer, which is now in widespread use around the world. The benefits of a nearbit or string stabilizer, which allows downhole size adjustment, can lead to significant cost savings since trips are not needed to
change the build or drop characteristics of the BHA. The Andergauge is
available as string or nearbit types. They can be adjusted downhole
between full-gauge and one undergauge size and (at present) are available for 121/4 in and 81/2 in hole sizes. These are used on rotary and
steerable assemblies to control the build/hold/drop performance.
Some downhole motors can have stabilizer blades clamped on to
the body of the motor to adjust the directional characteristics. Blades
can be straight (aligned with the centerline) or spiral (wrap around in
a spiral). In very soft formations, the straight blade may tend to dig into
the side of the hole more readily than the spiral type. Spiral blades are
most common in all but the largest sizes, which is strange considering
that the largest ones are most likely to be run against soft formations!
Stabilizers may be made of steel or Monel. Monel is an alloy which
does not distort the local magnetic field and so Drill collars and
Stabilizers made of monel may be used to allow magnetic surveys to be
taken while drilling. Refer to the following section on drill collars for
positioning Monel stabilizers.
Drill collars. Drill collars are thick-walled pipes that allow weight
to be applied to the bit. Drill collars are very stiff (especially compared
to drillpipe) and have a relatively high resistance to buckling. The force
required to buckle a drill collar is determined by the material, ID, OD,
shape of the cross-section, and unsupported length. Larger ODs and
shorter distances between stabilizers in gauge hole will both increase
the compressive force required to buckle the collar.
Sometimes you want to make the collars buckle slightly because it
will tilt the bit and impose a deflection force to change direction. With
a build assembly, a nearbit stabilizer is run and a string stabilizer from
60 ft to 90 ft higher. Gravity tends to make the collars sag (assuming
the hole is already inclined) and increasing weight on the bit will
increase this deflection. Therefore in this configuration, placing more
weight on the bit will increase the build rate. The further apart the
nearbit and first string stabilizers are, the faster it will build.
Unfortunately, this increased distance also reduces azimuth control and
the bit will also turn left or right faster due to formation forces and formation-stabilizer interaction. As the hole angle increases, so too will
the build rate if everything else stays the same.
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Directional Planning
[ 2.3.1 ]
[ 2.3.1]
Well Programming
Directional Planning
[2.3.2 ]
Survey intervals. The survey tools are your eyes. They tell you
where the wellbore is relative to the planned position, and they tell you
how much to correct the wellbore path if it strays enough to place the
wellbore outside of the required targets.
How often surveys need to be taken may be dictated by government regulations or company policy. Otherwise, the following general
advice can be followed.
[ 2.3.2]
Well Programming
When a survey barrel is run or dropped into the UBHO sub with
an orientating muleshoe, the tool rotates as it enters and aligns itself
with the key. This is how the toolface azimuth can be determined.
Inclination-only surface readout sub (vertical wells). When
drilling a vertical well, surveys still have to be taken to ensure that
downhole events have not forced the bit to build angle. Circumstances
could include setting high bitweights on insufficiently stabilized
assemblies, faults, changes in dip, or boulders.
The Anderdrift Inclination Indicator is a sub run in the drill collars. It is mechanical only and it gives a set of pressure pulses, visible
on the standpipe, depending on the inclination. A survey takes a couple of minutes (almost independently of depth), and the tool eliminates the risks associated with wireline surveys. It can be very cost
effective for drilling vertical holes, especially with a high daily rate
operation. A Totco ring can be placed above it so that Totco surveys (or
single shots, if monels are run) can still be run on wireline.
Totco surveys (vertical wells). A Totco tool consists of an outer
barrel that houses the working parts of the tool. The measurement part
consists of a timer unit, an inclinometer, a punching mechanism, and
a disk holder.
When a measurement is taken, the inclinometer reading is
punched through a marked paper disk with a pin. The paper disk is
then rotated 180 and another pinhole is made.
After recovering the tool, the paper disk is removed from the holder
and examined. The two pinholes should both give the same reading and
be 180 apart; if they do not give the same reading or are not directly
opposite, then either the survey barrel was moving during the survey
period or the tool itself is faulty. It is easy to check the tool on surface; load
it, set the timer for a couple of minutes, and stand it almost upright somewhere so it will not move. Check the paper disk after the survey is taken.
The Totco tool can be run and recovered on wireline. Alternatively,
it can be dropped down the string and recovered later, either by wireline or when the BHA reaches surface. It is a good idea to drop the tool
whenever the bit is tripped out because this gives a survey with virtually no time impact. There is room past the tool for circulation so circulation is possible. However, if there are any potential problems when
tripping out, it is better not to drop it for later recovery.
164
Directional Planning
[2.3.2 ]
Since the Totco tool only gives an inclination reading, the wellbore
position cannot be calculated. Also, it does not detect a low-angle spiral hole where inclination stays about the same but azimuth constantly changes. Therefore, the tool is only used in vertical wells to ensure
that the well stays within a certain limit of verticality. A gyro or multishot survey will have to be run later if a definitive wellbore path and
bottom hole location are needed.
Magnetic single shot (MSS) surveys. A MSS tool consists of an
outer barrel that houses the working parts of the tool. The measurement part consists of a camera unit with timer mechanism, combined
compass, and inclinometer.
There are three different camera units that use either a timer set at
surface, a motion sensor, or a Monel detector that fires one minute after
it detects the presence of a Monel drill collar. If the survey will be run
on wireline, the motion sensor or Monel detector is preferable if the
hole is not sticky, since it will fire one minute after reaching bottom. If
the survey barrel is to be dropped, either to be fished on wireline or left
in the string during a trip out, then use the timer unit.
The camera takes a picture of the compass/inclinometer unit onto
a disk of film which is developed on surface. Inclinometer units come
in different angle unit ranges, generally 0-10, 0-30, and 0-90.
Choose the next range up from the maximum anticipated inclination.
The MSS can also give toolface azimuth if it is dropped into an orientated holder, such as a UBHO sub. On the film, the TFA appears as
a line on the compass rose.
As the MSS gives inclination and azimuth, the wellpath and bottom
hole location can be calculated as long as you know the location of the
previous casing shoe. Generally, a gyro or magnetic multishot survey
will have been run at the previous casing point to give a definitive shoe
position. Some wireline logging tools also give deviation surveys and
most, if not all, modern MWD tools give surveys of sufficient accuracy
to be definitive.
For running the MSS to give azimuth, nonmagnetic or monel drill
collars need to be run over the depth of the survey tool. Refer to Monel
drill collars and stabilizersselection and use later in this section.
Magnetic or gyro multishot surveys. At the end of a hole section,
if monel drill collars have been run in the BHA, a magnetic multishot
tool can be dropped. This produces a strip of film with shots taken at
regular timing intervals. While tripping out, the surveyor takes accu165
[ 2.3.2]
Well Programming
rate times and depths so that shots can be matched on the film with
the survey depths. This slows down the trip out since the string must
be held still for longer than it generally takes to rack a stand to ensure
that a survey is taken.
Gyro multishots produce a similar strip of film that has to be
matched to times and depths. The advantage of a GMS is that it can be
run inside steel, either in casing before drilling out or inside the drillstring (e.g., after tagging the cement plugs and before drilling out).
The main disadvantage of a GMS is that the quality control checks
must be done properly to ensure that the gyro is correctly aligned at
the surface, drift checks are done regularly to track the rate of drift,
and the alignment is again checked on surface. All this takes time, so
a GMS generally takes more time than a MMS. However, the GMS is
often run in casing on wireline while flanging up the BOP and so the
actual time impact may not be too much.
If a wireline unit is used for running a multishot survey, the depth
counter must be accurate and the wire in good condition. A faulty
depth counter will throw out your whole survey without you knowing
about it. This should be part of the quality control checks that are witnessed by the drilling supervisor.
Even in a vertical well it is important to have a reasonably accurate
picture of the wellpath. Apart from anything else, if disaster strikes and
a blowout results, a relief well can then be drilled to allow the blowing
well to be killed. I advise that a MMS or GMS be routinely run in the
casing set before the first section which may encounter hydrocarbons,
to provide a definitive wellbore position at that point.
Wireline deployed surface readout gyro (SRG). When kicking off
the well in close proximity to steel interference in the Earths magnetic field, a gyro tool can be run on wireline to give a constant surface
readout of directional information. Normally a working stand is made
up with a special gooseneck on the top, which allows mud to be
pumped down while the top of the gooseneck seals on the wire. A mud
motor is used for the kickoff so the working stand is not rotated.
The working stand is made up to the drillstring, the SRG is run on
wireline until it lands in the UBHO. The seal is pumped closed and the
mud pumps are kicked in. Drilling continues with a full surface data
readout until the stand is drilled down. Once the stand is drilled down,
it is pulled back, the pumps are stopped, and the SRG pulled back to
inside the working stand. The stand is broken and racked back in the
166
Directional Planning
[ 2.3.2 ]
derrick, a stand of pipe made up and run in. Again the working stand
is picked up and the process is repeated.
Alternatively a side entry sub can be placed higher up in the drillstring and the wire passes from inside the string to the outside, where
it follows the annulus up to the surface. The major disadvantage is that
if the BOP has to be closed, you now have a wire in the way.
Measurement and logging while drilling (MWD and LWD) tools.
MWD tools started to become commonly used in the early to mid1980s. At that time you had to have two engineers on the rig just to
run the tool and it was generally not too reliable. Modern MWD tools
are normally run by the directional driller and can usually stay for
hundreds of hours downhole.
Most MWD tools send signals to the surface using pressure pulses
in the mud stream travelling inside the drillstring. A very sensitive
pressure transducer on the standpipe detects these pressure pulses and
converts them into data, which can be presented to the driller. Realtime (delayed by a few seconds to a minute) data on tool inclination,
azimuth, and toolface azimuth is displayed on the drillfloor allowing
corrections to be made quickly as required.
There are several methods of generating pressure pulses. Negative
pulses are caused by opening a small valve, momentarily allowing mud
to bypass the rest of the BHA and bit. Positive pulses are caused by
actuating some kind of restriction inside the BHA, which causes a positive pressure wave to travel up the drillstring. A carrier wave can also
be generated that gives a continuously cycling pressure variation, and
this carrier wave can then be modulated to give a data stream to surface in the order of 5 to 12 Hz.
More recent developments combine MWD and LWD tools to give
real-time readouts of directional data, sonic, resistivity, gamma ray, and
other formation parameters while drilling. The LWD package generally transmits its data electronically to the MWD transmitter package
and this then transmits all the data up the hole. The modulated carrier wave transmission method allows a higher rate of transmission for
large amounts of data.
LWD tools transmitting real-time formation data to the surface
allow the drillers to actively steer the BHA within the reservoir. For
instance, say you wanted to drill a high angle well in a sandstone reservoir. The plan is to drill 3-4 m below the shale cap rock. By running a
gamma ray or resistivity tool, you would know when you approached
167
[ 2.3.2]
Well Programming
closer to the cap rock because GR would increase and resistivity would
decrease. Orientating your steerable assembly downwards for a distance would then bring the wellbore back to the desired position.
One major consideration with geosteering high-angle wells is that
the LWD sensors can be some distance behind the bit, especially if a
motor is used. By the time the sensor tells you a correction is needed,
you could have drilled 60 ft or more. The closer the sensor is to the bit,
the closer you can control the wellpath.
The Anadrill Resistivity at the Bit (RAB) is a resistivity LWD tool
that actually measures formation resistivity at the bit as well as resistivities at different depths of investigation a few feet behind the bit.
This allows real-time decisions while drilling so that corrections can be
made immediately and the results can be monitored.
LWD tools and applications are developing very quickly. If your
well might benefit from this kind of measurement, check to see what
tools are currently available. Also, check on prices, especially
because, if they are lost in a hole, some of these tools can cost up to
a half a million dollars.
MWD tools in horizontal wells. Most horizontal wells are drilled
to intersect large vertical fractures (such as in the Austin Chalk, Texas).
This can lead to losses. The larger the losses, the weaker the signal
from the MWD tool, which you will be relying on to monitor and control progress. Baker-Hughes has an MWD tool for horizontal drilling
that uses special techniques to get survey data to surface, even with
total losses. It normally sends a conventional mud pulse signal along
the mud column in the string, but once an hour it will send the special
signal to surface. Unfortunately, if you have total losses, a signal once
an hour (while better than no signal) is of limited use if you need to
align the string to drill ahead.
There is a cable-run survey tool that can be used in horizontal
holes. This is run after tripping part of the way in and latching into a
special UBHO sub. The wire is cut and a wet connector is made up and
suspended in the tool joint in a basket. Tripping in continues and to
take a survey, the cable is run with the mating connector and latched
into the bottom cable. Thus, the cable only has to be run in the top part
of the hole. The connector can be a problem in conductive muds
168
Directional Planning
[2.3.2 ]
[ 2.3.2]
10m
Monel
length
Well Programming
30m
Monel
length
40m
Monel
length
50m
Monel
length
20
deg
.
de
g.
h
ut
im
Az
40
.
deg
70
10 deg.
20 deg.
30 deg.
40 deg.
50 deg.
60 deg.
For azimuths between 0 and 90, use azimuth as shown in Figure 2-6.
For azimuths between 90 and 180, subtract azimuth from 180 (e.g.,
for 125 use 55).
For azimuths between 180 and 270, subtract 180 from azimuth
(e.g., for 205 use 25).
For azimuths between 270 and 360, subtract azimuth from 360
(e.g., for 295 use 65).
170
Directional Planning
[2.3.2 ]
[ 2.3.2]
.Well Programming
Directional Planning
[2.3.3 ]
[ 2.3.3]
Well Programming
dips below 40. A couple of degrees below the line at the end of the
kickoff before locking up would compensate for this. The more weight
run on the bit, the stronger the tendency to build. If the assembly is
fully locked up, full bit parameters can be used for maximum rate of
penetration and the build tendency can be quite small.
One other thing to remember when planning to finish the build a
degree or two low is that if you build too much up to the direct line to
the target (or above it) and later have to drop angle, you will compromise ROP with the low weights needed with drop-off assemblies. If,
however, you need to build, a short-build assembly needs weight to
work so your ROP will not be compromised. Pendulum assemblies lose
lateral control and may wander off azimuth. Pendulums are also prone
to drilling a spiral hole as angle decreases towards the vertical and this
is detrimental to wellbore stability, hole drags, sticking tendency, and
casing wear. Therefore, you should err on the side of being slightly too
low rather than too high.
If offset wells indicate that certain formations have definite tendencies to deviate the wellpath (such as giving a slow build with a
rotary locked assembly), then the plan can incorporate these measured
tendencies to modify the kickoff slightly. If you expect a long slow
build in the tangent section then use this information to improve your
directional planning.
Kicking off by jetting or badgering. The fastest way to deviate a
well in suitable (soft) sandstone formations is by jetting. One large nozzle is run with two small nozzles so that most of the flow goes to one
side of the bit. By setting down weight on the bit and pumping fast, the
formation is washed on one side and deviates the wellbore. Only the
first few feet of each kelly are jetted and the rest is rotary drilled to the
next connection. Ream once or twice before making the connection.
The BHA will normally be set up as a build assembly with about 60 ft
between the NB and first string stabilizer. If the formation can be drilled
fast with a tricone bit (> 50 ft/hour) then jetting should be possible.
Smith Tool produces a special bit for jetting. This is like a tricone
bit with one cone missing and a large circulation slot where the third
cone would normally be. This bit has a right-hand walk tendency.
MWD tools are not normally used when jetting due to the large
flow rates necessary. Single shot surveys are quite adequate and much
cheaper than MWDs; string orientation is accurate from the table as
174
Directional Planning
[2.3.3 ]
there will be little difference between bit and kelly direction due to the
shallow depth. Surveys during kickoff will generally be taken every
single. Jetting can produce very high dogleg severities and must be
monitored as the kickoff progresses.
Since drilling will be fairly fast and the annulus will get loaded up
with cuttings, a float in the string is necessary. Otherwise, you will
have to spend time circulating before every survey to prevent strong
backflow.
Kicking off with a downhole motor. A motor may be configured
with a bent sub above it or it may have a bent housing. Where the
housing bend is close to the bit, the motor may be used in orientated
(sliding) mode or may be rotated while drilling ahead. Such an
arrangement is a steerable system, so called because it can deviate the
well by sliding or drill straight by rotating the drillstring.
If the kickoff is fairly shallow, a UBHO sub can be run above the
motor or bent sub, orientated with the bend. This allows a single shot
survey to be run on wireline with an orientating muleshoe so that the
inclination, azimuth, and toolface azimuth are shown on the survey. By
determining TFA after running the survey, the driller can mark the
drillstring and drill orientated with the drillstring locked in rotation.
Deeper kickoffs call for a measurement while drilling tool is run. This
is due to the time taken to run wireline surveys (and the risk involved
of breaking the wire) and as reactive torque generated at the bit will
have a marked effect on toolface orientation once on bottom with a
longer drillstring. The MWD tool gives a constant readout of inclination, azimuth, and TFA so that reactive torque can be compensated for.
Whichever system is used (bent sub or bent housing), deviating
the wellbore is achieved by generating a side force at the bit that makes
it cut sideways as well as ahead.
Kicking off on a cement plug (direction not controlled). In a vertical well, it may be necessary to sidetrack around a fish and re-establish a vertical well to target depth. It is possible to set a cement plug
and kickoff from it with a flexible drilling assembly, as long as the
cement plug has a higher compressive strength than the formation.
Once the cement plug is set, run in with a 60 ft pendulum BHA and
a mill tooth bit. Start to drill on the top of cement, building up to a high
WOB/lower rotary speed. The bottom drill collars should start to buckle dynamically, pushing the bit sideways. If the cement plug is harder
175
[ 2.3.3]
Well Programming
than the formation, the easiest route is for the bit to come off the plug.
Monitor the returns for formation cuttings; if progress is too fast to
monitor progress properly then drill around 10 ft and circulate for
samples before continuing. An inclination survey (Totco or
Anderdrift) can be compared to the original inclination at that depth
to confirm that the well was kicked off.
Once all the returns are formation cuttings with little or no
cement, drill ahead with reduced WOB and reaming two or three
times before making a connection to allow the well to start dropping
angle towards vertical. When the inclination is satisfactory a locked
assembly can be run, carefully reamed through the kickoff depth and
drilling ahead continued.
This technique would only be viable where it did not matter on
which side the well kicked off. If the downhole target was large or
close enough then this could be considered. Since no downhole motor
or MWD is required, this could be a low-cost option in the right circumstances. See Kickoff plugs in Section 2.7.5, Cementing Design
for Cement Plugs and Squeezes.
Kicking off in casing from a window (direction controlled). A
well may be kicked off from inside casing for various reasons, such as
to reuse a nonproductive well by drilling to a new target, collapsed
casing lower down, etc. A whipstock in casing method is described
below, but a window can also be milled in the casing and the well can
be kicked off in a cement plug set across the window.
Run a casing mill to the desired depth. The length of window
required will vary with the casing size and the expected dogleg severity that can be obtained with the motor and bent sub or bent housing.
Mill a window of the desired length. Set a cement plug from about
100 ft below the window to about 20 ft above.
Run in with the directional motor assembly and tag the top of the
cement carefully while circulating and rotating slowly. Drill off the
cement to the top of the window. Orientate the motor in the desired
direction and commence the kickoff.
Kicking off in casing with a whipstock. A whipstock is basically
a long wedge-shaped metal guide that is run in attached to the BHA
and set on bottom, oriented in the direction of desired kickoff. The
whipstock is held in place on the milling assembly by a shear bolt;
once oriented (checked by a single shot survey run to a UBHO sub)
176
Directional Planning
[2.3.4 ]
setting down weight forces steel teeth into the casing to anchor the
whipstock, setting down more weight shears the bolt. The mill follows
the concave face of the whipstock and drills into the side of the hole.
After drilling for one or two singles (sufficient for a single shot survey
to be taken in open hole away from the steel whipstock), the mill is
pulled out, and the whipstock is pulled by the BHA. A full sized bit is
then run on a suitable drilling assembly and the pilot hole is drilled
out. The process can be repeated if necessary.
A combined whipstock and mill can also be run inside casing; the
whipstock is oriented and set permanently in the casing. The whipstock is released by setting down weight to shear a bolt, the mill (guided by the whipstock) cuts a window in the side of the casing, and is
pulled out. A balloon mill is run to smooth off the window and then
a bit may be run to drill ahead as desired.
[ 2.3.5]
Well Programming
Directional Planning
[2.3.5 ]
WOB up somewhat. This will improve ROP and may also increase the
drop rate a little as it forces the drill collars to buckle outward due to
the bend in the hole between the bit and second stabilizer.
Reaming once or twice before each connection can also help in soft
to medium hardness formations.
If using a fixed cutter bit, choose one with a short-gauge length,
flatter face profile, and side cutters. With a roller cone bit, avoid pads
welded on to the shirttails. In abrasive formations with insert bits, use
diamond-enhanced heel and gauge cutters but again avoid shirttail
pads that effectively increase the gauge length.
Maximizing hydraulic impact force may help to erode formation at
the bit face that could help to drop angle.
There are only two occasions in general when a pendulum assembly is justified; when you actually want to drop angle and when drilling
large diameter surface hole with large, heavy drill collars (171/2 in hole
with 91/2 in drill collars). Do not use a pendulum assembly if already
vertical and you intend to drill a vertical well. Any sideforce at the bit
(e.g., a hard streak) will cause the bit to kickoff, causing a potential
problem later on with a ledge, apart from the effect on directional performance, which may cause you to miss the target.
179
[]
2.4
[ 2.4.1]
Well Programming
5
4
3
2
Compare actuSelect bit,
Determine how
Identify the
to improve on BHA, parame- al vs. expected
best two bit
the previous ters, and proce- performance
runs in each
dures. Predict and make recbest bit run
interval or forommendations
expected
mation
performance.
Update the
BITREX bits
database.
Update field
information
notes.
Examine
mud logs.
Evaluate
wireline logs.
Update hole
section summary.
Examine the
hole section
summary
and mark
the best and
second best
runs in each
interval.
Look at the
dull bit gradings.
Determine
likely causes
of major dull
features and
how to
improve bit
selection,
BHA, or
drilling practices in order
to avoid
them on the
next run.
From all
records in
the same formation,
should a
softer formation bit be
considered?
182
Remember
this is an
economic
decision.
Which combination of
bit, BHA,
parameters,
and practices
should give
the lowest
cost per
foot?
Should a different bit
type (e.g.,
PDC) be
considered?
What overall
ROP and distance should
be expected
from the best
combination?
After the
well, compare actual
vs. expected
performance
and CPF.
If performance is
below expectations,
explain possible reasons.
Note ideas
for further
improvement
on the next
well.
[2.4.2 ]
Comparing bit records using the BITREX database. When comparing offset runs, it is important to compare a shorter, faster run
with a longer run at lower ROP and say which is the better run in the
same formations.
183
[ 2.4.2]
Well Programming
The bits under comparison were pulled at the end of their economic life. This would normally be on ROP (e.g., cost per foot calculations) or on indications of bearing failure.
The bits under comparison were run using parameters for best performance, normally on fully stabilized rotary assemblies where no
constraints on WOB or RPM are applied, except the manufacturers
recommended maximums.
However, even if both these conditions are not met, the NBPI still
provides guidance on how successful or otherwise the bit run was.
The NBPI is calculated as follows:
Bit footage
bit cost
Drilling Hours + Normalized Tripping Hours +
+ Next Bit Ream hours
rig hourly cost
184
[2.4.2 ]
It can be seen immediately that in no case did a harder bit outperform a softer bit. This might imply that we can probably make better
progress with slightly softer bits than the previous best in some cases;
it would help to examine all the bits run in a particular formation, not
just the best two.
185
[ 2.4.2]
Well Programming
This quick evaluation could form the basis for our bit selection on
the next Obaiyed well by simply using the best performing bit to date
in each formation. However, what we should do is try to establish
which bit will improve on the previous best run. For that, we have to
do further analysis.
Writing field information notes for bit runs. Daily drilling reports
often leave a lot of relevant information unrecorded. Drilling programs
rarely give sufficient information to the drilling supervisor about the
anticipated formations. Both these concerns can be overcome by writing
and updating field information notes.
As operations proceed, the on-site drilling supervisors should
make detailed notes of operational events. At the end of a hole section,
the drilling supervisors should use these notes to write a detailed
report, which can be incorporated into the final well report. An example is shown in Section 1.1, Preliminary Work for the Well Design.
This information should also be used to add to or amend the field
information notes. The information that is required in particular is:
All the available data relating to each formation can then be summarized for future reference when planning and drilling. As experience
is gained, this data should be kept up to date. It can be seen that there
is much useful information to aid in bit selection and use.
Mud log. If a logging unit is on-site, it is worth getting the loggers
to record drilling data every foot or meter in a format that can be
imported into a spreadsheet. This allows the drilling engineer to make
very detailed analyses. As shown on the hole section summary, the
ROP data with changes of bit or formation that came from the mud loggers data (recorded every meter). By correlating with wireline logs, a
comprehensive picture can be built. The data recorded in the spreadsheet was:
Depth in 1 m intervals
Drilling rate in both minutes per meter and meters per hour
Weight on bit
186
[2.4.3 ]
Rotary speed
Rotary torque
Pump output
Pump pressure
Mud density in
Mud density out
Mud temperature in
Mud temperature out
Gas readings
In addition, the mud loggers take samples from the shakers and
describe lithology, cuttings appearance, and cavings percentage and
appearance.
Much of the power produced by the mud pumps is lost in the circulating system through the surface lines, drillstring, and annulus.
These are parasitic losses that produce no direct benefit to the drill bit
performance. The power that is left can be used in different ways to
help clean the bit/hole bottom, aid ROP by the direct effect at the bit
face, and drive downhole motors or turbines.
The calculations involved in drilling hydraulics are best done with
computer programs and these are available free from various bit companies (e.g., Reed or Smith). Using a hydraulics program allows different scenarios to be compared quickly and easily; the entered data can
usually be saved and modified later as required by different mud properties or pump capabilities. Calculating these pressures by calculator is
tedious since they have to be repeated for each change in the flowpath
size, consuming valuable time if you are playing what if with different mud properties or flow rates.
There are two current theories for optimum hydraulics. One gives the
total nozzle area to maximize hydraulic horsepower. The other calculates
for maximum hydraulic impact force on bottom. Of the two methods,
maximizing HHP gives greater pump pressure and lesser flow rate.
To maximize bit hydraulic horsepower, the pressure drop across
the bit should be 65% of the total pressure loss in the system. If the
187
[ 2.4.3]
Well Programming
nozzles were sized smaller than this, less HHP would result on bottom
because the flow rate would have to be reduced to keep the same surface pressure. If the nozzles were larger, the same flow rate with less bit
pressure drop would also reduce the HHP expended at the bit.
To maximize hydraulic impact force on the bottom, the pressure
drop across the bit should be 48% of the total pressure loss in the system.
The actual percentage loss across the bit will decrease as drilling
progresses due to increased pressure loss in the system (adding more
drillpipe). The calculations can be made for the middle of the expected bit run interval, unless the expected bit run is very long and the
pumps will be running at or near to maximum pressure; in this case,
calculate for the expected end of the bit run.
Hydraulic horsepower expended at the bit is often expressed as
horsepower per square inch or HSI. Using HSI above 5 is likely to lead
to significant bit erosion except on very short bit runs. Erosion on the
bit is acceptable as long as it does not lead to premature bit failure
(such as PDC cutters dropping out of the body).
Following are some advantages to optimizing for impact force
rather than hydraulic horsepower:
1. Larger nozzles will reduce nozzle plugging and will be better for
pumping LCM.
2. Lower pressures give less pump wear, reducing downtime due to
pump failure.
3. Higher AVs give better hole cleaning.
4. Erosion of the wellbore due to annular velocity, except in very
unconsolidated formations or fractured formations with a nonsealing mud system, probably does not occur. It is a commonly held
opinion that high AVs lead to washouts. What is more likely is that
the high hydraulic energies at the bit lead to hole enlargement or
washouts and optimizing impact force may help reduce this effect.
Maximizing bit HHP is not guaranteed to lead to improved ROP
through better bottom hole cleaning (especially in harder formations)
at normal pressures. Some success has been reported with experiments
using ultra high pressures (up to 30,000 psi) in hard rocks, however,
this is not in widespread use (see references in Section 2.4.9,
References for Drill Bit Selection).
If maximizing HHP does not improve ROP, then either maximize
impact force or choose nozzles for the flow rate required at a pressure
188
[2.4.3 ]
below maximum at section TD. Calculating exact nozzles and flow rate for
optimum hole cleaning under the actual conditions at the time cannot be
done due to the large number of variables, some of which are unknown.
Note that it will not always be possible to fully optimize bit
hydraulics since other considerations may take precedence. For
instance, if the use of LCM is anticipated, then use nozzles of at least
16/32 in size, even if the optimization calculations suggest smaller nozzles. Pressure drops through downhole motors and motor seals may
restrict the minimum bit pressure drop.
Apart from calculating the nozzle total flow area (TFA), the type
and arrangement of nozzles can make a significant difference to
bit/bottom cleaning and therefore ROP. In a rotationally symmetrical
bit (such as a conventional tricone drill bit) without a center jet, placing three equally sized nozzles may lead to a dead zone of no flow at
the center of the bit. Asymmetric nozzle sizing (i.e., using one large
and two smaller nozzles for the desired TFA) can cause a cross-flow
effect across the bit face, ensuring that no dead zone exists. Experience
and lab results indicate improved ROP from cross-flow configuration.
The large nozzle also creates turbulent pressure fluctuations which
helps lift rock chips off the bottom, reducing redrilling of cuttings and
effectively increasing bit efficiency and ROP. Some operators also use
one blank nozzle to give a cross-flow effect from the two remaining
nozzles and this has demonstrated some ROP improvements.
Laboratory experiments indicate ROP improvements from asymmetric
nozzle configurations of around 20% (see references in Section 2.4.9,
References for Drill Bit Selection).
Extended or mini-extended nozzles can also be used (in combination with asymmetric sizing if required). By decreasing the distance
between the nozzle and formation, less dissipation of energy takes
place before the jet impinges on bottom. In softer formations this can
give a worthwhile increase in ROP, probably due to a combination of
better bottom cleaning and some erosion of the formation. Extended
nozzles have to be handled carefully; if the bit breaker is worn, then
makeup torque can be transmitted between the nozzles and the bit
breaker, which may lead to downhole loss of the nozzle.
A relatively recent nozzle design works in theory by creating both
positive and negative pressure regimes (i.e., below mud hydrostatic) on
bottom. The Vortexx nozzle has an asymmetric inside profile which
also produces a directional flow; on a PDC bit these nozzles are aligned
in such a way as to produce cross-flow effects along the blades by using
a template which has been worked out for a particular bit design. To
189
[ 2.4.4]
Well Programming
Sonic, lithology, and porosity logs can be interpreted to give various rock mechanical properties, such as Bulk Compressive Strength,
Shear Modulus, Youngs Modulus of Elasticity, and Poissons Ratio.
Some of the major bit vendors have done work on relating bit selection
to these properties. (Note: The definitions of these mechanical properties are covered in Section 1.4, Casing Design.)
190
[2.4.4 ]
At the time of writing, one of the best evaluation tools is the Dipole
Shear Sonic Imager (DSI) from Schlumberger. This tool gives compressive, shear, and Stoneley wave data, which can be interpreted with
other log data to yield mechanical properties. These results can be displayed in a log format. (Note: monopole sonic tools only yield useful
information when sonic velocities are faster in formation than in mud,
i.e., hard rock; dipole tools can be used in softer rock too.) Correct
interpretation of the results takes considerable skill and area knowledge and is therefore not something that drilling engineers would
undertake themselves. In fact, there are many useful interpretations for
drilling purposes that the DSI tool allows and these are covered in more
detail in Section 1.4.7, Mechanical Properties of Steel.
Application of the DSI tool to bit selection is in its infancy. Some
general conclusions can be drawn at present, but the complexity of all
the various interrelated factors leaves plenty of room for future research.
There are quite a few papers on these topics (see the listing of references
at the end of this section) which can be followed up for further study.
Following are guidelines that relate various log interpretations to
the basic suitable bit type.
Sonic transit time vs. PDC cutter type.
sec/ft
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
Cation exchange capacity vs. PDC profile. (See Reference 1)This relates to the potential for bit balling in water-based muds.
CEC
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
191
[ 2.4.5]
Well Programming
Mill tooth bits (rock bits). Mill tooth bits are most useful in soft
formations, usually the top sections of the hole. One large bit may drill
top hole for several wells. It is also possible to have the cutting structure built up again (by a specialist firm) and extend the bit life, as long
as the bearings are still okay.
Some operators use mill tooth bits to drill the shoetrack prior to
running a PDC bit, although PDC bits are routinely used to drill out
plugs. (For a plug to be PDC drillable, it should contain no aluminum
that tends to wrap around the cutters, which then fail through overheating. The nonrotating type of plug is also preferable.)
Mill tooth bits are also used in formations that contain harder nodules (e.g., chert and conglomerates), which may cause TCI bit insert or
PDC cutter breakage due to shock loading. Running a shock sub will
be helpful here. Some mill tooth bits are designed with bearings and
cutting structures to be used with mud motors at higher speeds.
Certain strong, elastic shales can be drilled better with a mill
tooth bit than a PDC or insert.
192
[2.4.5 ]
Mill tooth bits are the only ones capable of drilling on small pieces
of steel junk. Large amounts of junk will of course cause serious damage to the bits and may create even more junk by knocking off cones if
they are not run carefully.
Tungsten carbide insert (TCI) bits. Bit teeth made of sintered
tungsten carbide revolutionized tricone bit drilling since they were
introduced. The materials and techniques used today have made these
cutters very long lasting. Diamond coatings can be applied to make
them even more wear resistant, which is especially useful for gauge
protection in abrasive sands. These bits are more expensive than mill
tooth bits using the same bearing structure and are far more durable
and certainly more popular in medium, hard, and very hard formations. The tungsten carbide inserts, while extremely hard, are also brittle and break under shock loading.
When using tricone bits in softer, sticky formations (shales) which
may ball the bit, center jets are often helpful. Extended jets that take
the flow closer to the bottom also help bottom cleaning. In a bit with
three nozzles, a dead zone of little fluid flow in the bit center can
result from running three equally sized nozzles. Running one large and
two smaller nozzles of a different size gives a cross-flow effect on bottom, which may improve cleaning, especially when drilling fast. Some
operators blank off one nozzle completely to give a very strong crossflow effect. This does not seem to have an adverse effect on bearing life
(due to overheating) as might be expected; the blanked off area will
experience strong flow upwards from the two nozzles.
Polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bits. PDC bits use a thin
wafer of diamond mounted on a stud. This cuts efficiently like a lathe
tool. They are good in plastic formations (e.g., medium shales and salt)
and can give fast ROP over long intervals. Early PDC bits used in waterbased muds tended to ball the cutters, then overheat, which delaminated the diamond. Better water mud technology has overcome this.
PDC bits use either a steel or a matrix body. The manufacturer can
refurbish some steel-bodied bits as long as the bodies are in good
shape, giving you new bits for a reduced cost.
PDC bits have a wide choice of cutting structures. Large cutters work
aggressively in softer formations, removing large cuttings at high rates of
penetration. Bits for harder formations will be heavier set with a greater
number of smaller cutters. Gauge protection is often with natural diamonds. They are not suitable for very hard or abrasive formations.
193
[ 2.4.6]
Well Programming
In order to define which is likely to be the best bit to use for each
part of the hole, a set of questions can be asked. The first question is
what are the best two offset bits? The second question is how can we
improve on the previous best bit run?
Examine the two best runs. Look at the bit gradings as well as the
run details. Differences between the best two may point the way; if the
best bit was a slightly softer type than the second best, is it likely to help
if an even softer formation bit is used? It is clear that drilling supervisors and engineers often choose bits that are too hard a type for the formation being drilled and therefore end up sacrificing performance.
If the best bit was pulled at the end of its economic life, what
caused the bit to be pulled? For instance, if there were an excessive
number of broken teeth, was that caused by bad run practices, drillstring vibration, or formation conditions? Can this be avoided on the
194
[2.4.6 ]
[ 2.4.6]
Well Programming
Diamond-enhanced gauge
protection and roller
reamers.
High-compressive
strength.
Very high-compressive
strength.
Motor applications.
196
[2.4.6 ]
The second code digit is type and it is a subclassification of hardness. The code can be 1 to 4 for bits that increase hardness within the
formation hardness series.
The third code digit is feature classification and can be 1 to 9 as follows:
1 - Standard, nonsealed bearing
2 - Air lubricated, for air drilling
3 - Standard, nonsealed bearing with insert gauge protection
4 - Sealed roller bearing
5 - Sealed roller bearing with insert gauge protection
6 - Sealed journal bearing
7 - Sealed journal bearing with insert gauge protection
8 - Directional
9 - Special application
For example, a bit type IADC 5-4-7 could be a Hughes ATJ33, Reed
HP54, Smith F37, or Security S88F. Each of these bits has broadly comparable application as journal bearing insert bits for medium formations of high-compressive strength. Note that the bit manufacturer and
not the IADC gives a bit its IADC classification.
The system also defines 16 special codes that can be placed after
the IADC bit classification to show particular features.
IADC special feature code and description
A
L
B
M
C
S
D
T
E
W
G
X
[ 2.4.6]
H
Y
J
Z
Well Programming
Note: For larger or smaller diameter cutters, use the ratio of diameters. So 50 x 0.25 in cutters would equal 25 x 0.5 in cutters. This does
not include extra cutters, e.g., gauge trimmers and side-cutting cutters
(sidetrack bit).
198
[2.4.6 ]
PDC
>24 mm diameter
14-24 mm diameter
8-14 mm diameter
<8 mm diameter
Surface set
Natural diamonds
Thermally set polycrystalline (TSP)
Mixed (e.g., natural and TSP)
Impregnated diamond
[ 2.4.7]
Well Programming
[2.4.9 ]
Atkin, et al. New Nozzle Hydraulics Increase ROP for PDC and Rock
Bits, SPE 37578. (Refers to the Vortexx nozzle design.)
Brandon, B.D., et al, Development of a New IADC Fixed Cutter Drill
Bit Classification System, SPE/IADC 23940. Presented at the
IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, New Orleans, February 18-21, 1992.
Gault, et al. PDC Applications in the Gulf of Mexico with Water Based
Drilling Fluids, SPE 15614, June 1988.
McGehee, D.Y. et al. The IADC Roller Bit Classification System,
SPE/IADC 23937. Presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, New
Orleans, February 18-21, 1992.
Veenhuizen, et al. Ultra-High Pressure Jet Assist of Mechanical
Drilling, SPE 37579.
Wells, M.R. (Amoco), and R.C. Pessier (Hughes Christensen).
Asymmetric Nozzle Sizing Increases ROP, SPE 25738. Presented at
the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, February 23-25, 1993.
201
[]
2.5
Mud has a great influence on the stability, safety, cost, and production potential of the well. Mud properties must be engineered to minimize potential hole problems (for instance, as seen on offset wells) and
meet the other objectives.
Casing points are often designed to separate pressure regimes.
Several potential problems can occur in the same hole interval, which
may call for conflicting mud properties. An example might be the tertiary section of a northern North Sea well. The 171/2 in interval may
comprise the complete tertiary sequence with a pressure transition
zone in the Paleocene, which requires the setting of a 133/8 in casing.
The 171/2 in section can comprise young, gumbo type, reactive shales
which overlie the mature, brittle shales of the lower tertiary. The optimum water-based fluid to deal with the reactive shale may not stabilize
the lower shales.
A mud program should outline the concise approach for each hole
interval to address problems. It should define the range in which individual relevant fluid parameters will be controlled and explain how the
fluid will be maintained within this range.
203
[ 2.5.1]
Well Programming
The daily mud report should include all those properties that were
defined in the mud program. This allows you to ensure that the properties are maintained as specified. You also need to ensure that performance indicators are reported, such as low gravity solids levels, sand
content, etc. The following topics look at some basic principles and then
go on to examine various mud systems from a well planning viewpoint.
[2.5.2 ]
clays can become unstable much faster than they would otherwise.
Starting and stopping the mud pumps too fast can exert destabilizing
forces. Good drilling practices help minimize or avoid such problems.
This is covered in more detail in Section 3.3.7.
2.5.2. Dispersion and Flocculation of Clays in Water
[ 2.5.3]
Well Programming
There are three mediums in use today as makeup fluids for drilling
mud: water, oils (hydrocarbon liquids), and air/gas.
The most commonly used medium is water and the resultant
drilling mud may be described as water-based mud. There is a substantial variety of water-based fluids that may be used in the drilling
industry and these types may be classified in many different ways. One
common classification of water-based mud types is to divide them into
two groups, dependent on the state of the clay that is present in the
mud (see the previous topic). Thus, a drilling mud can be described as
either dispersed or nondispersed (see the subsequent topics). Oil, air,
and miscellaneous systems will be discussed later.
There are a substantial variety of mud types and special applications
available in drilling. It is beyond the scope of this book to cover them
all. However, outlined below are some mud types that have been (or are
being) commonly used. Although they have been classified on the basis
of dispersed and nondispersed systems, attention is drawn to the varying ways in which inhibition of shales is achieved; e.g., potassium systems, calcium systems, silicate systems, etc. The mechanism of inhibition varies with each. The type of mechanism to use can best be selected on the basis of the type of shale being drilled. In many cases, the idea
that there are closely defined mud systems (particularly with waterbased muds) should be dispelled. As can be seen from some of the
examples shown below, one type of mud blends into another type of
mud in the same way that one type of shale might vary into another.
[ 2.5.4 ]
as a lignosulfonate added to it which has defocculated it and ultimately allowed it to disperse. Fully dispersed, a clay may be at its most
expanded condition and it will not be able to impart any more viscosity than it already has to the mud. This can give some temporary stability to the mud in respect of its rheology, but the resultant mud may
be capable of causing further dispersion of formation clays. As such, it
would be considered to have very little inhibition to clay dispersion.
Some degree of inhibition can be provided to a dispersed mud. The
addition of some form of calcium (from lime or gypsum for example)
to a fluid whose makeup clays has been deflocculated and dispersed
will cause drilled clays to remain in the aggregated condition or, at the
least, limit their dispersion. Lime or gypsum muds are examples of
such inhibited dispersed systems. Nondispersed variants of lime or
gypsum muds now exist but the amount of clay in them is minimized.
A characteristic difference between a dispersed and a nondispersed
mud can be seen in their typical rheologies. A dispersed system will
usually have a low yield point value and a high value for plastic viscosity. The plastic viscosities of dispersed muds will be higher than
those of nondispersed muds. Usually improved drilling performance,
better hole conditions, and less formation impairment can be achieved
if a nondispersed mud can be used (as compared with a dispersed system). In the early days, in many cases, only dispersed systems could be
used. It was the improvement in efficiency of rig solids control equipment that allowed nondispersed systems to be successful. Following
are some dispersed mud systems.
Spud mud. Often in top hole drilling, a fluid based upon bentonite
in water is used to provide viscosity and filter cake. This fluid is often
described as spud mud. Such mud would be described as dispersed
mud when the bentonite was in a dispersed condition. It would
become flocculated mud when it was mixed in with seawater or had
lime (calcium hydroxide) added to it. The flocculation of a prehydrated bentonite (dispersed in fresh water) with lime, in the case of spud
mud, is done on purpose to obtain additional viscosity and gel
strengths. The gel structure of flocculated mud is invariably stronger
than in the dispersed state.
Caustic lignosulfonate mud. This is a very simple form of dispersed mud. It will cope with varying quantities of clay present in the
mud. However, in using a caustic lignosulfonate mud those varying
quantities of clay will tend to increase. That is because this type of mud
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tain drilled clays in an aggregated state or at least suppress clay dispersion. This is similar to attempting to disperse bentonite in hard or
brackish water.
Gyp lignosulfonate muds would not provide the stability to very
reactive shales as would, for example, a potassium chloride nondispersed polymer system (which uses a different mechanism of inhibition). However, gypsum lignosulfonate systems can still be relevant
against some reactive shales. Engineering a gyp lignosulfonate mud is
similar to engineering an invert emulsion oil-based mud. Every component of the mud has its particular function. The concentration range
of each component chemical is closely defined and, if correctly maintained, can result in a very stable mud. Each chemical interacts with
each other.
The basis of gyp mud is 15 to 18 ppb of bentonite prehydrated and
fully dispersed in fresh water; 6 ppb of gypsum is added to the system
and 5 to 6 ppb of lignosulfonate deflocculant with caustic soda is added
to counter the flocculating effect of the gypsum on the bentonite. In
adding 6 ppb of gypsum, it is intended that 2 ppb of gypsum will solubilize in the mud and 4 ppb will remain in suspension as a reservoir
for the supply of calcium ions. The pH will control how much gypsum
will go into solution and how much will remain in excess (in reserve).
As mentioned above, the means of inhibition is the presence of soluble
calcium ion and the objective is to get as much into solution as possible. At a pH range of 9.5 to 10.0, it should be possible to achieve a filtrate calcium concentration of 1200 to 1500 ppm. The higher the pH,
the less soluble calcium will be present.
The lower pH range for gyp mud is defined as that which is necessary to allow lignosulfonate to solubilize. Normally, this is around a pH
of 9.5. If you used another deflocculant that would be active at a lower
pH and you used a lower pH, more calcium would be in solution. At
the pH range, however, of 9.5 to 10.0, 2 ppb of gypsum will be solubilized and 4 ppb will be excess gypsum.
The amount of caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) that has to be
added to a gyp lignosulfonate mud to obtain a pH of 9.5 is quite substantial (usually around 3.5 ppb). This is because of the acidic nature
of lignosulfonate and, to a lesser extent, gypsum. Filtration control in
gypsum mud is normally achieved with the addition of 5 ppb of CMC
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LV, but starch can also be used. There is little point in using a filtration
control agent such as PAC (which is more expensive than CMC). In an
environment of 5 ppb of lignosulfonate, any encapsulating effect from
PAC can be forgotten.
Gypsum muds are stable up to 250F depending on the polymer
used for filtration control. Always add new volume to the system by
whole mud prepared to the specific formulation. Gypsum muds have
also been formulated in the nondispersed condition.
Lime lignosulfonate mud. The principles of low lime lignosulfonate mud are very similar to that of gypsum lignosulfonate mud. The
means of inhibition is the presence of filtrate calcium. In this case, the
filtrate calcium is derived from the addition of calcium hydroxide.
The pH of low lime lignosulfonate mud would normally be in the
range of 11.5 to 12.0. Excess lime is normally 1 to 2.5 ppb. Care should
be taken in breaking over to a lime mud because a viscosity hump will
occur. The order in which you add the chemicals is very important.
A high lime variant of a lime lignosulfonate mud exists. The excess
lime in such a case would be controlled in the range of 5 to 15 ppb.
Low lime lignosulfonate muds can withstand substantial carbonate
contamination. Low lime lignosulfonate muds are not commonly used
these days but some mud companies have their propriety variants.
They have been supplanted by lime polymer systems or gypsum lignosulfonate muds.
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described as pseudo-plastic or shear thinning. The best known polymer viscosifier is xanthan gum, which will provide substantial viscosity at low shear but is shear thinning. Other examples are various polyacrylamides, guars and semi-synthetic guars, polyanionic, or hydroxy
ethyl celluloses (PAC and HEC).
Xanthan gums are exceedingly long molecules with molecular
weights in many millions. The digestion of cellulose by the bacteria,
xanthomonas campestris, synthesizes them. They are also commonly
known as XC polymers, after the name of the bacteria.
Filtration control additives. These act in a number of ways. They
may impart filtration control by improving the nature of the filter cake
of mud by their deflocculating action. They may increase the viscosity
of the filtrate and make it more difficult for it to pass through the filter
cake. They may also provide colloidal-size particles, which will bridge
off in the filter cake if the polymers are not completely water-soluble.
Examples are carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC), which in their low viscosity forms will provide a deflocculating effect. High viscosity forms
will provide viscosity to the filtrate. Some starches will provide colloidal particles. Examples of other filtration polymers are asphalts, lignites, resins, and some polyacrylates
Other uses of polymers are as surfactants, shale stabilizers such as
glycols, emulsifiers, de-emulsifiers, foaming agents, lubricants, and
corrosion inhibitors.
Anionic polymers: PHPA and PAC. Two types of anionic polymers
are available to provide encapsulation. These are partially hydrolyzed
polyacrylamide (PHPA) and polyanionic cellulose (PAC).
PHPA provides far more anionic charge than PAC because its molecular weight is much greater and its charge density is a lot higher. If
encapsulation is required, PHPA is the best polymer to use if the
chemistry of the drilling mud allows it to be used. It is only stable at
a pH maximum of 10.0 and a filtrate calcium of 300 to 400 ppm.
Sometimes it cannot be used, such as where the mud needs a high pH
and the presence of high-filtrate calcium. An example would be if substantial and persistent CO2 contamination was experienced that
would require a high pH and the addition of some form of calcium.
However, encapsulation can also be achieved by using PAC, but the
concentration of PAC required will be a lot higher than that of PHPA.
Normally with PHPA, 1 ppb is kept in excess in the system, which
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example, at a pH of 10.5, it will be possible to control the filtrate calcium at around 400-500 ppm depending on how much lime is held in
excess (not in solution). Lime polymer muds are normally run at a pH
of 10.3-11.0. PAC is the only encapsulating polymer that can be used.
PHPA would break down in a lime polymer system due to the pH and
the filtrate calcium that is present.
A lime polymer mud would not provide the inhibitive properties
that a potassium chloride polymer system would against a highly reactive shale. It would be capable of stabilizing most moderately reactive
shales. A lime polymer mud can be prepared from drillwater, hard
water, or seawater.
The relevant principles previously described in this section will
apply. It will be necessary to ensure a sufficient quantity of PAC polymer is kept in the system at all times. This may be in the form of PAC
regular (which will provide viscosity) or a low viscosity PAC.
Additional filtration control should be obtained from stabilized starch.
If additional viscosity is required (to that provided by PAC regular), use
xanthan gum or wellan gum.
The MBT should be controlled in the range of 6 to 12 ppb clay
equivalents (15 ppb maximum). The lower range of MBT is to provide
some filter cake; the upper range is where viscosity problems would
occur in the nondispersed condition. It is unlikely that it will be necessary to add any prehydrated bentonite to the mud unless the MBT
dropped below 6 ppb clay equivalent. This would only be likely after
drilling a long clay-free section (e.g., a long chalk section).
A lime polymer mud would be a relevant mud to use against a
moderately reactive shale that would be drilled with an aerated mud
and require a high pH. It would be applicable for moderately reactive
shales where a persistent carbonate contamination problem existed.
Mixed salt systems. Mixed salt mud is designed for drilling
through salt sequences that include the most soluble ones, such as the
Zechstein formation encountered in the North Sea and northwest
Europe. Evaporite sequences occur as a result of seawater evaporating,
leaving the soluble salts behind. There is a definite order of precipitation as the least soluble salts come out of solution first. If a saltwater
lake evaporated without further influx of saltwater, the order of
precipitation would be calcium carbonate (CaCO3), dolomite
(CaMg[CO3]2), gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) (which is converted to anhy218
[2.5.5 ]
drite [CaSO4] as heat and pressure remove the associated water molecules), halite (NaCl), and, finally, various rare potassium and magnesium salts. These last ones are very soluble and would only precipitate out if dehydration was almost complete. Any fresh influx of water
would tend to dissolve these last rare salts again and a fresh cycle of
precipitation could then occur, but these rare salts may not therefore
be in the first sequence. The Zechstein, for instance, consists of four
evaporation cycles; three of which contain the most soluble potassium
and magnesium salts, which often leads to problems associated with
large washouts.
Evaporites consisting only of the salts up to NaCl in the sequence
can be drilled with common salt saturated mud. The more complex
sequences present several problems, which are not solved with a conventional salt (NaCl) saturated mud. The highly soluble magnesium and
potassium salts will dissolve in a sodium chloride saturated solution.
This can lead to very large washouts with attendant problems of lost
directional control, difficult cementing, keyseating, and difficult or
impossible fishing operations if a fish gets lodged across a large washout.
As the solubility of salts increases with temperature, a solution that
is saturated at surface or flowline temperature will not be saturated at
bottom hole temperatures. Therefore, an excess of salt is required to be
held in suspension at surface in order that the solution will still be saturated downhole. Potassium and sodium salts precipitate as fine crystals that are small enough to pass through the shale shakers and thus
remain in the system. Magnesium salts, however, form large crystals
that would be removed at the shakers; so to maintain a saturated magnesium system, you would need to continually add magnesium, which
would be very expensive. Solubility of magnesium decreases as Na and
K concentration increases and so it will usually be possible to inhibit
washouts in Mg salts with moderate Mg concentration and high Na and
K saturations. The actual concentrations needed for a particular hole
section will be dependent on the salts present and the downhole temperature. Use desanders and desilters only as much as is necessary, otherwise large amounts of the fine salt crystals will be removed and have
to be replaced.
Because of the substantial concentration of divalent cations that are
present in a mixed salt mud system, only nonionic polymers should be
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PHPA or PAC should be avoided, since they are not compatible with
any divalent cations that will be present in the salt. Viscosity should be
obtained from the use of a biopolymer such as xanthan or wellan gum.
Some forms of starch can also provide viscosity. Starch can be used to
provide filtration control as long as the bottom hole temperature is not
much above 200F. At higher temperatures, starch would require to be
stabilized or a variant of starch that is more temperature stable should
be used. At temperatures above 250F the usage of CMHEC (carboxy
methyl hydroxy ethyl cellulose) or other temperature stable polymers
should be considered.
There is little point in running a pH in the system much above a
neutral pH unless any deflocculants or any other material used in the
system requires a higher pH. Increasing pH results in increased insolubility for most salts. Any salts that come into solution from the formation are best kept in solution. For corrosion control, the use of a film
forming amine may be considered.
Seawater polymer mud. If shale is not particularly reactive, it may
be adequately drilled with a seawater polymer system. All the principles of an encapsulating polymer fluid as previously described in this
section will hold true except that no additional inhibitive chemical
such as potassium chloride would be added to the system. Inhibition
would be obtained from the encapsulating polymers and the chemistry
of the seawater.
Using a seawater polymer system will provide for all the advantages of a nondispersed mud, e.g., the rheology and ability to control
low-gravity solids.
It will be the case that for a seawater nondispersed polymer system,
there will be more inhibition if it is made up on PAC and not on PHPA.
The reasoning behind this is as follows:
In a potassium chloride polymer mud, PHPA is the best available
polymer because of its encapsulating ability but it has to be protected
or otherwise it will break down. The hardness has to be controlled at
below 200 or 300 ppm depending on the pH and the pH must be kept
low and definitely a maximum of 10. However, the potassium ion is
providing substantial inhibition. In using a seawater polymer system as
opposed to KCL PHPA mud, the chemical inhibition from the potassium ion will not be present. Second, any inhibitive effect from calcium
that comes from the seawater will not be present because the calcium
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has to be treated out to protect the PHPA. This would not be necessary
if PAC were used instead of PHPA.
Inhibitive KCl-Glycol mud. This system is based upon the potassium chloride polymer mud, but with the addition of a polyglycol.
Certain glycols can impart many of the properties of diesel and mineral oils but without the toxicity. Most glycols, unlike diesel or mineral
oils, are miscible in water at normal temperatures. There are several
theories as to why glycol inhibits shale hydration; with a TAME mud
(thermally activated mud emulsion) the glycol solution is designed so
that glycol precipitates out of the filtrate when it heats up after entering the shale, which blocks further filtrate entry. This requires the mud
to exhibit a cloud point behavior, whereby at a temperature between
the bottom hole circulating temperature and the (higher) formation
temperature, the glycol starts to de-emulsify. Glycol systems are also
formulated without cloud point behavior.
Glycol coats steel with a hydrophobic film that repels water. This
helps to prevent bit and BHA balling and gives good lubricity, reducing drags and torques. If balling is suspected, a drum or two of glycol
+ surfactant pumped downhole may remove the balling. Glycol can
also be used in noninhibited water-based systems for lubrication and
prevention of balling. This makes the use of PDC bits more effective
in WBM, as any balling of PDCs causes rapid heat buildup that leads
to cutter damage.
Glycol improves filter cake quality, reduces filtrate loss, and
reduces cake thickness while improving filter cake lubricity, therefore
reducing differential sticking tendencies. There is also some evidence
to show that glycol improves tolerance to drilled solids, reducing the
need for dilution.
Silicate mudsgeneral. Refer to the discussion on wellbore stability in Section 2.9.1 for background information on reaction of shales
with drilling fluids.
Silicate muds provide pore pressure isolation (see Section 2.5) and
prevent hydration by blocking off the pore throats of the shales while
drilling. Silicates are also effective at encapsulating cuttings (assisting
removal at the surface and preventing solids content buildup) and preventing dispersion (of limestones as well as shales, due to the high
pH). Silicate muds are currently one of the most effective water-based
fluids for drilling shales, limestones, and sands.
Groups of silicate molecules are small enough to penetrate into the
tiny pores in the shale surface. In the mud, filtrate pH is kept high
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usually around 10. As the filtrate enters the shale pores, the pH drops
towards neutral. Silicate molecules form gels at neutral pH and solid
silicates precipitate out when reacting with polyvalent ions, which are
always present in shale pore fluids. These combined gels/precipitates
block the pore throats against any further invasion. In addition, this
causes a semi-permeable membrane at the shale surface so that osmotic forces can be crafted to further dehydrate the shales, which causes
the shale to further harden.
The mechanism also seems to work well in microfractured shales.
These types of shales often go unrecognized and cavings from fractured
shales are made worse with increased mud density or swab pressures,
which is why the standard answers of increased mud density and wiper
trips are seriously detrimental when certain types of cavings are seen.
Shale samples left exposed to silicate formulations actually show
an increase in hardness (measured by a penetrometer), probably due to
these precipitates cementing the shale crystals together combined with
shale dehydration.
Silicate muds were tried in the 1930s for shale inhibition with some
success. The chemistry involved was not understood and the main
problem was getting stable rheology. However, these problems have
been solved and silicate muds have been successfully used in the field.
Due to the way they work, any use in reservoir rocks must be carefully planned; silicates in general are only suitable for the reservoir in
development wells where the wells will be cased and perforated. Open
hole completions may be a problem due to the presence of gels and precipitates giving an effective mechanical skin. Return permeability tests
on core samples will indicate whether the silicate mud is suitable for
the reservoir section.
Silicate muds are nontoxic, environmentally acceptable, noncorrosive, can accept all available polymers, and the constituents are readily
available at a reasonable price. Clear fluids can be used since the silicates are completely soluble at high pH. Acid gas influxes (such as H2S)
are neutralized by the alkaline mud. In addition, the anionic silicate
prevents buildup of shale cuttings on the drillstring (balling).
However, silicate depletion rates can be high; the mud needs careful
design and proper supervision to be successful. The high pH needed
may cause problems with elastomers.
NaCl or KCl/polymer/silicate mud. The mud is formulated as a
low-solids polymer using seawater, KCl, or NaCl with 20 to 40 ppb of
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adsorption of one phase onto the rock). In any two phase reservoir,
there will always be a wetting phase and a nonwetting phase. In
an oil/water system, water will normally be the wetting phase and
in the case of a gas/oil system, it is oil. Changes in oil or water saturation can alter wettability of a reservoir. However, some surfactants
in the filtrate of a drilling fluid can also cause changes in wettability.
A change in wettability in a reservoir from water wet to oil wet can
reduce the permeability to oil. This is particularly the case in lowpermeability reservoirs.
The surfactants that will cause a change in wettability from water
to oil are usually cationic, but some nonionic surfactants can also have
this effect.
Proactive measures to be applied to drilling fluids to minimize
formation damage. There are some reservoirs that are not at all susceptible to damage by most drilling fluids. The damage that occurs is
easily cleaned up. Heavily fractured carbonates would be one example.
However, listed below are some considerations for minimizing formation damage.
Whatever mud is used, minimize on all insoluble solids and particularly low gravity solids. The cation exchange capacity of the mud
should be as low as possible. If necessary, consider displacing at the top
of the reservoir (if there is a casing point) to a drill-in fluid. In this
drill-in fluid, do not use any clay to get a filter cake. (In a polymer
mud, around 6 ppb of clay is necessary to get filtration control irrespective of how much fluid loss control additives are added). Calcium
carbonate bridging agent might be used to aid filtration control along
with HEC for viscosity and appropriate fluid loss control additives.
The bridging agents particle sizes should be designed around the
pore throat diameter, if known. The best way to determine the optimum bridging agents is by return permeability tests on core samples.
The fluid needs to be designed such that a thin filter cake is formed
with low spurt loss invasion that will come off the formation when
flow starts. This will require a combination of inert bridging solids
(e.g., CaCO3) of a size range from one-third pore size upwards, together with hydrocolloids such as starch. The coarser particles bridge first,
then progressively finer particles, and finally the hydrocolloids progressively block the remaining spaces. Spurt loss takes place at this
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stage. Finally filtration occurs where all solids are filtered out by the
wall cake and only clear fluid invades the formation.
One point about sized calcium carbonate bridging agentit is
often promoted because it is acid soluble. However, it can usually be
cleaned off the wellbore by back flushing. If an acid treatment is
required to remove it, acidizing should always be carried out underbalanced. If acidizing was overbalanced, there is a danger that the particle size of the bridging agent will become smaller as it dissolves. The
smaller particles may invade the sand. Also, acid may not dissolve all
of the remaining CaCO3. It should also be remembered that the plastic
viscosity of the mud will increase proportionately to the amount of calcium carbonate that is added.
Calcium carbonate is not the only bridging agent that might be
used. Other forms of bridging agents are sized salts used in saturated
solutions and oil soluble resins. The sized salts can be removed by dissolution with water. The oil soluble resin, which is not soluble in water,
dissolves in the crude as the well flows. These techniques have been
highly developed and particularly the use of sized salt, the accompanying polymer mix, and the methods of removing the polymers. It is
recommended to review these techniques further with the mud companies or the specialty companies that produce these materials.
Control of solids and use of bridging agents (to bridge on the face
of the wellbore) is important as it minimizes on solids invasion and
also on fluid invasion of the reservoir. For the same latter reason, the
filtration rates of the fluid should be as low as possible. The lowest safe
differential pressures should for similar reason be applied.
Most drill-in fluids are in a nondispersed condition. This is
because dispersed muds carry much more (damaging) low-gravity
solids. At the same time, the use of dispersants such as lignosulfonates
should be avoided. Lignosulfonates, as well as acting on formation
clays, can disperse interstitial clays in the porosity of the reservoir. If
these clays disperse, they may cause plugging or even weaken the
matrix of the rock. It is common in nondispersed drill-in fluids to have
2 to 3% potassium chloride present to protect these interstitial clays.
Avoiding using dispersed muds can show some large increases in
productivity, particularly in marginal fields. One field in Zaire,
increased well productivity from 400 BOPD to 1100 BOPD because of
changing from a lignosulfonate CMC mud to a lime nondispersed
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Carbonate ion or sulfate ion can cause scaling if present in sufficient or certain quantities in the connate water (or filtrate). Often minimizing the concentration of divalent cations such as calcium is
enough to avoid this type of scaling. The use of monovalent brines
such as sodium chloride, sodium bromide instead of calcium chloride,
and calcium bromide might be considered.
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These are some but not all first principles in avoiding formation
damage. Some or most might be applied in exploration wells. To really be sure of minimizing the damage to a reservoir, nothing can
replace knowing the reservoir in depth. The reservoir conditions, the
connate water conditions, the mineralogy, the permeability, and the
porosity. There is no standard answer to this and the solutions are
highly reservoir specific.
2.5.7. Oil Muds
[2.5.8 ]
[ 2.5.8]
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[2.5.8 ]
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[2.5.8 ]
How do you quantify the matrix stress at the rig site? How do you
come up with the shale salinity? As accurately as you practically can.
At the least, you may be able to quantify the minimum water phase
salinity that you require.
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[2.5.8 ]
defined as the ratio of the volume percentage of oil in the liquid phase
to the volume percentage of water in the liquid phase.
Many of the components of an invert emulsion oil mud are present
or perform in the oil phase. Consequently, if the oil phase is reduced
because the oil/water ratio has been reduced (in favor of water) or
because the solids phase has increased due to increase in density or
solids, the performance of some of these components will be affected.
For example, the yield point and gels of the mud can be raised with
the addition of viscosifiers. These viscosifiers are present in a whole
mud concentration but only act in the oil phase. If the oil/water ratio
is increased, the viscosity will decrease (unless additional viscosifier is
added) because the viscosifier concentration in the oil phase will have
been reduced. The viscosity will also have been reduced because the
water phase (and its contribution to viscosity) will have been reduced.
This effect is an attribute of an invert oil emulsion mud. It allows
for a stable control of viscosity by altering the oil/water ratio to counter
the tendency for viscosity to increase as fluid density is increased.
Normally a low-density oil mud will have a lower oil/water ratio than
one with a higher mud weight.
Determination of oil/water ratio. Oil water ratios can been engineered to as low as 40/60 or as high as all oil (100/0) and still provide a stable mud. Very low oil/water ratios have sometimes been used
to provide a mud that will give a low concentration of oil on cuttings.
All oil systems have been used as drill-in fluids to study formation
water without any contaminating effect of water. They are sometimes
described as native state coring fluids.
Normally when using oil mud on a complete well, the shallower
intervals with lower mud weights would be drilled with oil muds having 60/40 to 70/30 oil/water ratios. Deeper intervals with higher fluid
densities would see oil water ratios in the range of 75/25 to 85/15.
Specific consideration of the oil/water ratio should be made in
respect to any contaminating fluids entering the mud due to an influx.
If this is liable to happen, it is better not to have too small a water
phase. The contaminating influx will show more effect.
OWR also depends on density. The higher the density, the higher
the OWR required. Table 2-2 provides the lowest OWR recommended
for each density range.
The mud should be built with an OWR corresponding to the highest density that might be needed during drilling; otherwise, a density
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increase would require addition of oil. This would dilute the mud so
more weighting material and chemicals would be needed. This would
also increase the volume.
Table 2-2 Lowest OWR Recommended by Density Range
(courtesy of Baroid)
Seabed studies of multiwell sites in the North Sea by the mid-eighties (after three or more years of usage of low-aromatic mineral oils)
showed cuttings piles below platforms where in some zones there were
incomplete benthic populations. The problem was the vast amount of
hydrocarbon material in the cuttings piles, and in some cases or some
parts, anaerobic conditions persisted. Subsequently, legislation
required that the amount of oil on cuttings discharged to the seabed be
reduced. Permitted levels of oil on cuttings were persistently reduced.
This required improvements in primary shaker equipment and eventually the reintroduction of cuttings wash systems. In some offshore areas
(e.g., spawning grounds) the discharge of cuttings from oil muds based
upon low-aromatic mineral oils was banned irrespective of how little
the oil content was on the cuttings.
2.5.10. Oil Mud Additives
[2.5.10 ]
their molecule. Each end aligns itself to be in either the oil phase or the
water phase. They bridge the oil-water interphase. The emulsifier, coupled with shear, forms the minute emulsion droplets.
Emulsifiers that consist of soaps will have their cationic ends
aligned in the water phase. Monovalent cations such as sodium will
form soaps that formulate straight emulsions. A typical example is
sodium oleate.
However, divalent cations such as calcium can form soaps with two
large organic groups attached that are organophylic. This imbalance
between the hydrophylic (calcium) ends and the organophylic ends
will create an invert emulsion.
The type of soaps used in oil muds are commonly formed from tall
oil fatty acids. Tall oil is derived from pine trees. It is an oil synthesized
by the tree and its quality is dependent on the climate and weather
when it is produced. The quality of tall oil can be significant in the
effectiveness of the emulsifier. Tall is the Norwegian word for pine.
Not all soaps are generated from tall oil fatty acids. An example of
another type of soap used as an oil mud emulsifier would be soap
derived from fish oil fatty acid.
Not all emulsifiers used in oil muds are soaps. Various amine based
surfactants such as polyamines or polyamidoamines are also used.
They also will have hydrophylic and organophylic ends to their molecules. In some cases these may be mixed in with the soaps in their
packaging or may be supplied separately.
Initially, in early oil mud systems, the term primary emulsifier was
applied to the soap type emulsifiers and secondary emulsifier to other
types. This terminology is now very loose because many invert systems
are based upon non-soap type emulsifiers with no soaps present.
Alkalinity control. Alkalinity control in most invert emulsion
muds is obtained by the addition of common calcium hydroxide
(lime), or in some cases calcium oxide. The use of a calcium base is
particularly relevant when tall oil fatty acid soaps are in use.
Oil-base muds do not suffer from the problems of hydrogen sulfide
or carbon dioxide contamination that can occur in a water-base fluid.
However, such contamination in an oil-base mud will show itself as the
increased addition rate of lime to maintain alkalinity.
Viscosifiersorganophylic clays. Hydrophilic clays (e.g., bentonite) that do not normally disperse in a nonpolar fluid such as an
241
[ 2.5.10]
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oil, can become oleophylic and dispersible (in oil) by treatment with
amine salts. In this case, the cations of the bentonite clay are replaced
by cationic groups from the amines. The amines are also adsorbed
onto the clay surfaces. When this treated clay (organophylic clay) is
present in an oil, it will disperse. The clay surfaces will be displaced
apart because the cationic groups repel each other and because the
amine salt will extend itself in the oil medium. This process is assisted by shear.
Dispersion of the clay can be further increased and the gel can be
stabilized if an organic group such as an aromatic ring can enter
between the clay surfaces. It is often the case that a stronger gel (higher yield point) per amount of organo-clay added is obtained in diesel
rather than in a low-aromatic mineral oil mud. To obtain a sufficient
yield point when using base oils that are low in aromatics, it is necessary to either add additional material, provide increased shear, add an
effective oil wetting agent, or use a clay with an amine salt treatment
that is optimum for the base oil in use.
Organophylic clays vary in a number of ways. When used in
drilling fluids, there are three types of clays that are treated to become
oil dispersible. The most common is bentonite and invariably, it will be
a sodium bentonite (Wyoming). Bentone 38 is an example of such a
type of clay but there are many types. Another clay that is converted to
an organo-clay is hectorite. The hectorite clay is a layer clay, similar to
bentonite but with a much larger clay structure. An example of such an
organo-clay is Bentone 64. This type of clay has the advantage of producing good stable rheology at very high fluid temperatures.
Attapulgite (seawater gel) can also be treated to make it organophylic.
This type of clay can improve the suspension properties of the mud but
will not assist in filtration control.
Another way that organo-clays will vary is the type of quaternary
amine salt that is adducted to the clay. The performance of these
quats will vary depending on the type of base oil in use. Some quats
are more effective than others, and change in quat on a clay may provide as much as double the yield point.
The process by which the quat is added to a clay can also make a
difference to the performance of the organo-clay. There are two
processes involved. One is a dry process and the other is a wet process
with subsequent drying. Some companies will make proprietary vari242
[2.5.10 ]
[ 2.5.11]
Well Programming
Concern has often been shown regarding possible formation damage that may be caused by oil-based muds. In some cases, this concern
244
[2.5.11 ]
has been justified where real cases of formation damage have been
experienced. In general, formation damage caused by an oil mud is not
at all common. Possible causes of formation damage specific to oil
muds are described below.
Oil wetting. In theory, the emulsifiers and oil-wetting agents that
will oil wet droplets of brine to form an invert oil emulsion will also oil
wet a sandstone reservoir. Oil wetting will destroy the layer of water on
the sand grains of the reservoir over which the crude oil flows. It will
result in decreased relative permeability to oil. Consequently, mobility
of crude oil flow is reduced. (See Section 2.5.6.)
This type of damage is usually very localized because of the low filtration rate of oil muds into the formation. Usually penetration of filtrate is a few inches or at least within the distance that can be perforated out. Obviously, running a low, tightly controlled filtration rate
and not having high differential pressures will minimize filtrate invasion of the reservoir. The use of a bridging agent that can be back
flushed will also be beneficial.
As well as the action of the emulsifier, wettability might also be
changed by an increase in oil saturation if there is a substantial invasion of oil filtrate. Low-permeability reservoirs would be more likely to
be affected. This type of damage is not so likely if the filtrate of the oil
mud is kept very low (which is usually the case). However, in the past,
before the advent of PDC bits, oil muds usually drilled slower than
water-based muds. Engineering the oil mud to have a high filtration
could enhance penetration rate with an oil mud. Oil wetting of the
reservoir might have been more likely with this type of mud.
Oil muds with high filtration rates are no longer used. Advances
in bit technology now provide all the penetration that is desired.
A relaxed filtration rate will have the only effect of increasing
dilution costs.
Emulsion blockage. The filtrate of an oil mud is normally oil with
some dissolved emulsifiers. This filtrate if mixed with formation water
might form an emulsion in the formation. Such an emulsion would
have an increased viscosity and thus impair the mobility of crude oil.
Unreacted or partially soluble emulsifier. If emulsifier present in
oil mud filtrate were to become insoluble, it could cause damage by
blocking pore throats. This was more likely to occur with chemical
change of soap-type emulsifiers. With advances in emulsifier chemistry, this type of damage is not likely in most cases.
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[ 2.5.12]
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[2.5.12 ]
247
[ 2.5.13]
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[2.5.13 ]
[ 2.5.13]
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CMC and PAC polymers are supplied in pure grade (which is just
what that implies) or in technical grade (which is where sodium chloride, a by-product in the manufacturing process, is not removed from
the final product). Pure grade polymers should be specified in your
tenders with the exception of using CMC in a sodium chloride brine or
in seawater and it should be made clear to the vendors that tech grade
PACs will not be accepted.
XCD polymer should be xanthan gum, coated for dispersion.
No polymer blends are acceptable (such as guar gum and urea).
This can be spot checked. Any substitute should be detailed and
quoted separately.
PAC, regular, and low vis. No technical grade polyanionic cellulose should be accepted. This can be spot checked. Vendor should
state the degree of substitution for both PAC regular and low viscosity submitted.
Nonfermenting starch. State biocide and percentage present. If the
vendor does not quote a bacterially stabilized starch, the percentage of
the biocide to stabilize the starch should be quoted.
Guar gum viscosifier. Tenderer should quote a guar gum variant to
provide viscosity. The type of variant should be stated (e.g., hydroxy
propyl guar.)
Sulfonated asphalt. Quote a known trade name, e.g., Soltex.
Otherwise, specifications should be provided.
Amine corrosion inhibitor. This should be a film-forming amine and
if possible should have biostat properties. A brief description and specification should be provided.
Basic zinc carbonate. This must be a zinc carbonate and zinc oxide
blend. The stoichiometric ratio should be provided.
Glycols provide useful inhibitive and lubricating properties. The
use of glycols in drilling fluids has recently become popular. The
required glycol is a polypropylene glycol, which has been manufactured specifically for use in drilling muds. Industrial waste products
from a glycol stream should not be accepted. Vendors should state
the suppliers trademark name of the glycol supplied. In the event that
the vendor is not prepared to supply this information, the generic
chemical name, the percentage, and the content of impurities must be
supplied. Glycol can be spot-checked against a finger print of a ref250
[2.5.14 ]
Formation damage
Allen, Thomas O., and Alan P. Roberts. Production Operations,
OGCI.
Archer, J.S., and C.G. Wall. Petroleum Engineering, Principles and
Practice, Graham and Trotman.
Mahajan, Naresh C., and Bruce M. Barron. Bridging Particle Size
Distribution: A Key Factor in the Designing of Non-Damaging
Completion Fluids, SPE 8792. Paper presented to the Fourth
Symposium on Formation Damage Control for the SPE and AIME,
Bakersfield, California, January 28-29, 1980.
Muds
Chenevert, M.E. Shale Control with Balanced Activity Oil Continuous
Muds, SPE 2559, October 1970.
Clark, Sheurman, et al. Polyacrylamide/Potassium Chloride Mud for
Drilling Water Sensitive Clays, JPT, June 1976.
Gray, George R., H.C.H. Darley, and Walter F. Rodgers. Composition and
Properties of Oil Well Drilling Fluids, Gulf Publishing.
IDF mud company manuals, Baroid, Milpark.
Stuart Smith, drilling fluids consultant, contributed most of the material
for section 2.5.
251
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2.6
Once the casing point has been reached, the requirements for the
mud change. Good gel strength (for suspending solids) and yield
points (for cleaning the hole) are not needed and they are detrimental
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[ 2.6.2]
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for the casing and cement job. The mud should be conditioned before
pulling out of the hole for low gels and YP for lower surge pressures
while running casing. Minimizing the MBT and low gravity solids will
also be worthwhile considering the possibility of differential sticking.
Optimizing rheology will improve mud displacement and minimize
ECD during cementing (reducing the chance of inducing losses).
If the rig tank capacity permits, consider having a tank of clean,
rheology-optimized mud standing by so that after circulating clean, the
optimal mud can be displaced into the open hole prior to pulling out
for logging/casing. This will save rig time compared to making several
circulations while conditioning the mud. Only the open hole mud
needs to be displaced.
If any fill is likely, then spotting 200-300 ft of viscous pill on bottom after getting the conditioned mud in the hole will help to keep the
fill off bottom.
Normally on the last trip out before casing, a survey tool (Totco or
single shot) will be dropped as a check and the drillpipe will be measured with a steel tape to confirm the tally.
Most operators throw in a traditional wiper trip before running
casing, especially if logging is done. Wiper trips cost money and are
often more detrimental than beneficial to the wellbore. Refer to the
notes on wiper trips in Section 2.9.1, Wellbore Stability. In practice,
if the wellbore is stable, no mobile formations are squeezing in, and no
problems are seen while tripping or logging, then a wiper trip is unlikely to be necessary.
Once on bottom, circulate 110% of casing contents while monitoring for losses to ensure that nothing in the casing can plug the float.
The casing should be filled and circulated with conditional mud. If
possible, use a cement head which allows all of the programmed plugs
to be loaded in advance so that circulation can be maintained until the
slurry is ready to displace and periods of no circulation are minimized.
The casing program needs to include precautions or procedures
required for possible problem areas.
If the casing should become stuck while running, the two likeliest
causes are differential or geometry related (high DLS or a ledge). Some
254
[2.6.2 ]
preventative measures can be specified by the program; well-centralized casing run in a well-conditioned wellbore with properly conditioned mud is less likely to get differentially stuck. Careful reaming of
problem sections will only be effective for geometry-related problems.
In high-angle or horizontal wells, the casing may push cavings or
cuttings ahead and buildup a wall of debris, which may then get the
casing packed off. A casing circulating packer that will allow circulating to start with a minimum delay should be included in the program.
Consider washing every joint down from about 70 inclination, taking
care not to initiate lost circulation with high AVs/ECDs. A casing circulating packer is cheap insurance on any casing job, but it makes no
sense not to use one for a high-angle well (>45), if there are any problems or if fill is anticipated.
An undergauge hole may be caused by mobile formations squeezing in (e.g., salt or some shales) or thick filter cake buildup. If logs are
run before casing, a 4-arm caliper should be included in the logging
program for drilling evaluation. This gives an accurate cement volume,
and will indicate if there is an undergauge hole that needs to be reamed
out prior to running casing. In this case, a wiper trip after logging
before running casing is justified.
If filter cake buildup against a permeable sand is a problem, there
should also be concerns regarding differential sticking. One thing that
can be done is to ream down through these intervals to remove the filter cake and spot weighted, supersaturated salt pills across the sands.
This will delay filter cake buildup by several hours as the salt slowly
dissolves but meanwhile acts as a fluid loss control agent. Even if the
filter cake has started to build up by the time casing is run in, it will
not be as thick as it would be otherwise. This method can also be used
as a nondamaging temporary fluid loss/filter cake control agent for taking RFT or MDT pressures and samples, and to minimize the risk of
differentially sticking these kinds of tools.
If a build, drop, or directional motor assembly is planned, a relatively stiff BHA should be used to ream through these sections prior to
running casing. When reaming a kickoff in softer formations, take precautions to ensure that a sidetrack is not drilled. Use low WOB and
higher RPM and if necessary, make a special trip with a bit-sized hole
opener and undergauge bullnose to ream out the hole.
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[ 2.6.2]
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Ledges can occur when there are large changes in formation hardness. Any resistance seen while tripping prior to casing should be
reamed out straightaway using low WOB and high RPM.
256
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2.7
Cementing Program
[ 2.7.1]
Well Programming
Density. An amount of cement powder will require a certain volume of water to hydrate it and make it pumpable. Excess water will be
left as free water after the slurry sets. The point where the correct
amount is used to completely hydrate the cement with no free water
is known as neat cement. For API class G cement, the water requirement is 5 U.S. gallons for each 94 lb sack and the resulting slurry
weight is 15.8 pounds per gallon.
To modify the slurry density, additives such as bentonite are used
to soak up extra water (extenders), allowing a lighter slurry, or
weighting agents are used (barite) to increase the density. Neat slurry will generally have a higher compressive strength than extended
slurry. There are other methods of modifying slurry density; for
instance, by using hollow glass microspheres in the slurry or foamed
cement for extremely light slurry (perhaps when cementing in zones
of total losses).
Usually a casing cement job will use two slurries: a light lead
slurry ahead and a denser (often neat) tail slurry around the shoe.
Using neat slurry for the whole job would increase hydrostatic and
circulating pressures in the wellbore and is less economical than
using an extended lead. If satisfactory shoe strength for drilling ahead
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Cementing Program
[2.7.1 ]
is the main goal, then this type of cement job should meet the objectives. Normally only one slurry is used for very small cement jobs,
such as a liner.
The upper limit on hydrostatic pressure in the well will be dictated by any weak or loss circulation zones, allowing also for circulating
pressure losses. The lower limit will need to maintain well control.
Casing flotation and collapse should also be calculated.
When lab testing the slurry recipe, ensure that the slurry is still
pumpable at 1 ppg more than the designed weight to allow for mixing
inconsistencies on the rig. On the rig, a pressure balance should be
available to measure the true density of the slurry while mixing.
Fluid loss. Fluid loss properties of the slurry should be measured
and, if necessary, additives should be used to modify this. Fluid loss is
important because when cement slurry is placed across a permeable formation, loss of filtrate into the formation will dehydrate the slurry. This
will affect the setting time (even cause flash setting if extreme), set
strength, and may lead to channeling. In addition, a high fluid loss will
build a thick filter cake that will narrow the annulus, leading to increased
annular pressure drop and possibly induced losses or fracturing.
A general recommendation for maximum API fluid loss is 100
cc/30 min for casings or 50 cc/30 min for liners to prevent channeling.
For horizontal wells, use the lowest fluid loss that can be reasonably
achieved (due to the large exposed permeable formation), <50 cc/30
min. For cementing against gas zones, fluid loss should be as low as
possible; values down to 15 cc/30 min have been used.
Free water. Any water that is used in excess of that needed to completely hydrate the cement and additives is known as free water. An
excessive free water property will increase settling of solids with water
forming within and on top of the slurry.
In a deviated well this can cause a channel at the high side of the
hole and in a horizontal well this will be even more critical. In general, the maximum free water should be 0.5%, less in a high-angle well
(>45), and zero in a horizontal well (>80) or against a gas zone.
Density readings taken at the top and bottom of a vertical 1 ft slurry
sample should vary by less than 1/2 ppg once the sample has stood for
long enough to gel.
Excess free water will promote gas migration and could form a
channel on the high side of the hole if cement settles out with free
259
?.?.? ]
[ 2.7.1
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[2.7.1 ]
[ 2.7.1]
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Shear Stress
Gel
strength
rate
ear
h
s
ing
eas
r
c
n
or i
te
r ra
ity f
s
a
o
e
c
h
Vis
gs
asin
e
r
c
de
for
y
t
i
s
o
Visc
Yield
point
Shear Rate
Fig. 2-8 Viscosity of a Fluid that Varies with Increasing or Decreasing Shear Rate
Cementing Program
[2.7.2 ]
Thixotropic cements are useful for ensuring that slurry does not
move after placement (but not for cement plugs, as previously noted) or
when curing lost circulation with smaller slurry volumes where the
cement will gel up in the loss channels after displacing into the loss zone.
Expanding cement. Slurry can be made to expand after setting.
Additives (most commonly, Ettringite) form crystals whose bulk volume exceeds the total volumes of the reagents. This will help form a
good bond to casing and formation if a microannulus may be formed.
Ettringite forms long needle crystals which impart thixotrophy to the
slurry but if thixotrophy is undesirable, a dispersant will reduce the
thixotropic behavior.
Low temperature cement (permafrost). Cement liberates heat
during setting. If drilling in permafrost, cement heat will lead to thawing of the permafrost layer and unstable ground close to the surface.
Slurries can be prepared that do not freeze, have a low heat of reaction,
and develop sufficient compressive strength at low temperatures.
[ 2.7.3]
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Well Programming
mud and cement and to aid cleaning formation and casing surfaces.
Rheology must be correct. Turbulent flow is very beneficial in
removing gelled mud and any solids left in the wellbore.
Sometimes a turbulent spacer is used to disturb cuttings beds followed by a higher viscosity spacer to sweep up the solids.
Volumes of washes and spacers should ideally be enough to give at
least 10 minutes of contact time at the planned displacement rate.
Alternating high and low viscosity spacers can be used in highangle holes where solids will have to be removed.
One technique that is not so common nowadays is to place a scavenger slurry ahead of the main slurry. This is just a thin cement
slurry, which may be too thin to actually set up in any reasonable
time, but it will help prepare the wellbore for the cement behind.
If expensive mud is in the hole that could be stored and reused, it
would be worthwhile to program enough spacers so that all the
mud is displaced out.
Removal of mud and mud solids and water wetting the formation
and casing surfaces are essential in creating a good bond with the slurry.
There are two main keys to getting a good cement job. The first is fully
displacing mud from the intended interval to be cemented and the second
is having a properly formulated, homogenous slurry placed correctly.
Mud removal. Many interrelated factors come into play when considering mud removal. Following are important considerations:
1. Casing centralization. Centralization must be assured if cementing
outside a casing (as opposed to setting a cement plug). Fluids will
flow preferentially around the largest space if the casing is cemented eccentrically, and fluids in the narrowest part of the annulus
may not move at all. API recommends a minimum standoff of 67%
(where 100% is perfectly centralized). Standoff percentage is
obtained by dividing the shortest distance between the casing and
the wall by the average radial clearance. (See Fig. 2-9.)
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Cementing Program
[2.7.3 ]
2. Pipe movement. Rotating or reciprocating the pipe during displacement has a definite beneficial effect. This is probably because pipe
movement causes side to side movement which effectively moves
the area of preferential flow around, thus getting better movement
of mud that might otherwise stay gelled up in a dead area.
It is possible to use liner hangers, which allow pipe rotation after
setting. With casings, reciprocation is easier than rotation, though
casing rotation is possible by using a rotating plug container. Hole
conditions need to be good to allow movement during displacement or the casing could get stuck off bottom.
3. Gauge hole. If there are significant hole enlargements, then the mud
in the outer reaches will gel up and be very difficult to move. High
flow rates giving turbulent flow, combined with casing movement
and effective spacers and washes over a recommended 10 minute
contact time, will provide a chance to move these mud gels. Also
conditioning the mud well during the last bit run in the hole so
that gels are minimized will help. However, with very large
washouts, it may be impossible to displace mud from the outer
reaches of the washout.
265
[ 2.7.3]
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Well Programming
Cementing Program
[2.7.4 ]
[ 2.7.4]
Well Programming
Cementing Program
[2.7.4 ]
[ 2.7.4]
Well Programming
Cementing Program
[2.7.4 ]
[ 2.7.4]
Well Programming
3. Use suitable drilling fluids to minimize leaching out the salt. Large
washouts will lead to the normal problems of mud removal and
these will lead to an incomplete cement sheath. However, using oil
or salt-saturated water muds can cause problems because the hole
will close in while drilling. A bi-center bit to drill a slightly overgauge hole may be needed.
4. Increased mud densities will reduce the rate of creep.
5. Low salt slurries have been used successfully in the Gulf of
Mexico and other areas. These give a fast development of high
compressive strengths. These slurries will avoid problems against
other formations due to osmosis as mentioned in #2. However,
washouts are still likely to occur and long-term ionic diffusion
may be a problem later.
Clearly, cementing against massive salts is a complex problem if the
well is to meet its long-term objectives. The success of this cement job
starts when drilling through the salt (minimizing leached washouts).
Good planning, expert involvement, and attention to every detail
including slurry and spacer design, rig equipment, downhole casing
configuration, and cement job supervision/quality control are vital.
Cementing against permeable, gas-bearing formations. Slurry
design in this case will try to minimize the flow of gas into the setting
cement. In order to understand the design requirements, it is first necessary to understand what happens as the cement slurry sets.
Cement after placement exhibits complex non-Newtonian fluid
behavior. It has a yield point, plastic viscosity, and gel strength. It transmits full hydrostatic pressure from its own density and from the fluids
and pressures above it.
With time, gel strength develops and the cement enters a transition
state at the gel strength of around 21 lbs/100 ft2. The cement solids
start to form chemical and electrostatic bonds and gradually the hydrostatic gradient of the slurry decreases to that of the mix water. At this
stage, the slurry is similar to a porous formation with mix water in the
connected pores. Calcium silicate hydrates form as setting continues
and this leads to a reduction in the bulk volume of the slurry because
the products of the chemical reactions have less volume than the total
volumes of the reactants. Portland cement shrinks up to about 5%
depending on the exact constituents of the cement. The pore pressure
272
Cementing Program
[2.7.4 ]
within the cement matrix now drops rapidly due to the low compressibility of cement slurry. The transition state ends when the gel strength
is enough to prevent large gas bubbles from percolating upwards due
to buoyancy, at around 250 lbs/100 ft2.
Gas can start to flow from the formation as soon as the pressure
imposed on the formation drops below formation pore pressure. This
may happen as the cement gradient drops to that of mixwater or, later,
when the bulk cement volume reduces. The gas can enter the cement
matrix and create channels through the cement, which cannot be
closed by cement hydration.
There are several contributing factors to gas flow during or after
cementing:
If the hydrostatic pressure falls below pore pressure during displacement or before the cement is fully set.
If there exists a channel of mud within the slurry (e.g., poor mud
displacement or contaminated cement).
If a microannulus exists between formation cement or cement casing.
If gas movement into the slurry occurs, at best the cement will be
porous and at worst there will be a channel allowing gas migration
upwards to another zone or to surface. This could ultimately lead
to a blowout.
Slurry design for gas zones therefore targets the causes of the above
mechanisms.
1. Effective mud removal is an absolute prerequisite for a good cement
job. This was previously covered in detail.
2. Low fluid loss is one of the key elements in cementing gas-bearing
zones. If filtrate leaves the slurry for the formation, the resulting
volume loss will cause pressure drop in the slurry, which is likely
to allow gas flow. This is second in importance only to effective
mud removal.
3. A good cement bond between formation/cement and formation/
casing must be obtained and must not be broken. Pressure testing
casing after cement setting, or displacing the casing to a lighter
fluid after cement setting, may create a microannulus. Weak bonds
may provide a path for gas to break through. Injection/frac pres273
[ 2.7.5]
Well Programming
sures or thermal stresses can also weaken cement bonding to casing during the well life, providing possibilities for gas migration.
4. Additives can be used that reduce and/or eliminate slurry shrinkage during setting.
5. Zero free water in the slurry is important, otherwise the slurry will
not be homogenous as lighter, unbound water migrates upwards.
6. Shorter setting times (up to the end of the transitional state) are
clearly beneficial. Longer setting times allow more opportunity for
gas to flow.
Another technique is to set an ECP above the gas zone, on the basis
that this mechanical barrier will form a limit to upward gas movement.
If it seals against the formation, then this should indeed stop migration. However, the slurry beneath the ECP will lose pore pressure
much faster than if the ECP was not used, which may lead to porous
cement below the ECP.
It is worth noting that extended cement with a high water content
can show permeabilities in the millidarcy range (up to 5 md) when set.
Over extended time, gas can flow through the set cement matrix,
which may lead to the slow development of annular pressure.
As explained above, effective cementing against gas zones requires
definition of objectives for the life cycle of the well, gathering of all relevant information, expert input, careful planning, and proper execution.
Programmed cement plugs are needed for jobs such as abandonment and kickoffs. Placement techniques are important and,
with careful planning, the chances of first-time success are generally high. Plugs set in open hole require as much planning as would
be put into cementing casing; this is covered in Kickoff plugs
within this subsection.
The usual squeeze technique is a hesitation squeeze. Surface pressure
below fracture pressure is applied and the surface pressure is monitored.
As the pressure bleeds off, pump slowly into the well to restore surface
pressure. When no more bleed off is seen, maintain pressure until surface
samples are hard or earlier if decided to stop for any other reason.
274
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[2.7.5 ]
[ 2.7.5]
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276
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[2.7.5 ]
[ 2.7.6]
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Cementing Program
[2.7.6 ]
[ 2.7.7]
Well Programming
(indicated by returns while displacing) because the plugging will prevent migration of the lead slurry away from the wellbore.
If returns are seen at surface, then cement will have risen in the
annulus around the drillpipe. If the loss zone is still taking fluid then
this should drop when pumping ceases to the level supported by the
formation fluid pressure and the cement that has moved up the annulus will probably drop down back to the loss zone.
Repairing damaged casing. The technique will be similar to spotting and hesitation-squeezing cement over perforations (see Zone
abandonment in Section 2.7.5), usually without a cement retainer.
Use slurry with low fluid loss and high strength so that cement penetrates through the split and forms a high-strength sheath in the annulus. Thixotropic slurry may be used so that it will not move away from
the area of the split after spotting.
280
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2.8
Formation Evaluation
(The logging books referenced in this text are from Schlumberger, but
other companies may offer similar books)
Formation evaluation includes several different technological
approaches. These techniques are applicable at different stages of the
well. The cost of each must be considered; most are fairly expensive.
However, it is an investment that should repay more than it costs over
the life of the well in improved production and reduced future drilling
and workover costs.
2.8.1. Electric Logging and Sampling
Electric logs are specified by the exploration department to evaluate the formations that have been drilled through. Drilling also can
gain a lot of useful information from logs; it seems in most operating
companies that the drillers do not have much say in the logging program or in the interpretation work that is required.
New logging techniques are being developed all the time and of
course what follows cannot be an exhaustive list. The reader is urged
to become familiar with the logging company used, their products,
what analyses can be done, and what it costs.
281
[ 2.8.1]
Well Programming
Formation Evaluation
[2.8.1 ]
[ 2.8.2]
Well Programming
2.8.2. Coring
Coring attempts to remove a sample of formation from the wellbore in an undamaged state. There are two basic classifications of coring operations: sidewall coring and full-hole coring.
Sidewall coring is done using a wireline tool to either blow a recoverable sample chamber sideways into the formation with an explosive
charge (e.g., Schlumberger CST), or to use a small rotating corehead to
cut a sample (e.g., Schlumberger MSCT). These were mentioned in
Section 2.8.1, Electric Logging and Sampling.
Full-hole coring uses special tools to cut and recover the core.
There is a variety of tools for various conditions, which are described
below. The single most important factor for a successful coring job is
proper planning, which should involve the drilling engineer, drilling
supervisor and/or toolpusher, geologist, mud engineer, coring company specialist, and core analysis specialist.
Cores can be taken in any formation, at any hole angle up to horizontal, oriented, in any circulating medium, using rotary or mud
motor, and kept under downhole pressure. Coring is very expensive
and selection of the best system to do the job is vital, as it ensures that
the objectives of the job are fully defined and justified.
Cores have been taken up to 600 ft in length. If a long or very long
coring run is planned, then the core barrel will require external stabilization and internal bearings to support the inner liner. Long core
runs reduce rig time and therefore cost, but long core barrels should
not be used if:
1. The formation contains gas of sufficient pressure to cause the well
to kick as the gas expands when the core is pulled (except pressure
coring)
2. The bit life will be short due to the hard or abrasive nature of the
formation
3. The deviation profile of the well makes it difficult to run or pull the
core barrel
4. The likelihood of differential sticking is high since the core barrel
creates a large contact area with the formation
In general, it is best to cut and recover the largest diameter of core
possible while still allowing the barrel to be fished. This reduces the
284
Formation Evaluation
[2.8.2 ]
area that the bit has to cut, improves ROP, and minimizes the likelihood of the core jamming.
Planning considerations. To give the best chance of a successful coring job, all phases have to be carefully planned. If this is not
done then the required information may not be obtained and more
cores may have to be taken on future wells at high cost. Planning
actions include:
Points to cover during the planning stages that may need answering before the program can be finalized include:
Objectives and justification
1. Which formations should be cored?
2. Has a list been created of the client departments requiring information from the core, as well as the information each client wants?
(Do not forget to include drilling. It may be that a core includes
nonreservoir material such as shales, and analyzing it could beneficial.)
3. Can the required information be obtained through cheaper alternatives rather than full-hole coring? (e.g., wireline logging, sidewall coring [rotary or explosive], cuttings analysis)
4. What are the criteria for coring? (e.g., on shows, after penetrating
a particular marker)
Methods of coring
1. Is the core likely to be unconsolidated, fractured, or otherwise difficult to core?
2. What type of coring system will give the best chance of obtaining
all the information needed?
3. If special techniques are called for (e.g., pressurized coring, oriented), is the equipment available in this country and at what cost?
4. Are there any special requirements for the bit, core catcher,
285
[ 2.8.2]
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Well Programming
inner tubes material, and/or mud system? Define specific parameters of each.
What is the maximum practical core barrel length in the hole size,
inclination, and formation?
How many coring runs are likely to be required?
Who is the person responsible for making operational decisions
during coring?
What material is best if disposable inner sleeves are used?(e.g., aluminum, fiberglass, plastic)
Are there any offset coring runs that might aid in core bit selection?
Formation Evaluation
[2.8.2 ]
[ 2.8.2]
Well Programming
Costs
1. What are the costs of coring equipment and services, rig time,
transport and storage, lab analysis, mud treatments, etc.? How does
this compare to the budgeted cost?
2. How accurate can the cost estimates be? (May be affected by
knowledge of area, certainty of defined coring criteria, etc.)
3. What costs should be included in the drilling AFE (coring system
on the rig) and other AFEs (lab analysis)?
4. Who is responsible for tracking all the various cost elements?
Coring system considerationschoice of inner barrel. The length
of the core barrel and the type of formation will determine what kind
of inner tube to use. Those available include fiberglass (GRP) and aluminum disposable tubes, chrome lined steel tubes and GRP, aluminum,
sponge, and rubber sleeves that fit inside standard steel inner tubes.
A disposable tube is best for fractured or unconsolidated formations. The core and tube are recovered together and the tube is sewn
up with the core still inside. This protects the core and keeps it as
undisturbed as possible. GRP has a smooth ID, which reduces jamming
from fractured cores and is resistant to corrosive fluids. Aluminum
tubes are more robust than GRP tubes but are not as resistant to corrosive attack. Both types can be run in core barrel assemblies up to 270
ft in length.
Liners can be used inside conventional steel inner tubes. Liners are
available in aluminum, plastic, and rubber. The main limitations to
using a liner are that a smaller diameter core is recovered and, in plastic and rubber, temperature limitations apply.
Sponge coring (available from Diamant Boart Stratabit) uses an
aluminum tube with a sponge lining. This catches fluids expelled from
the core as it is pulled from the well. The core diameter will be less than
if a disposable or unlined steel tube were used.
Standard steel liners may be used where the formation is consolidated and unfractured. The core is slid out of the liner on the catwalk,
sawed up, and boxed for transporting.
Coring system considerationsgeneral type description. Some
typical coring systems and their applications are described below. The
descriptions are based on systems available from Eastman-Christensen.
Conventional core barrel. Suitable for most formations. Can be run
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Formation Evaluation
[2.8.2 ]
at high angle, though not recommended for horizontal cores. An oriented core can be cut. Usually available in 30 ft sections, which can be
made up to 180 ft. Special core catchers can be used in the standard
barrel to allow recovery of soft, unconsolidated cores.
Rubber sleeve coring. A rubber sleeve is stretch-wrapped around the
core, supporting its weight and protecting it against fluid washing. This
is able to recover cores from unconsolidated or badly fractured rock
that will not support its own weight in a conventional barrel.
Operation of the system is complicated and it is recommended that an
experienced operator be available on the rig site to supervise the coring. The application is restricted to near-vertical wells and formations
of soft to medium compressive strength.
Horizontal coring. Systems are available to cover medium (286-715
ft) radius and short (20-40 ft) radius wells. Outer barrel stabilization
and roller bearings supporting the inner barrel are required. The system can be run on rotary, or can be driven by a positive displacement
mud motor.
Applications include all formations except extremely hard and
abrasive, high angle, or horizontal. Oriented cores can also be taken.
Slim hole coring. It is possible in slim holes to drill using a continuous coring method. The core bit has a drill plug that can be wireline
removed and an inner barrel set on wireline. After coring the length of
the inner barrel, the barrel and core are recovered on wireline. Another
core can then be cut or the drill plug can be replaced so that full-hole
drilling is resumed. This is only applicable in near vertical wells.
Low-invasion coring. This option is available where the core needs
to be contaminated by the mud as little possible. The corehead has no
inner gauge protection cutters. This leaves the initial filter cake that
forms on the core OD undisturbed. The core moves up into a special
inner barrel shoe positioned immediately above the last inner cutter,
protecting it from washing by the mud coming through the bit.
The mud has to be designed to be low fluid loss with the cored formation, incorporating solid particles sized correctly for efficient bridging. It can be run in wells up to horizontal, oriented if required.
Pressure coring. This system allows the recovery of cores in nearly in-situ conditions. Advantages of this over conventional coring
methods include better measurements of fluid saturation, permeability, gas content, and mechanical property data. The core barrel is suit289
[ 2.8.3]
Well Programming
Formation Evaluation
[2.8.3 ]
Depth, in 5 ft intervals
Drilling rate, in ft/hr
Weight on bit, in klbs
Rotary speed
Rotary torque, in ft/lbs (Torque should not be reported in motor
amps since future evaluation is impossible unless the motor and
gearing are known to convert to torque)
Pump output, GPM
Pump pressure, psi
Mud density in, psi/ft
Mud density out, psi/ft
Mud temperature in, C
Mud temperature out, C
Gas readings (total gas)
[ 2.8.3]
Well Programming
292
[]
2.9
[ 2.9.1]
Well Programming
lapse of the hole, bit balling, sloughing, or creep. The problem is estimated to cost the industry at least $500 million per year.
Shale instability is closely connected with bulk properties of shales
such as strength and deformation, which are a function of depositional environment, porosity, water content, clay content, composition,
compaction history, etc. The mud bulk properties such as continuous
phase chemical makeup and concentration, properties of any internal
phase, additives associated with the continuous phase, and system
maintenance are also important. Understanding the fundamental
physics and chemistry of the mud/shale interaction is critical.
Other factors such as in-situ stresses, pore pressure, temperature,
time in open hole, depth and length of open hole interval, and surrounding geological environment (salt dome, tectonics, etc.) directly
impact drilling and completion operations.
This is an extremely complex subject in which our knowledge
is not yet complete. For more in-depth information, refer to the
many SPE/IADC technical papers and other authoritative sources
of information.
The parameters influencing wellbore stability can be divided into
five main groups: drilling fluid, rock properties, in-situ stresses,
drilling practices, and drilling mechanics.
Drilling fluid. Shales are made up of layers of flat crystals. Between
the crystals are tiny spaces (in the order of nanometers in size). Drilling
through shales exposes these pore spaces to the wellbore.
With water-based muds, filtrate may enter into these pores and
cause shale instability through two mechanisms:
Assuming for a moment that the pore pressure and the wellbore
hydrostatic pressure are the same, then the formation stresses will act
to push shale into the wellbore. If the shale is weak in tension (which
it is), these stresses will be large enough to cause tensile failure and the
shale will destabilize. If, however, the mud hydrostatic exceeds the
pore pressure by a margin which equals or exceeds the stresses in the
formation, then tensile failure will not take place and the shale will be
physically stable.
294
[2.9.1 ]
Hydraulicoverbalance
Chemicalif the mud is able to form a semi-permeable membrane
295
[ 2.9.1]
Well Programming
on the formation face (e.g., invert oil emulsion mud) then the
salinity of the mud-water phase can be adjusted to change the net
osmotic force. Briefly, if the mud-water phase salinity is different
from the pore fluid salinity, then water will tend to move to the area
of higher salinity. If the pore fluid is less saline, then a force to
move water out of the pores is present. Refer to Properties of the
brine phaseosmosis in Section 2.5.8.
Electrical potentialresearch indicates that this has some effect
but practical recommendations have yet to be made. The forces
involved are probably very small compared to the first two.
[2.9.1 ]
When a good mud cake is formed, the mud pressure does not affect
the pore pressure distribution. This is most advantageous from a borehole stability point of view. A good mud cake is usually formed if the
permeability exceeds 1 md. If formation permeability is lower than 1
md, mud cakes do not form. They would be ineffective anyway since
mud cake permeability is approximately 1 md. Field indications are that
borehole instability is much less prolific in formations exhibiting reasonable permeability. Gauge holes have been drilled in weakly consolidated, highly permeable sandstones. Most drilling problems are
observed in shales. One of the contributing factors is that shales have
very low permeability, typically between 10-12 to 10-6 darcy and usually
between 10-10 to 10-8 darcy. This makes mud cakes formation ineffective.
A further mechanism for the abundant drilling problems in shales
is the water adsorption potential of its clay components. The intake of
water causes shales to swell, weaken, and fracture leading to hole failure. The sensitivity to water is large for smectite (montmorillonite),
medium for illite, and small for kaolonite and chlorite. This is associated with the clay surface area that controls the amount and effects of
water adsorption.
Fractured limestones and coal seams can also cause serious problems. Any fractured rock can be further destabilized by the drilling
practices employed.
In-situ stresses.
Collapse. The loads acting on the borehole region consist of the far
field in-situ stresses, the wellbore mud pressure, and the formation
pore pressure. The onset and severity of borehole collapse is determined by the magnitude of the in-situ effective stresses (i.e., total
stress, pore pressure) and the mud overbalance relative to rock
strength. Borehole collapse increases as the effective stress increases.
Fracturing. Borehole fracturing becomes less likely as the minimum in-situ stress increases. Borehole fracturing increases as the total
minimum in-situ stress decreases and/or mud weight exceeds the
breakdown pressures for intact rock, or mud weight exceeds the fracture extension pressures for fractured rocks.
Drilling practices.
[ 2.9.1]
Well Programming
into the drilling program. The drill crews must be properly briefed on
the effect of some drilling practices on wellbore stability. Connection
and tripping practices in particular are within the control of the drill
crew and a lack of knowledge and/or care here can make the problems
much worse.
Surge and swab pressuresconnection practices. Pumps should be
started and stopped carefully. Kick in one pump at low speed, and as circulating pressure comes up, increase flow rate steadily. Similarly, do not
switch off the pumps too quickly since this reduces ECD too fast for the
formation near wellbore stresses to react to the removal of pressure.
Tripping practices. Tripping causes substantial mud pressure variations (swab and surge). This will promote hole failureboth collapse
and fracturing; the more tripping, the more risk of hole instability.
However, tripping serves other purposes such as bit changes and hole
cleaning; these will usually override borehole stability considerations.
The exception here should be wiper tripping. Routine wiper trips are
often done without justification and can lead to wellbore instability
with no improvement in hole condition. Do not wiper trip unless this
can be justified. When tripping, do not try to run or pull pipe too
quickly. Keeping rheology and gels low will minimize the effects of
flow rate changes and pipe movement.
Open hole time.
Borehole collapse increases with open hole time. This is demonstrated routinely by comparing caliper runs taken at different intervals
after drilling. Time-dependent rock deformation is especially noticeable
in salt zones; creep inevitably results in hole closure. Other types of
rocks show some degree of time dependency. Unconfined compressive
strength may decrease by 50% as time progresses, and thus explains at
least part of the observations when drilling with a WBM. Another
important factor is the fluid invasion in low-permeability rocks (e.g.,
shale). In general, fluid invasion and the swelling associated continue
with time, gradually enlarging the affected zone and reducing stability.
Therefore, factors such as bit selection and parameters that influence
the rate of progress can have an effect on wellbore stability.
Hole orientation
[2.9.1 ]
surrounding the borehole. In a typical case when the in-situ stresses are
S.Vertical > (S.Horizmax = S.Horizmin), a vertical well has equal horizontal stresses acting along the cross section, compared to a horizontal
well that has unequal stresses (S.Vertical and S.Horizmax or S.Horizmin)
acting along the cross section. Consequently, the stress concentration
at the borehole wall is higher in case of the horizontal hole, making it
more prone to collapse. Field data indicate more problems in deviated
hole. Note that these are partly associated with increasing open-hole
time, dogleg severity, and hole-cleaning problems. Changing the stress
state around the wellbore certainly has an influence, but the magnitude
can only be ascertained if good estimates of the in-situ stresses (magnitude and direction) are known. The optimum mud pressure in a tectonically relaxed environment (S.Horizmax = S.Horizmin) tends to
increase with hole angle. In general, field experience indicates an
approximate increase of the mud pressure gradient by 2ppg (0.11
psi/ft) between vertical and horizontal. This relationship differs in a
tectonically stressed environment.
A deviated well tends to be more stable when drilled in the direction of the principal horizontal stress, and it is least stable when drilled
perpendicular to it. This may affect the surface location in severe cases.
Unequal formation horizontal stresses cause directionally preferential hole enlargement. This is why a 4-arm caliper should be routinely run; it allows evaluation of the severity of the directional
stresses. In severe cases, the major axis may be off-scale and the
minor axis in gauge.
Fracturing. Borehole fracture initiation pressure depends on the
borehole orientation. Therefore, leak-off pressure and formation
breakdown pressure are in part orientation dependent. The pressure
required for sustained fracture propagation and lost circulation is controlled by the minimum stress and is therefore independent of hole
deviation and azimuth.
Drilling mechanics. The bottom hole assembly and drill pipe
scrape along the borehole wall possibly eroding (loose) damaged rock
material. A smooth assembly, such as a barrel shaped stabilizer, reduces
the scraping action.
During drilling, the BHA vibrates. In case of heavy lateral vibrations, parts such as stabilizers and long unsupported drill collars may
hit the borehole wall, imposing substantial dynamic loads onto the
299
[ 2.9.1]
Well Programming
rock material. This may lead to creation of cracks or cavings. The initiation of conductive cracks facilitates the invasion of mud and may
jeopardize pressure isolation measures. Cracks also lead to a reduction
in overall rock strength. Drillstring vibrations are more severe for hard
rocks since the excitation at the drill bit is larger. It is feasible that
severe hole enlargement observed in some hard rock sections may be
related to drillstring vibrations. On the other hand, severe washouts
enhance vibrations. Minimizing drillstring vibrations should reduce
borehole instability.
A short story. Time to make a connection. The driller stops the
pumps by winding the pump controls rapidly to off. ECD drops very
fast (in a few seconds). The pore pressure in the near wellbore region,
which has built up during the time since the last connection, now
exceeds the wellbore hydrostatic. Since the permeability is very low,
pressures have no time to equalize and so the shale has temporarily lost
the hydrostatic overbalance that was keeping it stable. Cracks start to
appear in the formation. After the connection, the driller winds up the
pump control to the chalk mark he has made on the control panel. The
pump kicks in rapidly. The mud in the annulus has a lot of inertia due
to its weight and has gelled up a bit while static. These two factors
resist the sudden initiation of flow therefore a rapid pressure peak is
built up. Whole mud is driven into the tiny cracks and filtrate is forced
into the pore spaces. The whole mud lubricates the crack faces and
allows deeper filtrate penetration into the formation. The shale starts
to destabilize and the problems have just begun; hole enlargement, cuttings beds buildup in the washed-out sections, packing off, stuck pipe,
problems logging and running casing, and bad cement jobs.
Meanwhile, the drilling supervisor loves to wiper trip. Its the
magic bullet, the answer to his prayers. By regularly wiping the hole he
feels that those tricky shales will be caressed into submission and
things will be better than they otherwise would be. So after every 24
hours drilling he calls the driller and tells him to circulate clean and do
a 10 stand trip before continuing to drill.
Pipe movement up or down will always cause some pressure fluctuation in the wellbore. It is like death and taxes, impossible to totally
avoid. The driller really likes making hole so he is keen to get this trip
over with so he can get back to turning and burning. However, he is
conscientious and so after circulating for around 90 minutes, he sees
300
[2.9.1 ]
the shakers are clean; he slugs the pipe, racks the kelly and starts to
pull out of the hole. Now instead of briefif fairly severepressure
peaks and troughs from the connections, there is a long, steady drop in
pressure as each stand is pulled out. That whole mud that was forced
into the cracks the driller just created in the shale now wants to get
back to that lower pressure wellbore but this small lump of shale, by
now cracked nearly all the way around, is in the way. It is not difficult
to finish the job and push the lump out too, helped by the formation
stresses behind it. As it exits, more small cracks are starting to appear
in the freshly exposed formation face because the supporting hydrostatic no longer exceeds the heightened pore pressure.
Running back in the hole, the piston effect of the BHA is increasing wellbore pressure again. Those cracks now make a convenient
escape route for tiny amounts of mud and filtrate. The crack faces are
forced slightly apart, lubricating mud slides between the fracture faces.
The driller starts to drill again. On bottoms up he notices a lot of
cavings on the shakers but probably does not bother to mention it to
anyone. After all, that always happens after a wiper trip, doesnt it?
If the driller is well briefed on this mechanism, he will take a lot
more care when making connections. The drilling supervisor must
understand the destabilizing effect of wiper trips by listening to the
hole. He should think carefully about the cost and benefits of those
wiper trips. So, what are the answers they need?
Use good connection practices. Start and stop the pumps slowly.
Take a minute or two. Refer to the procedure in Section 3.3.7,
Making Connections to Minimize Wellbore Instability and Losses.
Do not wiper trip unless it can be justified. Will the time and cost
of the trip be repaid with better conditions?
Listen to the hole. Cavings are a warning that something is not
working. An increase in cavings after trips is saying that things are
becoming unbalanced. If oil-based mud is in use, cavings indicate
that the shales may be naturally fractured and possibly that the
mud properties, plus the drilling and connection practices, are
causing fractures.
Ensure that drillers especially understand the mechanisms of shale
instability. How they to their job has the greatest effect.
Use mud systems that are tailored to address the mechanisms of
301
[ 2.9.2]
Well Programming
Some years ago, I worked on the BP Stuck Pipe Task Force. We did
a lot of research work on instances of stuck pipe, looking at causes.
One of the conclusions from this work was that most cases of stuck
pipewell over 90%are avoidable with good planning and listening
to the hole. There are rare cases when this is not so. Sticking can occur
when drilling in highly mobile salts or into a stressed fault, even while
drilling ahead.
Two of the key factors in stuck pipe prevention are training and
crew awareness. This explains how the well program should be used as
a tool in stuck pipe prevention. Section 3.3.1, Stuck Pipe, covers the
practical rig site aspects of preventing and curing stuck pipe.
Sticking mechanisms summary. Causes of stuck pipe can be classified into three basic categories.
Geometry is related to dimensional problems. Circulation is usually possiblethe problem will be seen with the string moving and only
in one direction.
Solids are related to solid particles in the hole. Circulation may be
restricted or impossible and hole cleaning may have been inadequate.
Usually occurs when pulling out of the hole.
Differential sticking is related to differential pressure between formation and hole. Four conditions are identified that must all be present
for differential sticking: the presence of a permeable zone covered with
wall cake, a static overbalance on the formation, contact between the
wall and drillstring, and a stationary string.
Stuck pipe: geometry related problems.
Undergauge hole. Ream tight spots when tripping in. Ream to bottom after tripping if dictated by hole conditions or if the bit laid out
was undergauge.
Keyseating. Keyseating can occur if a dogleg section is followed by
a long tangent section before running casing. For this reason, high
doglegs should be avoided high up in the hole. Drillpipe fatigue and
wear will also be accelerated by high dogleg severities.
302
[2.9.2 ]
Stiff assembly. Where a stiff BHA is run after a build or drop assembly, or after a directional motor, lay down enough drillpipe to ream the
complete section drilled with the more flexible assembly. When reaming a kickoff in softer formations, take precautions to ensure that a
sidetrack is not drilled. Use low WOB/higher RPM and if necessary
make a special trip with a bit-sized hole opener and a 1/2 in undergauge
bullnose to ream out the hole before drilling ahead.
Ledges. Can occur when there are large changes in formation hardness. Note this in the program. Run slowly when tripping in at these
points. Ream any resistance seen on trips.
Mobile formations. Sticking in salt may occur fast enough for the bit
to get stuck as it drills. If this condition occurs, it is hard to avoid altogether but may be reduced by using a water-based mud that leaches the
salt slightly as drilling progresses. Higher mud weights may (or may
not) help to keep the salt under control. Bits are available that drill
slightly off center and so cut an overgauge hole (bi-center PDC bits);
these are helpful when drilling in problem flowing salts.
If the salt moves more slowly and causes problems, mainly when
tripping back through it, try programming wiper trips through newly
drilled hole after a short time. Sometimes a wiper trip is effective after
18 hours drillingup to the previous wiper trip depth. Field experience will show the best way to handle flowing salts.
Stuck pipe: solids related problems. The deviation profile has an
effect on hole drags/torques and on the potential for sticking.
Computerized models may predict likely downhole drags and allow
the wellpath to be designed for the lowest figures. Select drillpipe to
give at least 100,000 lbs overpull over up drag at section TD (after
applying a safety factor; 85% is common).
Unstable formations are better drilled at low inclinations, if possible, to reduce the likelihood of formation compressive failure due
to overburden.
Cuttings beds. Ensure that mud rheology and AVs are sufficient to
clean the hole. This will be more difficult as inclination increases.
Circulate clean before pulling out, displacing a pill around if necessary.
If cavings are causing drags on trips, a slight increase in mud weight
may help to stop the caving (if this will not cause losses). Cavings may
cause a dirty annulus during the trip, even if the hole was clean at the
start of the trip. If there are indications during the trip of a dirty annulus, then stop and circulate clean before continuing out.
303
[ 2.9.2]
Well Programming
Top-hole collapse. This may occur since very shallow formations are
unconsolidated and there is little overbalance to help stabilize the wall.
If possible on an offshore well, drill with returns to the rig and use a
mud with good wall cake-forming characteristics or pump slugs
around to help plaster the hole.
Reactive formations. For hydratable shales, inhibit the mud with
KCl, Polymer, and/or glycols; or use a silicate mud system to prevent
or reduce the rate of hydration. (Refer to the notes on these mud systems in Section 2.5.5.) Keep the level of inhibition according to program or change it if necessary. Oil mud will prevent hydration. For
brittle failure type formations, higher mud weight is the best stabilizing mechanism. Ensure that the hole is kept clean while drilling.
For shales with natural microfractures, use sized fluid loss additives to plug off the fractures since they are exposed and keep mud
densities low. Minimize swab and surge pressures.
Wiper trips can initiate or accelerate instability in shales. See
Drilling practices in Section 2.9.1.
Geopressured formation. In shales where the pore pressure is greater
than mud hydrostatic, slivers of shale will be pushed into the wellbore.
Use higher mud weight if possible to reduce or eliminate this and keep
the hole clean using pills if necessary.
Where the formation is exposed for a long time, hole enlargement
can occur which may lead to other problems with large chunks of formation falling in, big cuttings beds forming, fish becoming impossible
to recover (if they fall over in the washout), and bad cement jobs. If the
formation cannot be controlled with mud weight, if possible, ensure
that casing can be run within a short time of drilling the formation.
Fractured and faulted. Some formations are already naturally fractured before being drilled into. This can again cause chunks of rock to
enter the wellbore, causing mechanical sticking. As the damage is
already done, avoid making it worse by minimizing swab/surge pressures and drillstring vibrations, drilling at low angle if possible, getting
through it quickly, and casing it off.
Junk. Ensure all drillstring components are inspected in accordance
with API RP7G and that good handling practices are used. Specify the
correct size and grade of drillpipe to withstand drilling stresses. These
will help avoid downhole failures leading to junk in the hole.
304
[2.9.2 ]
[ 2.9.2]
Well Programming
[2.9.3 ]
Stabilizers or other full gauge tools should not be run above the jar,
because if the string became mechanically stuck the jar could not be
used. Keyseat wipers may be run above but should be sized halfway
between DC OD and hole diameter.
Sometimes sufficient strain cannot be taken in the pipe. At shallow
depths not enough DP stretch is available, in deep-deviated holes drag
may restrict stretch available at the jar. In these circumstances, a drilling
jar intensifier (accelerator) can be run in the string. In effect, it is a powerful spring that sits above the collars and provides the strain energy
that the drillpipe, due to hole drags or string length, cannot. Therefore,
for correct jar and intensifier placement, run Bit - BHA to Jar - Jar - 2 or
3 DCs - Intensifier - HWDP - DP. If the intensifier is run right above the
jar, this eliminates the jarring force because the intensifier will absorb
the jar stroke. The drilling supervisor and drillers must be familiar with
the operation of the jar in useits settings and limitations.
[ 2.9.3]
Well Programming
[2.9.3 ]
4. Ensure that good drilling and tripping practices are used to minimize swab and surge pressures.
5. Keep fluid loss low.
6. Use the recommended procedure for a formation integrity test, not
the continuous pumping method. Refer to the Formation integrity test recommended procedure in Appendix 2.
[Section 3:]
Practical Wellsite
Operations
This section deals with
practical matters at the wellsite. Much of the material in
Section 2 is also relevant to
the wellsite; cross-references
are made within the text
where appropriate.
[]
3.1
Well Control
Some of the practical aspects of well control are discussed in this
section. A certain amount of knowledge is assumed hereequivalent
to at least a driller level well control certificate; this is not meant as a
start from scratch course in well control.
Refer to the following topics covered earlier in this book: prediction of pore pressures and fracture gradients and other casing design
topics in Section 1.4, Casing Design, well control from a drilling program writing perspective in Section 2.2, Well Control, kick tolerance
calculations in Appendix 1, Calculating Tick Tolerances, and formation integrity test procedure in Appendix 2, Formation Integrity TestRecommended Procedure.
A kick is an uncontrolled entry of formation fluids into the wellbore due to formation pore pressure exceeding the hydrostatic head of
the fluids in the wellbore. If this situation is left to develop, a blowout
[ 3.1.1 ]
will eventually result, where formation fluids enter the wellbore and
blow out unconstrained into the atmosphere.
Not all formation fluid entry is a problem. For example, as permeable formation is drilled, the fluids contained within the cuttings can
enter the drilling fluid, causing an increase in background gas. In very
low permeability formations such as shales, gas contained in the tiny
pore spaces may be at a higher pressure than mud hydrostatic, but the
flow is very slow.
Sometimes gas-bearing cuttings can liberate enough gas to cause
serious gas cutting of the mud. In shallow tophole sections, this may
cause a shallow gas blowout due to the reduction of a few psi in hydrostaticit could be so finely balanced. Deeper down, even serious gas
cutting is unlikely to cause a kick as the actual bottom hole pressure
(BHP) reduction is proportionally very small.
Kicks are generally prevented by ensuring that the mud hydrostatic exceeds formation pore pressures when the formation permeabilities can allow a significant volume to flow into the well. At first
view it might seem that the answer is simply to drill with a very heavy
mud. However, this is not practical due to the increased possibility of
losses, stuck pipe, instability in fractured shales, reduced ROP, and
reduced MAASP should be a kick result. Therefore, it is necessary to
predict what pore pressures are likely to be and to track this while
drilling in order to maintain a safe but small overbalance on permeable formations.
The amount of overbalance we maintain is related to what is needed to eliminate influxes due to swab pressures when tripping out of the
well. It is therefore generally termed the trip margin. Trip margin can
be calculated by relating mud rheology to the hydraulic diameter of the
hole/drillpipe annulus by the formula:
TM =
YP
225(Dh - Dp)
where TM is trip margin in psi/ft, YP is Yield Point, Dh is hole diameter, and Dp is pipe outside diameter.
The trip margin is added to the mud gradient required to balance
the formation pore pressure.
We can monitor various indicators while drilling to see whether
314
Well Control
[ 3.1.2 ]
the amount of overbalance is reducing (pore pressure gradient increasing with depth). These warning signs indicate an impending problem
and preventative measures should be taken, such as increasing the mud
density to restore the overbalance. Indicators that may warn of decreasing overbalance include:
[ 3.1.2 ]
in the tank. We did not know why this was doneno one explained these
things to mere traineesand every so often if he did not appear, we
would do it for him. Of course what he was doing was monitoring the
level of mud in the active tank; an increase could be accurately seen as
long as the flow rate was constant (and no one messed with the nut).
Tank level monitoring systems using sound waves feed into the
drillers totalizer system and also to the mud loggers computers. Alarms
can be preset at loss/gain levels to assist monitoring. These systems are
generally accurate and reliable. One in each corner with the signals
averaged may be needed on a floating rig to account for rig (and hence
mud surface) movement.
Floats that ride on pipes mounted in the tank also can feed computerized detection systems. Float systems can stick on the pipe or
may leak; these are therefore less reliable than sonic (or nut on a
string!) systems.
A flo-sho is installed in the return flowline coming up from the
riser and bell nipple. When circulating, the return flow hits a paddle
that is pushed up. The position of the paddle is related to the flow rate
and mud density. If the well kicks, the first primary indication is an
increase in return flow rate in the flow line and a change in the position of the flo-sho paddle, which will show on the drillers panel. The
paddle can stick due to gumbo shale or other solids in the flow line,
which is often seen as an indicated flow even when flow has stopped.
Therefore, the flo-sho can give false indications of flow or may not
show a change even if the flow out changes.
All of these ways of monitoring the mud level suffer from one
major drawback; they only work when the system dynamics are not
changing. The flow rates have to be constant (could be zero) and have
to be stable (must have been constant for some time). If the pumps are
sped up, first the active tank level drops and then the flow at the flowline increases some time later. This increased flow feeds into the shaker tanks and sand trap, eventually reaching the active tank. It can take
several minutes on a deeper well for the flow into the active tank to
equal the flow out of it. A good driller will have a feel for how much is
gained by the system when the pumps are stopped for a connection
(could be over 20 bbls) and will monitor the totalizers to ensure that
the loss/gain indicator comes back to zero after a connection.
Computerized data acquisition systems have been developed for
slimhole drilling where very small influxes of around a barrel can be
316
Well Control
[ 3.1.2 ]
detected. These monitor different parameters such as pump rates, flowline levels, and tank levels over time so that at any stage, even when
changing the pump rate, the computer can compare actual with predicted levels and flows.
The Mk 1 Eyeball should also be used whenever the driller has
any reason to think that the well might be kicking. If a secondary
indication such as a drilling break (sudden increase in penetration
rate) or a primary indication (increase in flow) is seen, a flowcheck
should be done.
Flowchecks are often difficult. With the pumps off, colder mud
that has just arrived downhole from the surface system will warm up
downhole and a small flow may result. On a floating rig, heave can
make it very tricky to decide whether or not the well is flowing. The
flowcheck must be kept going for long enough to be sure. A tight formation may kick with a very slow influx rate. Further, the ballooning
effect (described below) can give a realistic false kick, which can
develop fairly high surface pressures if shut in.
MWD tools now play a significant role in kick prevention. Sperry
Sun offers a pressure detection service; a dedicated pressure engineer
stays in the logging cabin and monitors resistivity from the MWD tool.
A decrease in the resistivity trend with depth may indicate increasing
pore pressure gradients. The engineer will also monitor the levels of
gas dissolved in the mud, pressure cavings, D exponent, and other indicators to buildup a picture of the pore pressure trends. If any increase
in pore pressure is indicated, it can be reported to the driller and
drilling supervisor for action to be taken.
Anadrill has an MWD tool that measures resistivity right at the bit
(RAB tool). The tool measures five resistivity values: at the bit, using a ring
electrode (for compensating certain formation effects), and at three button
electrodes (when configured as a stabilizer). The button electrodes measure formation resistivity Rt at depths of investigation of approximately 1
in, 3 in, and 5 in in an 81/2 in hole size. Gamma ray, axial, and transverse
shock load measurements are also available from the tool.
Resistivity at the bit is obtained by inducing a voltage above the bit and
measuring the axial current flowing through the bit and into the formation.
Response training and drills. All the best detection equipment is
useless if the driller does not respond when a kick is indicated. Regular
drills should be initiated to train the drill crew and test their response.
The two most common drills are a pit drill and a trip drill.
317
[ 3.1.2 ]
For a pit drill, the toolpusher or drilling supervisor will do something to cause the pit volume totalizer system to show an increase in pit
volume. When float type detectors are used, these can be pulled up.
Mud can be pumped into the active system from a reserve tank or the
trip tank. The driller should respond by stopping the rotary and pumps,
picking up off bottom, and doing a flowcheck. The driller will not normally close in the well on a pit drill; the flowcheck will show that all is
well and the drill can be stopped once the flowcheck is initiated.
A trip drill is normally initiated by the driller to train the crew. It
is good practice to stop for 10 minutes in the shoe when tripping out,
which can be combined with a trip drill every time. The objective here
is not speed but correct action; it is much more important to do it in
the correct sequence than it is getting it fast. Speed is the ultimate
objective, but if they practice the sequence on every trip, when it is
done for real it should be both accurate and fast.
This is one suggested way of holding a regular trip drill. The driller
pulls into the shoe, breaks off the stand. The block is stopped halfway
down and the driller shouts trip drill. The crew picks up the full
opening kelly cock and stabs it into the drillpipe. The kelly cock is
made up hand tight and closed.
(At this point in a real kick, if strong backflow is coming up the
drillpipe, the crew has to get that kelly cock on and closed. They may have
to do this by feel in an extreme case. Once the kelly cock is closed then the
flow will stopapart from maybe some minor flow from the hand-tight
connection, which will stop once the tongs are on and the connection
tightened. For the drill, it is not necessary to torque up the connection.)
The driller now lowers the block and latches the elevator, picks up
the string and the slips pulled. The casing shoe flowcheck can now be
done with the kelly cock in place. If a flow is detected then the driller
only has to close in at the BOP as the kelly cock is already on. After
confirming that the well is static, the string can be set in the slips, the
kelly cock removed, and the trip out resumed.
Precautionary flowchecks should also be done when tripping back
into a horizontal wellbore. A swabbed influx can stay in the horizontal
section to be displaced out when tripping back in. Since the hole may
have been static for several hours, the drill crew may not expect a problem. Now that the influx is out of the horizontal section it moves up
and, if gas, can cause the well to start flowing as the gas expands and
hydrostatic reduces.
318
Well Control
[ 3.1.3 ]
[ 3.1.4 ]
There will be times when you may need to drill ahead to find a
competent formation to set your next casing shoe in with a kick tolerance that is below the normal minimum. In this case, extra precautions
can be taken to minimize the chance of a kick and to catch it early if it
does occur. An alternative may be to set cement on bottom and run casing prior to drilling ahead.
Precautions may include all or some of the following:
Well Control
[ 3.1.4 ]
A swabbed kick was taken, or difference in TVD between the casing shoe and the horizontal wellbore is small (well kicked off to
horizontal just below shoe or through a casing window).
If a balanced kill is to be used, the Phase 1 calculations require the
static and dynamic pressures to be calculated separately. The increased
dynamic pressure loss through the drillstring is calculated as before,
but the reduction in surface pressure during Phase 1 due to heavy mud
being pumped will be different.
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
92
184
276
369
461
553
645
737
829
921
Fig. 3-1 Horizontal Phase 1 Circulating Pressures Using Conventional Kill Formulae
400
Pump Pressure Phase 1
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
92
184
276
369
461
553
645
737
829
921
321
[ 3.1.4 ]
The differences in the kill graphs are illustrated in Figures 3-1 and
3-2 for a 2000 m MD, 1000 m TVD well, mud gradient = 0.495, Pdp =
200 psi, and the well is kicked off to horizontal at around 850 MD.
It can clearly be seen that if the conventional kill graph is followed,
the BHP will rise by 90 psi at 50% of Phase 1 strokes before falling back
to the balanced BHP at the end of Phase 1.
Calculations Note: These calculations are incorporated in the
spreadsheet wellcalc.xls available from the web site at
http://www.drillers.com.
To calculate Phase 1, balanced method graph for a horizontal or
high-angle well, first establish Pc1 and Pc2 in the conventional manner. Divide the measured bit depth into 10 approximately equal segments and calculate the increase in circulating pressure drop at each
depth. The depths do not have to be at exactly equal spacing but may
be at convenient depths where both MD and TVD are already known,
such as survey stations. The intermediate circulating pressure (Pci) at
each depth will be:
Pci = Pc1 + MDstation x (Pc2 - Pc1)
MDbit
Now for the measured depth at the end of each segment, take the
survey depth or calculate the TVD from the directional plot and work
out how much extra pressure will be required to balance formation
pressure (Ps) over the mixed mud hydrostatic. The extra surface pressure Ps will be
Ps = Pf - ((TVDwell - TVDstation) x (2 - 1))
For each station, add together Pci and Ps to get the total Phase 1
balanced BHP circulating pressure. If circulation is stopped at any
point, the closed-in surface pressure will equal Ps for that depth (see
Table 3-1).
The easiest way to make these calculations is with a spreadsheet.
The one included as a sample (wellcalc.xls) assumes 10 equal spaced
MD and TVD stations, but allows manual overwriting of MD and TVD
entries and plots the pressures and Phase 1 graph automatically.
In many cases, a drillers method kill may be preferred. If a balanced kill confers no clear advantages of reduced open-hole pressures
322
Well Control
[ 3.1.5 ]
TVD
Pressure
Drop, Pci
Hydrostatic
BHP
Ps
Pump
Pressure
Pump
Strokes
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
0
200
400
600
800
950
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
180
182
184
187
189
191
193
196
198
200
202
1624
1664
1704
1744
1784
1814
1824
1824
1824
1824
1824
1824
1824
1824
1824
1824
1824
1824
1824
1824
1824
1824
200
160
120
80
40
10
0
0
0
0
0
380
342
304
267
229
201
193
196
198
200
202
0
92
184
276
369
461
553
645
737
829
921
during Phase 1, the drillers method will maintain a steady BHP whatever the well profile and is easier to control during the kill. Since this
is easily determined in advance (see the three conditions stated above),
the well plan should include a recommendation to this effect.
Most operators and drilling contractors follow the recommendations specified in the current IADC Drilling Manual. Reference should
be made to that publication for specifications. What follows summarizes some of the main points from the IADC recommendations and
normal practices.
The BOP stack should be capable of closing in the well with or
without pipe in the hole by remote control.
The equipment should be rated to at least the maximum anticipated surface pressure. If the equipment is over 5 years old, the rated pressure shall exceed the maximum anticipated by at least 10% (i.e., its rating shall be downgraded by 9%, so a 5000 psi system will not be used
over 4550 psi). No screwed connections are permitted on systems rated
to over 2000 psionly hubs, flanges, or welded connections.
323
[ 3.1.5 ]
Well Control
[ 3.1.5 ]
[ 3.1.6 ]
12.
13.
14.
15.
Well Control
[ 3.1.7 ]
4. Two dual purpose kill and choke lines, both connected from the
drilling spool to the kill line and choke manifold. If dual-purpose
lines are not used, the stack will have one dedicated kill and one
dedicated choke line.
10,000 psi WP classification.
1. One annular preventer with a working pressure of 10,000 psi.
However, a 5000 psi annular preventer on a 10,000 psi WP BOP
stack is acceptable on existing stacks.
2. Three single, or one double and one single ram preventers. One
must have blind/shear rams, one fixed pipe rams, and the third
either fixed or variable rams. If a double ram unit is used, it should
be on top so there is room to land a tool joint on the bottom rams.
3. One full opening drilling spool with two 31/16 in bore side outlets.
However, if the middle and lower ram units are equipped with
proper sized side outlets, the drilling spool may be omitted and the
kill and choke lines connected to the lower preventer outlets.
4. Two dual purpose kill and choke lines, both connected from the
drilling spool to the kill line and choke manifold. If dual-purpose
lines are not used, the stack will have two dedicated kill and two
dedicated choke lines. In this case, each line will have two full-bore
valves, the outer of each choke line hydraulically operated. The
lower kill and choke lines connected below the bottom ram shall
act as spares.
15,000 psi WP classification. This may be a 3-ram unit of identical configuration to the 10,000 psi stack, except the annular preventer
is rated to 10,000 or 15,000 psi and the BOP stack to 15,000 psi.
A 4-ram setup is preferable (though the 3-ram stack is acceptable, as
was outlined in the previous subsection, 10,000 psi WP classification).
In this case the fourth ram unit may have fixed or variable pipe rams
installed; however, at least one ram unit must have fixed pipe rams.
3.1.7. Surface Stack Control System Specifications
[ 3.1.8 ]
Testing of any part of the BOP equipment must be done under the
direct supervision of the drilling supervisor. Pressure recording charts
are required of any pressure tests for later reference.
328
Well Control
[ 3.1.8 ]
[ 3.1.8 ]
1a
exerted on the CTT at casing test pressure. Check that the stack is full. Close annu-
Ann
lar, flush through the kill, and choke lines with water. Pressure test casing spool
outer valves through the kill line against outer choke manifold valves to the casing
test pressure when plug was bumped. Check side outlets for leaks.
Close the casing spool inner valves, open the outer valves. Bleed off after the test
period at the choke manifold, open annular, and pull the CTT. Close the previ-
1b
ous annulus.
Set the test plug in the casing spool on a test sub and drillpipe with a stand of
HWDP below. The test sub should be made up on the test plug hand tight only (if
the test plug is not solid, torque up a closed kelly cock underneath). Make up a side
outlet sub on the top of the drillpipe with the stab in kelly cock then the kelly made
up on top. Make up chiksans from the cement manifold to the side outlet. Lift the
2a
kill line NRV off its seat and remove the kill line. Open the casing spool side outlet
TPR
in case of a leak past the test plug. Test the TPR, stab in kelly cock, kill line outer
manual, and choke line manual by pumping down DP with the stand pipe manifold
bleed off or kill valve open. (If there are spare kill and choke outlets below BPR, test
in parallel with the main outlets.)
330
Well Control
[ 3.1.8 ]
Close the kill line inner valve and open the outer valve. Bleed off at the cement pump
when the test is complete.
2b
Reseat the NRV, open kill line inner manual, open choke line manual, and close HCR.
Open stab in kelly cock and close lower kelly cock. Repressure to full test pressure
2c
(no LP test needed against valves) and test NRV, HCR, and lower kelly cock. Bleed
off at cement pump.
Open TPR, close BPR, open lower kelly cock, and close upper kelly cock. Test BPR
and upper kelly cock then bleed off at the cement pump.
3a
BPR
Close the outer standpipe valves, open upper kelly cock. Test kelly hose and standpipe outer valves. When test is good, close standpipe valve and bleed off standpipe
3b
pressure to test the standpipe valve to the kelly hose. Bleed off at the cement pump
and open the rams.
Back the drillpipe and test sub out of the testplug, reconnect the kill line, close in at
the choke manifold outer valves. Test the blind rams, kill, and choke lines via the kill
line and choke manifold outer valves. Close next row of choke valves when HP test
BR
OK, open previous in turn until all choke manifold valves are tested. Bleed off
through the choke manifold.
Open rams, close the side outlets, run in the drillpipe, and screw into the test plug.
Shut the BPR and the annular recording pressures on the accumulator; the final pressure should be at least 200 psi above precharge. Start up the pumps and measure how
long it takes to recharge the unit to full working pressure. Compare the performance
results with the manufacturers specifications. The accumulator should be fully
recharged within six minutes.
Open BOPs, close HCR, line up all valves for drilling. Run the wear bushing back in.
With the air pumps off, bleed down the manifold pressure and ensure that the electric pumps kick in when the pressure drops below 90% of working pressure.
331
[ 3.1.8 ]
3a
2c
2a
1a1b
2a2b2c
4
Kill Line
4
NRV
2c
2a
2a
2b
HCR
Choke Line
2c
NRV
HCR
2c
S Devereux
2a
2b
2a
2c
1a
1b
1b
1a
332
3a3b
Well Control
[ 3.1.9 ]
[ 3.1.10 ]
It is good practice for the drilling supervisor in charge of an operation to use a short checklist of things to look over. It is not possible to
check everything on the rig, but those items essential to safety and efficiency can be checked out with a short walk around. A checklist is a
guide for your eyes; for instance, while looking at the breakout lines
you should also look at the guide rollers and the hoses to the cathead.
Figure 3-4 provides some ideas for a regular routine. The list can
be photocopied if desired.
334
Well Control
[ 3.1.11 ]
Date: ____________
Notes/Items to Rectify
Drillfloor:
Kelly cock correct size, ready to stab, left open, spanner close by,
easy to close? Choke manifold correctly lined up for type of shut in?
Is the drillfloor kept as clean as is practicable?
Tong lines all in good shape? Sensator pumped up? Dies clean
and sharp?
Slips and safety clamps all OK?
Check winch wires for general state, kinks, corrosion, or other
damage.
MAASP and ram sizes/positions displayed in drillers doghouse?
Slow pump rates being taken each shift?
Geolograph pens all working, charts attached correctly, unit
wound up?
Remote BOP panel looks OK?
Drillers instruments intact and in apparent working order?
Driller fully briefed on the current and planned operations?
Pit levels, mud wt, and viscosity being monitored?
Solids control equipment all working OK?
BOP area:
335
[ 3.1.11 ]
Rig housekeeping:
Office:
336
[]
3.2
Drilling Fluid
Section 2.5 covers drilling fluid types and properties in detail. This
should be referred to as required. Maintenance of that mud on the rig
involves maintaining the programmed mud properties by various
chemical treatments and by using the solids control equipment to
remove detrimental drilled solids from the system.
Chemical mud maintenance and treatment is a large and specialized area, outside the scope of this book.
[ 3.2.1 ]
338
Drilling Fluid
[ 3.2.1 ]
It is not possible to give definite sizes to use for each hole section due to the number of variables and the different types of shakers in use; however, some general recommendations may be given as
a starting point. These assume only one bank of shakers with double screen banks.
For a top hole of 20 in and above, high flow rates and large
amounts of cuttings require very coarse screens: 40 top and 80 bottom.
For hole sections below 20 in down to 12 in, 80 top and 100 bottom.
From 12 in down, 100 top and 120 to 150 bottom.
Shale shaker screens may blind due to solids of a size close to the
mesh size of the screen plugging up the mesh. In this case, finer screens
are called for. They may also blind due to very small cuttings coating
the wire, which effectively reduces the mesh opening. If this happens
then coarser screens should control the blinding.
Screen cloths are available with a square mesh design or a rectangular design. It is generally recognized that the rectangular mesh is
superior, giving greater fluid throughput capacity while removing the
designed range of solids. Pyramid screens are a recent innovation
which give a greater mesh area for the same size of screen; experience
so far has been favorable.
The shale shaker screens must be held in the frame at the correct
tension as specified by the manufacturer. If the screens wave up and
down (as opposed to vibrating), then they are either insufficiently tensioned or have been stretched or torn. Remedial action must be taken
quickly to avoid high levels of solids bypassing the shakers and affecting the downstream equipment.
Torn screens must be recognized and replaced immediately. Where
high flow is passing over the shakers a torn screen can sometimes pass
unnoticed for some time, so the drilling supervisor and toolpusher
must both be on the ball when checking the screens. If this requires
bypassing the shaker while the repairs are made it is important that the
sand trap is not bypassed as well; this will hold the larger solids for a
short time while bypassing the shakers and therefore protect the other
339
[ 3.2.1 ]
Drilling Fluid
[ 3.2.1 ]
open cylinder. This pipe is called the vortex finder. As the mud moves
around and reapproaches the feed inlet, it is forced downwards (as the
top is closed) by more mud entering the chamber. The mud then follows a spiral path down along the cone, with its circular velocity
increasing due to the decreasing diameter of the cone. This imparts
high centrifugal forces on the mud, forcing solid particles to the outside of the mud stream and against the cone wall.
The volume of mud flowing down through the cone cannot exit at
the relatively small hole at the bottom. As mud is forced towards the
bottom of the cone, the pressure in the mud stream increases, forcing
the mud to turn back on itself, spiraling upwards inside the downward
stream (forced against the wall by centrifugal force). This mud exits at
the overflow pipe at the top.
In the balanced design the fluid changes direction just above the
opening. However, the solids, being heavier, cannot change direction
so readily and are forced to exit from the cone at the bottom. The cone
is adjusted by changing the size of the bottom opening.
Dissolved gas will reduce the efficiency of the hydrocyclones. The
degasser should be lined up to suck from the tank immediately
downstream of the sand trap and may discharge into the desander
suction tank.
Unlike shale shakers, the operational part of a hydrocyclone is hidden from view. When problems occur, they may pass unnoticed or even
be deliberately ignored by the crew assigned to the tanks and solids
control equipment during drilling. It is imperative that the drilling
supervisor is familiar with the operation of cyclones and knows how to
recognize and correct problems. Ideally, the rig contractor should take
steps to train drillers, ADs, and derrickmen to properly maintain this
equipment, since malfunctions can be as costly and unacceptable as
shale shaker problems. Figure 3-5 illustrates the process.
Hydrocyclones: types available. There are two types of hydrocyclone design: balanced and flood bottom. The flood bottom design has
a constant discharge at the bottom, the same size as the adjustable bottom opening. Adjustment is a compromise between insufficient solids
removal and excessive mud loss. No modern rig should have flood bottom hydrocyclones as primary solids removal equipment. The only
place they should be found is upstream of a decanting centrifuge,
where they are used for increasing the solids content of the mud sent
341
[ 3.2.1 ]
to the centrifuge (i.e., the centrifuge works on the underflow from the
flood bottom hydrocyclones).
A balanced hydrocyclone, properly adjusted, will separate out
solids that are discharged at the bottom, taking with them only fluid
that is bound to the surface area of the solid particles. The size of a
hydrocyclone is stated as the inside diameter of the top of the conical
section. Smaller cones of the same design will have lower flow capacity than larger cones but will remove a greater percentage of the solids
in the feed mud, including smaller particles.
342
Drilling Fluid
[ 3.2.1 ]
50 GPM/cone
100 GPM/cone
155 GPM/cone
500 GPM/cone
600 GPM/cone
Problems with hydrocyclones. Rope discharge from a hydrocyclonea characteristic solid stream of spiraling mud with no suction
343
[ 3.2.1 ]
Drilling Fluid
[ 3.2.2 ]
Are you getting what you pay for? If not you may get things you
did not bargain for, which can cost you a lot both in mud treatment
costs and in unnecessary drilling problems. Section 2.5.13, Tendering
for Mud Services, contains some information to incorporate at the
tender stage to ensure the correct quality chemicals are supplied.
Many problems are caused by contaminated chemicals. This may
occur accidentally with bulks (e.g., using a hose previously used for
bulking cement, when loading barite, has happened!) or may occur
deliberately when the mud contractor has supplied chemicals cut
with something cheap and bulky, to increase profit at your expense.
Logistical tricks of the trade include sending out drums that are
not full and loading pallets so there is an empty space in the center
where it cannot be seen until the pallet is used. The pallet trick is a
good one especially where the whole pallet is covered in a plastic sheet
for weather protection; it cannot be checked when first received and
345
[ 3.2.2 ]
you may not want to remove the plastic earlier than necessary. These
may be done in conjunction with a ticket that states that a certain volume of mud was mixed but in reality a lesser amount was made up. If
the mud engineer is smart, the apparent mud mixed will equal what
would be mixed to include the nonexistent chemicals, so an audit later
will apparently balance. One mud engineer tried this trick on me, but
when he presented his job ticket for me to sign, it said he had mixed
600 bbls of reserve mud when the only tank he could have used was
400 bbls maximum capacity!
The biggest deterrent to mud chemical fraud is to take and test
samples regularly. Sample each batch of chemical that arrives. Take a 1
L sample of the mud each day which can be tested later, if necessary,
and return it to the shore base or a storage facility. Have someone independent of the project witness covered pallets being opened or see it
for yourself. Knowledge that you are checking these things is a real
incentive to more honest reporting!
346
[]
3.3
Drilling Problems
Following are some of the most common drilling problems that you
are likely to encounter while drilling. Many of these problems are avoidable. A good driller will look for all the signs coming from the well: pressures, weights, torque, mud properties, shaker material, etc. This is
called listening to the hole. It takes experience to be able to listen
properly to the hole, but an experienced hand does develop almost a
sixth sense of what is happening in the well. There is nothing magical
about this, it just takes a lot of practical experience and theoretical study
to do it. In fact, this ability is one of the major benefits gained from
working on the brake as a driller. There is no doubt that this experience
later on gives a drilling supervisor or superintendent a greater ability to
make correct and timely decisions which will save the operator money.
[ 3.3.1 ]
Tight hole is potential stuck pipe. Do not try to save time by ignoring the signs; this approach will usually result in getting stuck.
Where hole conditions exist that make stuck pipe likely, the
drilling supervisor must be on the drillfloor while tripping through the
problem sections. In any case, the supervisor should be present for the
initial flowcheck and the trip out as far as the previous trip depth.
BP put together a task force some years ago to examine the stuck
pipe problem and came up with recommendations to drastically reduce
the incidence of stuck pipe. One of the more interesting findings we
made was that a disproportionate number of cases occurred within the
two hours after a shift change. This led to the advice brief your relief.
Clearly the handover between drillers was somehow deficient, which
led to the new driller on shift being unaware of vital information needed to recognize incipient stuck pipe in time.
Most cases of stuck pipe are avoidable with proper supervision,
and once stuck pipe is recognized, fast action is necessary. The best
chance of getting free is just after getting stuck. Take the time to fully
brief the drillers on the procedures you expect to be followed, including when you should be called if there are problems.
A good handover between drillers is essential since a disproportionate number of stuck pipe incidents occur within two hours of a
shift change. The toolpusher or night pusher should be on the floor at
handover time to allow the drillers time for a good handover, and it is
a good idea for the drilling supervisor to be around at this time as well.
The drillers, toolpusher, and drilling supervisor should always
know the allowable pull on the pipe (with and without the kelly on).
There will not be time to work it out when you get stuck.
Undergauge hole. Ream any tight spots on trips. Ream back to bottom after changing the bit and/or BHA, the last 10 to 30 m depending on
hole conditions. If deviation or other considerations permit, ream once
each single before making a connection, which will also clean around
the BHA before shutting the pumps off (which is good practice anyway).
If the hole should become undergauge above the BHA due to wall
cake formation or mobile formations, it will probably be necessary to
circulate and backream out. If the slips are used to backream with a
kelly, take all proper safety precautions; tie the slip handles together
when set, and never pick up out of the slips with torque left on the table.
Keep personnel off the drillfloor as much as possible. Avoid picking up
so much that the string torques up and stalls out while reaming.
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Drilling Problems
[ 3.3.1 ]
[ 3.3.1 ]
Drilling Problems
[ 3.3.1 ]
[ 3.3.1 ]
weight may help to stop the caving, depending on the cause of the caving, (if this will not cause losses), and cavings may cause a dirty annulus during the trip, giving problems even if the hole was clean at the
start of the trip.
If the well cannot be cleaned by normal circulation for holes up to
45 inclination, circulate around a high viscous pill while moving the
string to disturb the cuttings beds. In higher inclinations, turbulent
flow is more effective, therefore, a low vis pill at high rate while moving the string may work better. In very high-angle holes using OBM,
pumping a base oil pill for turbulence can strip off the wall cake and
cause the hole to collapse as the hydrostatic will not then fully support
the bore wall.
On tripping out, steadily increasing drags will indicate dirty hole.
This could be caused by not circulating clean, or possibly by higher
formations caving into the hole even after circulating clean. In a deviated well, cuttings beds may accumulate on the low side, which can be
hard to shift; this problem gets worse with increasing hole angle and
washouts.
The immediate actions are to stop pulling out and to clean up the
wellbore. If circulating normally has not cured the problem, consider
additional measures. This could include pumping at higher rates, rotating and reciprocating the pipe to disturb cuttings beds, pumping high,
or low viscosity pills as noted above.
Getting stuck by packing off on cuttings beds is a difficult situation. Circulation will probably not be possible and the string may not
move at all. The sticking force will increase with time as more solids
settle around the string. Keep pressure on the standpipe (not so much
as to induce losses) and try to work the string down, using torque if
possible. Once circulation is re-established, circulate as fast as possible
and continue to work the string down. Once free, clean up the well
before continuing with other operations.
It is possible that the string cannot be freed by these methods. The
alternatives are then to backoff and either wash over the string, sidetrack, or abandon the well.
If a decision is made to wash over the string, it is best to washover
and recover in one run without stopping circulation. Otherwise, while
the washover string is being pulled and the fishing string run, solids
may again settle around the fish. Backoff at a convenient depth just
352
Drilling Problems
[ 3.3.1 ]
above the stuck point and then run the following fishing assembly:
Washover shoe and pipe, long enough to reach below the bottom
stabilizer or just above the bit sub to stab into the top fish connection
- circulating sub with the sleeve already open - drill collars - fishing jar
- drill collars - accelerator HWDP, etc.
Washover the fish, screw into the fish without interrupting circulation, continue to circulate, and pull/jar free. By having the open circulating sub inside the top of the washover pipe, circulation is maintained all the time, even if the fish is plugged inside with solids (as is
likely).
Reactive formation. There are two types of reactive formation:
those that hydrate and slough in (Gumbo) and those that collapse due
to brittle failure. Both types are likely to be time sensitive, therefore,
the casing program should allow them to be cased off within the time
that they stay stable.
In the first case, ensure that the level of inhibition is carefully
maintained as per program and increase if necessary. Monitor the condition of the cuttings for signs of hydration. Minimize swab and surge
pressures. Plan operations to minimize the time spent with open hole
before running casing, but do not take risky short cuts.
For brittle failure type formations, higher mud weight is the best
stabilizing mechanism. Ensure that the hole is kept clean while
drilling. Avoid drilling at critical rotary speeds to minimize string
vibrations. Minimize swab and surge pressures.
For both types of reactive formation, consider wiper trips carefully. Wiper trips should only be done when the wiper trip is likely to help
improve the overall situation. Refer to Section 3.3.8, Preplanned Wire
tripping, for general information on wiper trips. Trip carefully and
start up and stop the pumps slowly to minimize swabs and surges, all
of which can help destabilize the formation.
In the case of pipe sticking due to reactive formation collapse or
sloughing, refer to the method discussed in the Section 3.3.1, Cuttings
beds. Also see the wellbore stability topics in Section 2.9.1.
Tophole collapse. This may occur since very shallow formations
are unconsolidated and there is little overbalance to help stabilize the
wall. If possible, drill with returns to the rig (for greater hydrostatic)
on an offshore well, and use a mud with good wall cake-forming characteristics or pump high solids slugs around to help plaster the hole.
353
[ 3.3.1 ]
Drilling Problems
[ 3.3.1 ]
[ 3.3.1 ]
be optimized with a good mud program. Of particular concern is development drilling through a depleted reservoir because the overbalance
can be very high. Additives can be used to make the cake thinner and
less sticky or oil mud will form very little cake.
Keep all the solids control equipment running at full efficiency to
minimize low gravity solids buildup. Use a centrifuge if possible. Walk
around and check the solids control equipment several times a day.
Dump the sand trap and dilute, if necessary, to achieve LG solids control. MBT level should be kept as low as possible, preferably below 8
ppb equivalent.
Static overbalance is the second of the four conditions. Use the
minimum safe mud weight to minimize the static overbalance on the
formation. Condition the mud carefully before running casing to the
minimum safe density.
Keep the hole clean to minimize loading up the annulus with cuttings. Watch rheology and pump rate to achieve this.
Wall contact is the third of the four conditions. Use a well stabilized BHA. Spiral or square drill collars have less contact area than
round ones. Run HWDP in compression to reduce the length of drill
collars. Use a bit that requires less WOB and, therefore, less BHA (PDC,
diamond) if the formation is suitable and the rig cost justifies it. Wall
contact will be greater as inclination increases. Centralize casing well
where it is run past the problem zone.
A stationary string is the last of the four conditions. Minimize programmed directional surveys, especially if run on wireline. Top drive is
an advantage since fewer connections are required. When POH make
the initial flowcheck brief, pull out above the potential sticking zone,
then carry out a full flowcheck.
If differential pressure is causing the pipe to start getting stuck
when in the slips for connections or pulling out of the hole, try the following procedure. Ensure the crews are properly briefed to carry this
out safely first.
Land in the slips, break the connection keeping about 30,00040,000 lbs pull over block weight. Leave on the breakout tong, rotate
out slowly, and leave the table rotating slowly. When ready to stab the
next connection or latch the elevator, stop the rotary, ensure no torque
is left on the table, make up connection, or latch elevator, and carefully pick out of the slips. Once the slips are out, move the string down
356
Drilling Problems
3.3.1
rather than up; if differential sticking has already started, moving down
will be more likely to get you free than pulling up, which may increase
the side force onto the sticking formation.
It is good practice on trips out and connections to set the slips on
a down drag. Pick up an extra 7-8 ft, come back down, and set the
slips. This does two things. It reduces the tension and stretch in the
drillstring, which reduces string side forces and sticking and also
makes it possible to cock the jar as soon as the slips are taken out. It
also confirms that you are not going to pull out of the slips straight into
a stuck point. If you see signs of the string getting tight when picking
up the extra height, go a bit further and work out the tight spot first
before setting the slips while you have plenty of height to work with.
Centralize casing well over this interval. Plan the casing job and
brief the crews well so as to avoid excessive time with the casing
stationary.
In the event of equipment failure, try to keep the casing moving
slowly while the problem is sorted out. If the casing cannot be picked
up due to weight plus drags, or to a drawworks problem, have the
driller lower the full joint very slowly, if possible, which could take several minutes of constant slow movement.
If the weight of the casing plus drags is likely to be more than can
be picked up, consider floating in the casing (that is, running it partially empty from a certain depth to reduce the hook loads). In this
case, check the collapse rating of the casing against the collapse pressure that will be exerted.
Differential stickingcure. If a likely differential sticking
zone exists in the well, it is especially important to avoid getting
stuck by another mechanism first. This requires good planning and
close supervision.
If differentially stuck, then the procedure for getting free involves
reducing or removing some of the necessary conditions. Fast reaction
is needed as the differential sticking force increases with time, so the
best chance to free the pipe occurs when initially stuck. Circulation
will be possible unless another mechanism also exists; for instance the
string may be mechanically stuck, then become differentially stuck due
to the pipe being stationary for a long time.
Start to work the pipe immediately after you become stuck. First
slack off almost all the string weight; this may cause the pipe downhole
357
[ 3.3.1 ]
to slump off the wall. Differentially stuck pipe comes free going down
more often than by overpulling. If torque can also be applied, this is
even better. Pull up to about 30,000-40,000 lbs above the up-drag
weight and, if not free, then repeat several times. If unsuccessful start
to jar up and bump down. This is one of the few situations where
working the pipe both ways will not make the sticking problem worse.
If the stuck point depth is unknown, use stretch data to determine
the approximate depth.
If not free within 10 minutes of working the pipe, continue to work
the pipe while preparing a Pipelax or similar pill. These pills work by
shrinking the wall cake, thus reducing the contact area between the
pipe and hole. Make enough to cover the BHA (if stuck at the BHA)
and to leave about 10 barrels inside the string.
Displace out the pill sufficient to cover the BHA, leaving the excess
inside the bit. Pump about one-quarter barrel every 10 or 15 minutes
while working the pipe.
In some cases the well has been displaced to oil-based mud to free
the pipe. This would have to be fully discussed with the drilling office
and would probably take a few days to organize logistically.
The sticking force will be roughly proportional to the overbalance
at the stuck point. If the mud density were reduced then the sticking
force would also reduce. This can be done as follows:
Displace the complete well to lower density mud. If the annulus is
loaded with cuttings at the time the pipe stuck, then circulating clean
would reduce overbalance. Otherwise the mud can be conditioned to a
lower weight, possibly over several circulations to ensure that well control is not compromised.
Some company policies prohibit the following method but it is
worth considering as long as a float is not in the string and well control
can be maintained.
Displace some of the drillstring to water, diesel, base oil, or some
suitable lightweight fluid. Allow to U-tube out so that the level in the
annulus drops and the bottomhole pressure decreases. Have the kelly
or top drive on (bleed off on the standpipe manifold) and pull/jar to
maximum. Full hydrostatic is restored by pumping in enough mud to
replace the backflowed fluid; the remaining light fluid can be circulated out either conventionally or reverse as appropriate to the situation.
358
Drilling Problems
[ 3.3.2 ]
[ 3.3.2 ]
It is better to wait until losses are fairly severe before doing this to
ensure an easy flow path for the cement. This should not take long
once losses have started.
Losses when drilling in divert mode must be cured; it is not safe to
drill blind. If the cement does not cure the losses, consider running
casing or respudding the well.
Severe or total losses in shallow unconsolidated formations. The
principal cause of losses in these formations is extremely high permeability. The mud does not make an effective mud cake to seal the loss
zone. Losses are likely to start as soon as the formation is penetrated.
Several factors will contribute to the mud loss, such as annulus loaded
with cuttings, excessive mud density, insufficient mud viscosity, high
water loss (low solids content to plaster the wall), or excessive surge
pressures. One or more of the following actions may be appropriate:
1. Add solids to the mud to increase rheology and plastering characteristics, such as bentonite, lime, cement, or polymer (CMC HV).
Do not add high gravity solids such as barite, which increase the
mud density.
2. Reduce mud density if possible by dilution and/or maximizing the
use of solids control equipment.
3. Increase the circulation rate. The increase in ECD will be small
compared to the reduction in annular density due to cuttings loading in large shallow holes. If in deep water with a floating rig,
increase riser booster pump output if possible.
4. Drill at controlled rates to reduce annulus loading.
5. Add coarse LCM to the mud system. High strength is not necessary,
so use the cheapest bulk material available, such as sawdust or
ground nut shells.
6. Drill ahead if familiar with the area, confident that there are no well
control problems ahead, and can replace the volume lost to the
hole. Several precautions must be taken to drill blind: a float
should be in the string and you must circulate fast enough to lift
the cuttings to the loss zone (minimum AV around 50 fpm outside
the DP). Monitor carefully the torque and drags because the string
may get packed off. Drill at controlled ROP. A good supply of water
must be available, which is a problem in the desert. Do not drill
blind with a diverter in use.
360
Drilling Problems
[ 3.3.2 ]
[ 3.3.2 ]
Drilling Problems
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
[ 3.3.2 ]
(Note: Do not position the bit below the loss zone. Any cement
remaining in the wellbore below the loss zone is a waste; if slurry
is left above the loss zone it can at least drop down and enter the
zone.)
Mix and pump 100-200 bbls of extended lead cement slurry.
Pump 100 bbls of extended tail cement slurry with 0.5 ppb
polypropylene fibers added (Dowell product D094), preferably
batch mixed in advance of the job for the best quality slurry.
Displace with mud. If the annulus fluid level can be estimated,
pump a quantity of mud that leaves a small quantity of cement in
the string after U- tubing. It is vital to avoid mud entering the loss
zone after displacing the cement.
Monitor for returns at surface while pumping and displacing
cement. If returns are seen, close the BOP and displace with mud.
Now that the annulus level is at surface, displace with the string
capacity5 bbls instead of the originally calculated displacement.
Slow the pump if necessary so that excessive pressures are not
imposed on the well.
POH. Pull back two stands without filling, then fill the annulus
from the trip tank with mud to just replace the open-ended pipe
displacement. Pull back to the shoe and wait on cement samples in
the oven. It is better to add slightly too little mud than too much.
RIH, carefully drill out the cement. If losses are seen right away,
repeat the cement job.
If losses are later experienced in the same zone, repeat the process.
[ 3.3.3 ]
should drop when pumping ceases to the level supported by the formation fluid pressure, and the cement that has moved up the annulus
will probably drop down back to the loss zone.
Drilling Problems
[ 3.3.4 ]
end for leaks. If both pumps show the same pressures as on the
slow circulating rates (SCRs) taken earlier, resume drilling cautiously, watching for further signs of problems. If both pumps
show lower pressure, something in the circulating system must
have changed.
At this point, the surface equipment and mud have been isolated
and so the problem must be downhole. Do not slug the pipe, POH wet
to allow the washout to be seen more easily. Some old hands would
throw small rope strands down the drillstring before tripping out. The
string might be seen hanging out of the washout.
In some circumstances, when the pipe is stuck, it becomes necessary to backoff the pipe at one of the downhole connections, either to
fish the remaining pipe or to sidetrack or plug and abandon.
The most common method used is to apply left-hand torque to the
string and set off a small explosive charge at the desired backoff depth.
The vibrations from the explosion cause the joint to unscrew with the
left-hand torque stored in the elastic drillstring.
Sometimes an explosive backoff cannot be done. If the string is
plugged higher up or if explosive is not available, it is possible to backoff at or close to the desired depth. The method is less reliable than
using explosives.
Planning and precautions. A pre-job safety meeting must be held
in advance since this is a high-risk operation that the crew may be
unfamiliar with. Subjects to be addressed should include:
1. The pipe should be worked under torque and high tension with the
tongs. If the tong becomes detached or the tong line breaks, the
tong can fly across the drillfloor causing serious injury. The tongs
should be tied between the jaws when on the pipe.
2. Torque should be held in the string by the slips unless using a top
drive. If the slips were picked up with the table locked and torque in
the string, the slips can fly across the drillfloor causing serious injury.
The slips should be tied around the pipe when set in the table. No
365
[ 3.3.4 ]
one is to approach the table with the slips set until the driller has
released the rotary brake and picked up the string slightly.
3. Whenever working the pipe in tension and torsion, no one should be
on the floor other than the driller on the brake. Only when setting or
pulling the slips or tongs will anyone be needed on the floor.
4. All entries to the drillfloor, except past the driller, should be barriered off with breakable tape. Rope or other solid barriers are not to
be used because they will impede escape off the floor. Place notices
and barriers at the bottom of any stairs that directly access the drillfloor (V-door, from mud pits, etc.). The deck crew must be informed
that access to the drillfloor is restricted.
5. If working with explosive primer cord, keep unnecessary personnel
clear and follow the instructions of the driller and logging engineer.
Procedure. Ideally the backoff is done in such a way that damage to
the connection is minimized and it is possible to run in with a fishing
assembly and make up to the backed off top of the fish.
Backing off can be done mechanically or with a downhole explosive
charge. Where a charge is not used, the backoff cannot be controlled
well enough to break at a specific connection. Even when a charge is
used, a different connection will sometimes backoff instead, or several
connections may become loosened.
First determine the stuck point depth, either by using stretch data
or by running a wireline tool to measure stretch in the string (such as
the Schlumberger Free Point Indicator Tool [FPIT]).
The logging engineer will determine how much explosive primer
cord to run, given the depth, mud weight in use, and connection size.
Run this in the string through a kelly cock with a cut-out protector to
cover the thread to the planned breakout connection; a slimhole casing
collar locator (CCL) is used to correlate depth. Meanwhile put the tong
line sensator on the breakout tong where the breakout and backup lines
attach to the tong. This allows torque to be monitored both while working the pipe up and down and also when putting in left-hand (LH)
torque with the breakout cathead. If the kelly or top drive is still on the
string, the backoff charge may be run through a removable plug on the
gooseneck top. Do not forget to protect the thread on this from cutting
out by fabricating a small protector to cover the thread.
366
Drilling Problems
3.3.4
[ 3.3.5 ]
Drilling Problems
[ 3.3.5 ]
[ 3.3.5 ]
Drilling Problems
[ 3.3.5 ]
When the grapple is far enough over the fish, stop rotating. Pick
up slowly while watching the weight indicator. If the fish is caught in
the grapple, the harder it is pulled the more it grips. Pull and jar as
required to free the fish. Pull out of the hole without rotating. Set and
pull the slips gently.
The die collar is another tool that catches on the fish OD. This
must be run with a safety joint since it cannot be released downhole. It
is not as strong as the equivalent overshot. Die collars and taper taps
are only run as a last resort, due to their limitations, and also because
they distort the top of fish, making it more difficult to subsequently
run other fishing tools.
Releasing an overshot from the fish. To come off the fish either
downhole or with the fish at surface, first set down some weight. This
releases some of the grip. Start to rotate to the right (with chain tongs
if at surface) and then pick up slowly. As stated previously, turning to
the right opens up the grapple.
Work up slowly until the fish comes out of the grapple. If the fish
can be set in the slips, carefully rotate to the left with the table while
backing up the overshot with the make-up tong and picking up very
slowly with the block. Tie the slips and use a safety clamp, but do not
do this if the fish is long or if it may backoff below the rotary table.
Close the blind rams below the fish first!
Fishing for casings and other tubular items (catching inside). If
for some reason an overshot cannot be used, a releasing spear may be
able to latch the inside diameter. It works very much like an overshot
in reverse and may be released downhole. The releasing spear is most
often used to catch casing, especially during abandoning if the casing
is cut to retrieve it and a slip and seal hanger were used.
The weak point of a releasing spear is the inner mandrel. In large
spears (say for 95/8 in casing) this is not an issue, but if you are catching a small ID (say a drill collar) then the mandrel could be quite weak.
Another tool that can catch on an inside diameter is a taper tap.
This is stronger than a releasing spear of the same catch size but cannot be released downhole, therefore, it must be run with a safety joint.
It looks like a long cone with threads on the outside and it is screwed
into the fish ID.
Fishing after backing off. Where the fish can be screwed back into,
a short fishing assembly can be run to try to screw back into the fish
and jar it free.
371
[ 3.3.5 ]
Drilling Problems
[ 3.3.6 ]
lating sub is run as a precaution in the drill collars; check that the
opening ball will drop through the accelerator and drift the string
while running in.
For milling, more weight will be needed, though not nearly as
much as would be run on a drill bit. The weight on mill may be recommended by the supplier or, as a guideline, run 1000-2000 lbs per
inch of mill diameter. When running a mill shoe on a packer picker or
washover pipe, less area is milled and so less weight is used. Refer to
the recommendations of the supplier for these because the weight will
also depend on what is used to dress the mill.
For fishing wireline tools, the logging company should provide the
correct fishing equipment to run and crossovers to drill collar and
drillpipe connections, if nonstandard connections are used.
Fishing jars, accelerators, bumper subs, and fishing tools to catch
every sized tubular to be used should also be on location, along with
the consumables required such as grapples. Normally they will be provided by the drilling contractor.
Bowen has a computer program to optimize jar placement, but it is
only applicable to Bowen jars. Other vendors have similar programs.
[ 3.3.7 ]
Run in with the next bit and wait above the top of cement. Check
the surface samples. Once the cement has developed enough strength
to drill through, continue drilling ahead.
In severe cases, an Expandable Slotted Liner from Petroline
could be considered. This is set in place across the enlarged zone, an
expander plug is pulled through it to expand it, and it is cemented
in place.
Drilling Problems
[ 3.3.8 ]
hole size, BHA configuration, and any packing off around the BHA
drillpipe OD). Significant swab pressures can be created by pulling out
too fast or stopping the pumps too quickly. The amount of pressure
decrease on a connection will depend on how fast the pumps are
stopped, depth, mud density, mud rheology, and hydraulic diameter.
[ 3.3.9 ]
not necessarily true that the wiper trip was necessary, except in mobile
plastic salts and shales, as previously noted. Apply wiper trips intelligently to minimize cost and problems associated with wiper trips.
Barite plugs work by allowing barite to settle out rapidly after spotting the pill, forming a solid mass that is capable of holding some pressure. They can be pumped through a drill bit if necessary. Mixed at 22
ppg, the hydrostatic head of the plug will inhibit flow from a lower
kicking zone. Barite plugs can be used to seal off a high pressure/low
permeability kicking zone while casing is set, for some lost circulation
problems and also for isolating a loss zone from a kicking zone during
an underground blowout.
The plug slurry is usually mixed with barite, fresh water, sodium
acid pyrophosphate (SAPP) and caustic soda. The SAPP lowers the
slurry rheology, increasing the settling rate and the caustic soda raises
the pH (to 10) to increase thinner effectiveness. Desco can also be used
instead of SAPP, which does not need caustic soda to work.
A one liter pilot test should be done first since some supplies of
barite do not settle well. This may be due to trace impurities. Mix in
the correct proportions, stir well, and pour into a clear glass or plastic
container. Half of the barite should settle out within 15 minutes (i.e.,
the bottom quarter of the container will have settled barite).
For one barrel of a 22 ppg slurry, mix either 1/2 lb SAPP and 1/4 lb
caustic soda, or 1/2 lb Desco in 21 gallons of fresh water. Add 750 lbs
barite using a high pressure jet mixer. Mix the slurry using the cement
unit. The volume may vary from a minimum of 40 up to 450 barrels,
depending on the hole capacity and problem. If the treatment has to be
repeated, use a larger volume than the previous.
Displace as soon as possible after mixing, at 5 bbl/min or more to
prevent settling out in the drillstring. U-tubing will tend to occur;
pump fast enough to maintain pressure on the drillstring until displacement is complete. Have cement and rig pumps lined up during
displacing; if one pump fails switch immediately to the other or else
you may end up with a plugged drillstring.
376
Drilling Problems
[ 3.3.9 ]
Underground blowout situation. In this situation, it is more likely that you will leave the string in place after setting the plug. Moving
the pipe up out of the plug may mean stripping out and is likely to disturb the plug (which should be set around the outside of the drillstring). If the pipe becomes stuck higher up, subsequent barite plugs
will be spotted higher and will be less effective.
The drillstring should be positioned below the loss zone if possible. However, if this would mean making up an inside BOP and stripping in (i.e., no float and pressure on the string), then the string will
have to be left where it is since the inside BOP will prevent running a
temperature log. If the bit is above the loss zone, a larger plug will have
to be used (to give the desired length in open hole instead of around
the drillstring), and hopefully the plug will move down and bridge off
below the loss zone or inside it.
1. Mix, pump, and displace the barite plug slurry right out of the
drillstring. Overdisplace by 5-10 barrels.
2. Wait about 6 hours for temperatures to stabilize. Meanwhile
pump a few strokes every 15 minutes through the drillstring to
keep it clear, unless there is still pressure on the string from the
kicking formation.
3. Run a temperature survey through the drillstring (pressure equipment will be needed on the string). The loss zone should appear
hotter than normal.
4. Wait another 4-6 hours and run another temperature survey. If the
underground blowout has stopped, the temperature in the loss
zone will have decreased. If the blowout is still going, set another
(larger) plug.
5. If the plug has worked, bullhead cement below it. If the pumping
or casing pressure fluctuates significantly, it may indicate that the
barite plug has not held. Under-displace the cement to plug the
drillstring to the theoretical top of the barite plug.
6. Wait on cement; pressure test inside the drillstring. Bleed off and
check for backflow.
7. Perforate the drillstring, using the pressure lubricator in case flow
starts.
8. Attempt to circulate. If possible to circulate, displace out any formation fluids with a mud density that will stop the losses. Then
377
[ 3.3.9 ]
378
Drilling Problems
[ 3.3.10 ]
Diesel Oil Bentonite plugs are also known as gunk plugs. They
work by holding bentonite in suspension in diesel until the plug is
placed and then arranging for water to hydrate the bentonite. The bentonite yields rapidly, becoming extremely viscous.
They can be very successful in shutting off flow in an underground
blowout, especially if the flow is water. A DOB plug will not maintain
strength indefinitely. Cement should be spotted to give a permanent
seal once the plug has worked.
The main potential problem with the DOB plug is that it will set up
inside the drillstring if it contacts any water. A good diesel spacer ahead
and behind are essential to prevent this.
To make the plug slurry, mix three sacks of bentonite per barrel of
diesel for an 11.0 ppg slurry. Mica can be added at 15 ppb to increase
the final plug strength if desired; use fine mica otherwise the nozzles
may get plugged. Volume of slurry will vary between 30 and 150 bbls;
more slurry for higher flowing rates and/or more open hole.
Procedure.
1. Line up both rig and cement pumps on the drillstring so that either
can be used for displacement if the other fails.
2. Pump 5-10 bbls diesel ahead.
3. Either batch mix or mix/pump the DOB plug on the fly and displace it into the drillstring.
4. Pump 15-20 bbls of diesel behind. Displace with water-based mud
with a reasonable rate down the string.
5. Once the slurry reaches the bit, start to pump slowly (1/4-1/2
bbl/min) into the annulus while displacing the slurry and diesel
behind out of the string; over-displace by 5 bbls.
6. Wait about 6 hours for temperatures to stabilize. Run a temperature survey through the drillstring (pressure equipment will be
needed on the string). The loss zone should appear hotter than
normal.
7. Wait another 4-6 hours and run another temperature survey. If the
underground blowout has stopped, the temperature in the loss
zone will have decreased. If the blowout is still going, set another
(larger) plug.
379
[ 3.3.10 ]
8. If the plug has worked, bullhead cement below it. If the pumping
or casing pressure fluctuates significantly, this may indicate that
the DOB plug has not held. Under-displace the cement to plug the
drillstring to the theoretical top of the plug.
9. Wait on cement; pressure test inside the drillstring. Bleed off and
check for backflow.
10. Perforate the drillstring, using the pressure lubricator in case flow
starts. Attempt to circulate.
11. If possible to circulate, displace out any formation fluids with a
mud density that will stop the losses. Then when the well is static,
backoff or blow off the drillstring at or above the perforation depth.
If not possible to circulate, set a wireline plug above the perfs, pressure test, and reperforate higher using steps 10 and 11. Ongoing operations would probably be to P&A the well or to set casing to below the
loss zone prior to sidetracking.
380
[]
3.4
Casing
3.4.1. Conductor Placement
There are three current techniques of setting conductor pipe: jetting in, piledriving or drilling, and cementing to surface. Criteria for
drilling, jetting, or driving relate to the desired setting depth and
whether the topsoil conditions allow jetting or driving to this depth
without damaging the conductor drive shoe. (Refer to the information
on individual casing points in Section 1.4.6.)
Offshore conductor; preparation for the job. The job can be done
faster and cheaper if the proper preparations are made. Preparations in
advance of the rig arrival include the following:
1. Make a decision on what connections will be used and where the
conductor will be welded while driving. If welded, then the pipe
ends should be prepared by beveling for welding before sending to
the rig. Otherwise, a beveling machine needs to be sent out. If
connections are to be used then all the information and equipment needed to run the connection has to be organized.
381
[ 3.4.1 ]
2. For welding, ensure that three or four welding machines plus consumables and welders are available. If required, ultrasonic weld
testing equipment and an operator should be sent out.
Nondestructive testing (NDT) is normally done only for freestanding conductors but company policies or government regulations may require it.
3. A section of conductor for the splash zone needs proper protection
against corrosion. This may involve blasting and painting with
special protective paint.
4. The hammer size will depend on the size and weight of pipe to be
driven. Check that the rig crane can lift on the complete hammer
without having to disassemble and reassemble on the rig site; this
will save rig up time.
5. Check that the rotary table diameter is greater than the conductor OD.
6. Conductor may be run on slings attached to padeyes welded on to
the conductor. The conductor is landed at the rotary on the
padeyes. After making up the next joint, these padeyes are burned
off. In this case, preparation will include welding on those
padeyes and testing to ensure that they will hold the weight of the
conductor string below; ultrasonic and/or load testing.
Appropriate length and rating of slings and shackles from the
padeyes to the block are needed.
7. If the conductor is to be run using slips, clamp, and elevators
rather than padeyes then they need arranging.
8. Generally, a survey is run inside the conductor once driven. This
can be done through drillpipe on slickline on the cleanout trip.
Either run a Totco survey to confirm that the pipe is at or nearly
vertical or a gyrosurvey if it is not expected to be vertical (e.g., a
directionally driven conductor) or if the position needs to be accurately known because of close proximity of adjacent conductors.
The gyrosurvey kit including winch and surveyor need to be sent
out in time.
Jetting in the conductor. The conductor is made up and a jetting
sub on HWDP is run about 2 ft inside the shoe that makes up to the
conductor running tool. The conductor and jetting assembly is run on
382
Casing
[ 3.4.1 ]
[ 3.4.1 ]
with a special vessel or it can be done from the rig after arrival, with
the rig pinned on bottom before full preloading.
The conductor is made up and run through the rotary. Once the
shoe reaches the seabed, check the tide/current conditions. An inclination survey can be run inside the conductor on wireline with a centralizer to check that the conductor is vertical. If necessary, wait on
slack water so that the conductor starts off vertical. When ready, continue to run the conductor. Normally it will freely penetrate the top
part of the seabed (freefall) before it stands up and driving can begin.
Driven conductors are usually driven to refusal. Refusal is a specified maximum number of hammer blows per foot of penetration at a
particular hammer power setting. This maximum is determined by
potential damage to the drive pipe and/or hammer, which can occur if
driving with insufficient penetration. Consult the hammer manufacturer for recommendations if the company or normal area practices indicate a suitable refusal point for a particular hammer and power setting.
If several wells are drilled closely spaced (such as on a platform),
conductors can be driven directionally using a drive shoe that imparts
a side force. This technique, if successful, gives better separation of the
wells at the shoe. However, once started it is impossible to control and
it is quite possible for the conductor to go completely off course. If this
happens, the slot may be unusable.
Conductor connections are normally heavy duty quick connect
types, such as the Vetco Squnch Joint. The connector has to be suitable
for driving operations.
If driving several conductors from a template or platform, stagger
the shoe depths a little. If the shoes are all located close together at the
same depth, communication between them may occur soon after
drilling out the shoe, since this is the shortest leak path. If this is
thought likely, spot 30-50 ft of cement inside each conductor before
drilling out the first one to prevent such losses from the drilled conductor to undrilled ones. Shallow gas could also follow this path,
which is another reason to spot cement.
Sometimes a mudline suspension system will be used. A landing
ring is positioned in the conductor string such that at the expected
penetration, the landing ring will be 5-10 m below the seabed. It is not
usually a problem if the landing ring is a little too deep; however, if it
is not deep enough, the suspended well may stick up too much above
384
Casing
[ 3.4.2 ]
the seabed. In this case, the conductor can be secured and the conductor shoe drilled out with a smaller diameter bit, usually 8-10 in less
than the conductor ID. It is not necessary to drill out too far ahead of
the conductor shoe before recommencing driving since the conductor
can normally be driven deeper than the drilled hole.
Drilling out may be done even when a mudline suspension system
is not used, where penetration/shoe strength is considered to be insufficient for holding hydrostatic pressure during the surface hole section.
Offshore, especially if the flowline is a long way above sea level, a
line can be welded in to a hole cut in the conductor close to sea level
and a 6 in air-operated valve installed, aligned away from the rig. This
will be done after driving is complete. If losses are seen, the valve can
be opened so that the hydrostatic head imposed at the conductor shoe
is reduced as the returns will flow out of the valve. If the well kicks
then the 6 in valve could be closed when the diverter is closed.
After driving the conductor, it should be cleaned out with a large
diameter drill bit to the conductor shoe. If this is not done and drilling
commences with a smaller diameter bit (say 171/2 in in a 30 in conductor), the formation left inside the conductor can cause problems
later on. Check that the bit will clear the mudline suspension ring, if
run, and take particular care when cleaning out past the landing ring;
it can be damaged or torn off by the bit.
3.4.2. Equipment Preparation for Casing
Refer to the checklists in Appendix 4. Use these to assist in ordering the equipment and services, and also for checking the presence and
condition of the equipment when it reaches the rig. The following procedures are only guidelineseach job has to be planned individually.
The casing should be laid out, connections cleaned and inspected,
drifted, numbered, and measured. Subtract the make-up loss from the
total joint length; refer to the Weatherford Tubing Data Handbook or a
similar publication. For buttress threads, measure from the end of the
pin to the base of the triangle for an average make-up loss.
If it will be some time before the casing is run, make up clean dry
protectors onto the clean, dry connections. A light coating of oil can be
applied to prevent corrosion in damp conditions or where condensation is possible. Do not dope the connections.
385
[ 3.4.3 ]
Before pulling out just prior to running casing, condition the mud
to the lowest PV and YP and gels. The mud no longer has to clean cuttings out or suspend drilled cuttings and lowering these properties will
386
Casing
[ 3.4.3 ]
assist good mud displacement. If you have the tank capacity it would
save time if after circulating clean, ready conditioned mud could be
displaced into the open hole from a reserve tank rather than circulating to condition mud for one or more circulations.
On the last trip out of the hole, strap the pipe with a steel tape.
Confirm that the pipe tally is correct.
Rig up all the equipment, change and pressure test the top pipe
rams, if necessary, and when ready to pick up the first joint hold a prejob safety meeting on the drillfloor. It is better to have the driller organize and lead this meeting (since the driller will be present throughout
the job), but the toolpusher/night pusher, drilling supervisor, and
drilling engineer should all be present. Following are some ideas for
items to cover in this meeting.
Safety precautions (pre-job safety meeting topics). The following
can be used as a checklist of areas to cover on the pre-job briefing:
1. A good safe job is required; work efficiently without rushing.
2. All the correct safety equipment is to be used: safety belts at height,
etc.; there will be no exceptions.
3. The on-shift driller has overall responsibility for the job. Any problems are to be reported to the driller, and if the problem cannot be
solved, the toolpusher/drilling supervisor must be alerted by the
driller. The driller should know the maximum pull that can be
applied to the casing if it gets stuck.
4. Watch out for pinch points: fingers or hands getting trapped
between moving and stationary equipment, such as casing coming
up the V-door.
5. Keep the drillfloor reasonably clean to prevent tripping and slipping hazards.
6. No one is to use the V-door stairs when a joint of pipe is being
moved between the catwalk and the drillfloor or being picked up
by the single joint elevators.
7. When you change shift, make sure you hand over your job to your
relief, then stop and watch their work for a few minutes to make
sure they are doing the job properly.
8. Any unsafe conditions must be corrected immediately. Watch out
for ropes on the V-door and stabbing board getting worn and
change in good time. Keep an eye on lifting slings and strops.
387
[ 3.4.4 ]
Pick up the shoe joint and lower in the hole. Look into the joint
with a flashlight to see if the floats are allowing mud to pass from the
well into the casingthey should not. Fill with mud to roughly level
with the flowline, then pick up about halfway and lower in again.
Look down the joint and check the level again. This checks that the
floats allow mud to flow through but hold back pressure. Repeat
once the float collar is made up, to check that the float collar allows
passage of mud. If the floats do not allow mud to flow through, make
up the circulating head and try to circulate through them, then retest
as previously described. If they still do not work, the backups will
have to be used.
Buttress casing connections are made up to within 3/8 in from
the base of the triangle stamped on the pin. Make up several joints to
the triangle, then use an average from the resultant make-up torques.
If in any doubt, check a few more joints visually to the triangle. If you
feel a casing collar while being made up, it should warm up but
should not get hot. If it does get hot, it may indicate over-torquing or
galling and should be backed out and checked.
The shoetrack is normally secured with a pipelock compound on
the connections to reduce the likelihood of backing off while drilling
out. There is no point in pipelocking only one side of a collar. With the
shoe joint in the table, apply the safety clamp then remove the elevators. Using the rig tongs, carefully break out the collar. Clean pin and
collar threads thoroughly, applying pipelock to the pin end only. Start
to make up the casing collar with a large chain tong until the thread
388
Casing
[ 3.4.4 ]
has properly started. Coat the next joint pin end, stab in, and make up
with the power tong using a rig tong as backup. Repeat for the remaining shoetrack connections below the float collar. (If possible, breaking
out the collars and pipelocking them can be done in advance on the
pipe rack, which will save time.) When making up the joints in the
rotary table using pipelock, make them up to the triangle and record
the make-up torque for later when the shoetrack is drilled out. (To drill
out the shoetrack, the off-bottom rotating torque with the drilling
assembly at the casing plugs is taken. The torque while drilling the
shoetrack is then restricted to 50% of the make-up torque plus the offbottom rotating torque.)
Extra casing collars should be ordered in case a collar is damaged
backing off or galled when made up again.
Apply the safety clamp (or use a spare single joint elevator above
the slips) before removing the elevators until there is 25,000 lbs hook
load (not including block weight). Fill each joint with mud. Monitor
pit gain while running casing to spot losses or gains from the hole.
Change to spider slips and elevators before entering open hole.
Once at depth, count the joints remaining (including any unused
due to joint damage) and check that this is correct against the running
list. Rig up the loaded cement head and wash down the last joint if necessary. Note up and down drags and any fill. Establish circulation and
slowly increase, monitoring for losses. Circulate 120% of the casing
contents at the highest no-losses rate to ensure that the casing is clear
of debris, which would block the float. If using a slip and seal-type
hanger, the casing can be reciprocated during circulating and displacing cement to assist mud removal by preventing gelling in washouts or
eccentric annuli. This can also be done with a solid hanger, as long as
the hole is in good condition with little risk of getting stuck with the
casing not landed. Once the solid hanger has been finally landed, close
the annular preventer and pressure test above to 500 psi for 10 minutes. If this test is good then the stack can be nippled down after
cementing without waiting on surface samples.
Running list example. Prepare the casing running list from the
tally. Mark the locations of centralizers, accessories, crossovers, etc.
The tally should also give, for each joint, depth in the hole while running and final depth in the well when landed. Refer to the example
389
[ 3.4.4 ]
Copies of the tally should be given to the driller, deck crew, crane
driver, and anyone else who needs one. The driller should mark off the
joints as they are run in the hole, checking the numbers against the
tally as they are run. If joints have to be laid down these can be marked
and the tally amended with spare joints.
390
Casing
[ 3.4.4 ]
Single-stage casing and cementation: crew preparation checklist. The following preparation work should be done in advance of
the casing job:
1. Make up and Baker-lock a PxP crossover under the casing hanger,
if a solid (mandrel) hanger is to be used. Make up the running tool
or landing joint on the hanger: measure the distance from RT to the
top of the wellhead spool and mark this distance on the landing
joint from the top of the hanger. Check the landing joint box for
damage and check that the thread matches the cement head.
2. Baker-lock the float shoe and float collar onto the bottom of two
joints after visually checking the float.
3. Number, measure, and inspect the casing. Produce running list for
distribution, once final depth known. See Figure 3-6.
4. Centralizers can be applied to the top row of casing on the rack. If
annular clearance and centralizer type permits, put spring centralizers over a stop collar rather than between two; this reduces drags
and wellhead wear.
5. Drift all crossovers and pups that will form part of the casing
string.
6. Rig up cement return hoses from the wellhead side outlets, if a
solid hanger is to be used.
7. Have the emergency hanger (slip and seal) standing by, checked,
and ready to use.
8. Check carefully that slips are correctly dressed with the right number of segments and type of dies. The dies should be clean and
sharp. Slips dressed incorrectly could lead to injury or a damaged
or lost casing string.
9. Check that the safety clamp is correctly dressed, that the springs
behind the dies are all intact, and that the dies are properly moving
up and down. The number of segments should be correct and dies
in good shape.
10. Check that the spider slips and elevators are correctly dressed and
in good shape.
11. Check the side door and single joint elevators for correct size, rating, and good latch condition.
12. Ensure that chik sans and T-piece are ready on the drillfloor for the
cementing operation.
391
[ 3.4.4 ]
13. Cementer must check the equipment and preferably make up and
dump a test batch of cement while running casing to check that all
lines are clear, etc.
Single-stage casing running procedure.
1. Pull the wear bushing. Change TPR to ____ and test bonnets to
____ psi (call D/S when ready). Rig up to run casing, test power
tongs. Driller makes up a trip sheet to monitor correct displacement. Driller holds a safety meeting on the drillfloor when ready to
pick up the shoe joint (call D/S and T/P when ready for meeting).
2. Pick up the shoe joint and test floats. Land-in slips and set safety
clamp. Backoff the collar, clean the threads, apply Bakerlock, and
make up the collar with a chaintong. Meanwhile pick up joint ____
on the SJ elevator, leave at the V-door on the rope, and clean the
threads.
3. Apply Bakerlock to the pin end, stab into shoe joint and make up
with the casing tong to ____ ft/lbs to triangle. Lower into slips,
apply safety clamp, and fill joint.
4. Repeat to Bakerlock the next collar on both sides, stabbing in the
float collar.
5. Run in, fill the casing, and pick up 10 m. Lower again and look
inside with a flashlight to check that the float collar allows mud to
flow (level dropped). Set slips and apply clamp.
6. Continue to RIH as per running list, applying centralizers where
shown (this can be done on the pipe rack). Use the safety clamp
(or spare SJ elevator) above slips until ____ lbs string weight.
Change to spider slips and elevators before entering open hole on
joint ____. Fill every joint and monitor correct amount of mud
returned. If losses or gains suspected, F/C and call D/S immediately. Run in hole at about ____ minutes a joint lowering speed.
Cementer to prepare mixwater in good time.
7. Make up the casing hanger assembly. Pick out of slips and take up
and down weights. Open side outlets on wellhead. Break circulation, lower casing, and land hanger; check that overstand is correct. Close in on TPR and pressure test above hanger to ____ psi.
(If emergency hanger has to be used due to casing not getting to
bottom, ignore this paragraph.)
392
Casing
[ 3.4.4 ]
[ 3.4.4 ]
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
the dies are all intact, and that the dies move up and down as they
should. The number of segments should be correct and dies in
good shape.
Check that the spider slips and elevators are correctly dressed and
in good shape.
Check the side door and single joint elevators for correct size, rating, and good latch condition.
Check the seals on the stab-in sub.
Ensure chiksans and T-piece are ready on the drillfloor for the
cementing operation.
Cementer to check equipment and preferably make up and dump
a test batch of cement during running casing, to check that all lines
are clear, etc.
Casing
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
[ 3.4.4 ]
backup tong on the collar to the triangle. Land casing on slips for
the last collar at correct depth for the casing spool (if using screw
on type spool). Apply safety clamp.
Place slotted plate on top of casing. Pick up first stand of DP, and
make up the stab in sub; check the seals. Run into casing, land elevators on the slotted plate, and take links off. Make up second set
of elevators, pick up, and run in next stand. Stab into float, spacing out with pups if necessary. [See note below]
Make up kelly cock and circulating head on string. Connect chiksans to SPM and cement manifold with a T-piece. Line up on rig
pump and break circulation slowly. When returns are seen, slowly
increase pump rate to maximum ____ GPM, monitoring for losses.
Observe inside casing, if there are returns then the stab-in sub is
leaking. If there are losses, cut pump rate to maximum no-loss rate.
Circulate 120% of stinger contents (____ bbls, ____ strokes).
Line up to cement pump. Cementer pump ____ bbls of water
ahead, close in at kelly cock, and pressure test lines to ____ psi.
Keep personnel clear of lines under pressure.
Proceed with cement job according to separate program.
Bleed off and check for backflow. If floats holding, pull back one
stand and circulate pipe contents before POH. If floats not holding,
then close in surface lines, maintaining backpressure, and checking
every 5-10 minutes. As soon as the backflow is minimal, pick up to
unstab and try to circulate down string to clear out gelled cement.
Wait until surface cement samples are hard. Back out landing joint;
cut conductor or nipple down diverter.
[ 3.4.4 ]
396
[]
3.5
Cementing
Reference should be made to the well planning aspects of cementing in Section 2.7. Much of the information is applicable to the wellsite
operation.
There are two aspects of the cement job that are both vital to a
good job and that the drilling supervisor has direct influence over.
These are getting full mud displacement by the spacers and having
homogenous slurry of the correct weight.
Mud displacement can be improved using the following techniques:
Proper pre-job conditioning to lowest PV, YP, and gels
Proper spacer design with sufficient contact time (10 minutes) and
turbulent flow
Casing or liner reciprocation or rotation
Homogenous slurry is more likely with the following techniques in
order of preference:
Batch mixing
397
[ 3.5.1 ]
Cementing
[ 3.5.3 ]
[ 3.5.4 ]
must be known. If this cannot be done then look at the actual efficiency obtained on the last casing job (if the plug were bumped) and use
that figure.
The plug dropping head will ideally contain both bottom and top
plugs and will be able to drop each without having to open up the
cement head. Once the 120% casing contents has been circulated, keep
on circulating while the cementer starts mixing cement slurry and testing the cement line up to the cement head. Switch to the spacers, pump
the spacers, then drop the bottom plug and start displacing the slurry.
Do not pump the cement faster than you can accurately mix it; it is
quite common for slurry in a recirculating mixer to vary by up to 2 ppg
on the designed weight if care is not taken. This either produces slurry with far too much free water or more viscous slurry, both of which
compromise the job.
The spacer volume and displacement speed should ideally provide
a contact time of at least 10 minutes with the formation to allow the
spacer to work properly.
Cementing
[ 3.5.4 ]
[ 3.5.5 ]
reduce the pump rate if significant losses occur. The cement slurry will
U-tube due to its greater density, therefore, surface active volume will
first show a gain as cement is pumped, then a loss will show until the
mud behind catches up with the cement. In a critical displacement, the
cement unit can be used to accurately displace the slurry.
Never allow the bottom plug diaphragm to be slit. This used to be
done, presumably in case the diaphragm did not rupture when the plug
bumped; but apart from being totally unnecessary, it will allow the
cement to mix with the mud ahead.
The pumps should be slowed down shortly before theoretical
bump after bumping the plug pressure up the casing to test it as per the
program. Release the pressure and check for backflow; if no backflow
then preparations can be made for the next operation. Where a solid
hanger has been used, the running tool can be laid out and the stack
nippled down; otherwise, wait on cement before removing BOPs.
If the plug is not bumped, then the casing must be pressure tested
prior to drilling out the cement.
Stinger cementing. Where the internal capacity of the casing is very
large (such as in large surface casing), a float shoe or collar with a 4 in
bore above is normally used. This allows a drillpipe stinger with a stabin sub to be run after placing the casing on depth and cement to be
pumped down the stinger. Lead slurry is pumped until cement returns
are seen at surface and then the tail can be pumped. This has clear
advantages: in a large surface hole that is not usually calipered and that
will be cemented to surface, cement is mixed and pumped without having to know accurately in advance what the hole capacity is.
Offshore a ROV or wireline deployed camera may be used to monitor for returns. It can be quite hard to see when the cement actually
starts returning; often a bright dye is used at the end of the spacer or
in the first part of the slurry. The dye itself can be hard to see especially in low visibility water; try adding a few handfuls of mica LCM as
well or instead; this is easy to see because it glitters when the camera
lights hit it.
Various logs can be run to evaluate the cement job quality. Where
no problems have been seen and/or the cement job is not critical, a
402
Cementing
[ 3.5.6 ]
[ 3.5.6 ]
3. Where tank space permits, make up the mix water in advance (but
no more than 12 hours early). Run a pilot test using this mix water
and the cement (blended first if necessary) to check that the programmed pumpable time is close to that seen on your pilot test.
Use an oven to heat up the samples in a covered container, but do
not let the sample boil since this will reduce water content and
seriously affect the thickening time.
4. Ensure samples are taken of the neat mix water, mix fluid (with
additives added), spacer(s), (blended) cement, other additives, and
mud in the hole. Seal, label, put in a safe place, and keep until the
next cement job in case of later queries.
5. Take density readings of the mud with both atmospheric and pressurized balances on the final circulation prior to cementing. Any
difference due to aeration will affect displacement efficiency.
Consider running the degasser while circulating prior to the job.
6. Condition the mud in advance to lowest practical PV, YP, and gels.
At the end of a hole section prior to running casing, having the
mud in good shape will improve cement displacement, reduce
surge pressures, and improve the chances of successfully cementing in an enlarged hole.
7. Write out your program for the job; check your calculations against
the cementers. Pass your program on to the cementer for comment.
No changes are to be made to the program issued from the drilling
office without consultation with the duty drilling manager.
During the job.
1. Follow your preplanned program during the job as closely as possible; avoid making changes on the job except where necessary
to meet unforeseen events.
2. Use the batch mixer for quantities of slurry above the capacity of
the recirculating mixer, and within the capacity of the batch tank
for critical slurries (small cement plugs, tail slurries).
3. When using the recirculating mixer tank to batch mix very small
slurry quantities (coiled tubing plugs, etc.), control the speed of
adding cement by restricting the cement line. This should ensure
that the correct density is obtained and avoid large slugs of cement
powder entering the mixer and only partially hydrating.
404
Cementing
3.5.6
4. Check out the recirculating mixer for function in advance. In particular, ensure that the agitator and recirculating centrifuges are all
working to give maximum mixing energy in the tank.
5. Take samples from the sample point near the bottom of the tank. If
one is not fitted and there is nowhere else to take a sample from
near the bottom, discuss with the cement contractor about fitting
one. Put at least one sample in the oven and check thickening time
at temperature.
After the job.
1. Fill out the cement job report as soon as possible to record all
details. In particular, make any recommendations you and/or the
cementer feel would be advantageous for changes to future programs, procedures, or the drilling manual with full justifications.
Also, keep a copy of your calculations and your program/procedures in the file for future reference.
2. Attach to the cement job report copies of charts, etc., made during
the job.
Keep the samples safe until the next cement job, or send to a local
laboratory, if requested.
405
[]
3.6
Drillbits
Section 2, Well Programming, examined offset bit runs: how to
analyze them to make the best bit choice for the next well and the
effect of BHA choice on bit choice. This section now deals with the
practical aspects of the bit run.
Even though we have done as much as we can at the well planning
stage, the final bit choice will normally be made on the wellsite. The
start of the run may be at a different place than was anticipated in the
drilling program. The performance and grading of the previous bit out
may cause a revision in thinking.
[ 3.6.1 ]
this will be similar to the one pulled or similar to the next bit planned
or an intermediate choice. The process that was used to make the bit
program can be repeated fairly quickly if the rig has all the following
information available: recommendations in the drilling program, hole
section summaries, offset bit data, field operational notes, and the end
of section reports from offset wells used during well planning. These
can be added to the drilling program as appendices and/or to the
drilling manual. The rig site PC can have a copy of the BITREX database, or printouts/offset bit records from it can be appended to the
program. (See Section 2.4.2, Comparing bit records using the
BITREX database.)
Sometimes the next bit in may have to drill to a particular depth
(coring point, for instance), which is considerably less distance than
would be expected from a full bit run. It may be possible to run a
cheaper (or used, re-useable) bit instead. The rig needs a list of bit
prices and the drilling supervisor should consider bit cost when making the selection. For example, it may be that the bit being pulled early
has already drilled through an abrasive zone where premium gauge
protection was used. The next bit in may not require this expensive feature and so a cheaper alternative may be possible.
If the preferred bit is not available. Occasionally the recommended bit will not be on site. In this case, the drilling program
already defines the features required of the bit for a particular interval
and an alternative can be chosen from what is available by applying
those criteria. It is not recommended to merely substitute another bit
of the same IADC code because this code is a great simplification of
the bit features.
Where the onsite drilling supervisor runs a bit that is not in accordance with the program recommendations, the choice must be justified
in the end of section report. This requirement will encourage careful consideration before making a decision. The basis for this decision is also
important when evaluating the performance and planning the next well.
Refining bit choice and parameters based on previous bit run. A
good bit choice, run correctly and pulled at the end of its economic life,
should show worn cutting structure and/or bearings. Severe dull bit
features (excessive gauge loss, broken cutters, cones locked, etc.) are
warnings that something went wrong, especially if the performance fell
below expectations.
408
Drill Bits
[ 3.6.2 ]
Try to ascertain what conditions may have caused the specific dull
conditions and evaluate what changes could be made to bit choice,
running procedures, drilling parameters, BHA, mud, etc., to reduce the
impact of these conditions. For example, a common mistake is to
assume that broken teeth equates to a bit that is too soft; there are other
more likely causes in most cases. Downhole shock or vibration, hard
nodules, or junk could all play a part. Running too hard a bit for the
formation is likely to compromise your overall bit performance. (Refer
to Table 3-5 in Section 3.6.6, Post-Drilling Bit Analysis, for information on dull bit features.)
3.6.2. Drilling Parameters
[ 3.6.2 ]
Longitudinal Vcrit =
where
Lp = length of DP string, meters.
Critical vibrations also at 4x and 9x this value.
Transverse Drillstring Vibration
Transverse Vcrit =
47,000
(D2 - d2)
L2
where
D = pipe OD
d = pipe ID
L = joint length
(All measurements are in inches)
Minimizing bit whirl. Bit whirl occurs where the friction at the
gauge of the bit makes the center of rotation locate itself at the edge of
the bit (where the formation is in contact), instead of the geometric
center. Since the forces on the cutters are now in different directions
than the designed direction, cutter breakage can result. Bit design
seems to be the dominant factor.
410
Drill Bits
[ 3.6.2 ]
Good stabilization probably decreases bit whirl and many bits are
already advertised to be an anti-whirl design. Whirl is often initiated
when the bit just starts drilling, such as after making a connection.
Research has indicated that using the following procedure after
making a connection will minimize the chances of bit whirl starting:
While still off bottom, bring the mud pumps and the rotary
table up to speed. Slowly slack off until the bit starts to take
weight. Increase the WOB in small increments (say about 20%
of planned total WOB) and allow the rotary table to stabilize in
between increments for 10-30 seconds (longer for deeper hole).
Hydraulics. There are two current theories for optimum
hydraulics. One gives the total nozzle area to maximize hydraulic
horsepower. The other calculates for maximum hydraulic impact force.
To maximize bit hydraulic horsepower, the pressure drop across
the bit should be 65% of the total pressure loss in the system. To maximize hydraulic impact force on the bottom, the pressure drop across
the bit should be 48%.
Of the two methods, maximizing HHP gives greater pump pressure
and lesser flow. Erosion is more likely to be a problem, though erosion
on the bit is acceptable as long as it does not lead to premature bit failure. Maximizing bit HHP is not guaranteed to lead to improved ROP
through better bottom hole cleaning (especially in harder formations).
There are some advantages to optimizing for impact force. These
include:
1. Larger nozzles will reduce nozzle plugging and will be better for
pumping LCM
2. Lower pressures cause less pump wear, reducing downtime due to
pump failure
3. Higher AVs lead to better hole cleaning
If maximizing HHP does not improve ROP, then either maximize
impact force or choose nozzles for the flow rate required at a pressure
below maximum at section TD. Calculating exact nozzles and flow rates
for optimum hole cleaning under the actual conditions at the time cannot
be done due to the large number of variables, some of which are unknown.
411
[ 3.6.2 ]
Drill Bits
[ 3.6.3 ]
Cost per foot calculations should be done while drilling. Once the
cost per foot starts to increase, the bit will be nearing the end of its economic life. However, several other factors should be considered when
making a decision to pull the bit.
Pull the bit earlier if there are indications of bearing failure (high
and/or fluctuating torque on bottom compared to steady, reasonable
torque just off bottom).
413
[ 3.6.5 ]
Leave the bit in longer if offset information indicates that the slowdown is mainly due to decreasing formation drillability. Sometimes a
bit is pulled under these circumstances and the next bit in does not
drill any faster. Clearly in this case it is better to extend the bit run if
there are no concerns as to bit condition. The hole section summary
showing offset bit runs at the same place may indicate this.
There are different theories that aim to make a bit pull decision
easy, such as by hours on bit or number of revolutions. However,
these will lead to below optimum drilling performance and should
only be used when bit bearing condition cannot be monitored.
Drilling with a downhole motor or in small, deep, or deviated holes
where the off-bottom torque is high would qualify for pulling on
hours. It is possible to consistently pull bits at the end of their economic lives, maximizing the overall performance without seriously
risking leaving cones in the hole. This requires close and skilled
supervision of the run.
Cost per foot calculations can help to decide when to pull the
bit. If this is done consistently, the chance of having to fish for cones
is small and the overall cost per foot will be minimized.
Set up a spreadsheet. By entering how many minutes per foot or
meter drilled (which the mud loggers record) against depth, distance
drilled, and overall cost per foot can be easily calculated. You can also
download the Excel 5.0 workbook wellcalc.xls from the web site at
http://www.drillers.com, which contains a cost per foot sheet.
The point where the cost per foot is consistently increasing is the
point that the bit should be pulled. If the indications are to pull the
bit, do not waste time drilling the kelly down. This may be modified
by other factors.
Pull the bit early if there are any signs of bearing failure.
Leave the bit in the hole if you expect a more drillable formation
ahead. Monitor carefully for bearing failure.
414
Drill Bits
[ 3.6.6 ]
Proper analysis of the bit run is important to improve future performance. A large problem is that different people will grade a particular bit differently. The IADC 8 point grading scheme is vastly better
than the old TBG grading, however, if gradings are not done with care,
it will mislead future drillers.
Record grading details and comments on the bit report. Update
recommendations in the field operational notes. Make more extensive
comments and recommendations in the end of section report for inclusion in the final well report.
The IADC 8 point grading should always be used to grade bits. The
first four digits refer to the cutting structure. The last four digits refer
to other characteristics.
IADC 8 point grading scheme.
Digits one and twotooth wear (cutting structure, tooth/cutter
wear). The first digit relates to the teeth which do not touch the borehole wall. The second digit relates to the remaining teeth. Grade the
tooth with the most wear in eighths, where 0 is no wear and 8 is totally worn down to the cone.
The IADC recommends that tooth breakage be taken into account
when grading wear, but this should be done with care. Tooth wear and
tooth breakage are two different characteristics that have different
causes and should not be confused. If, for example, 50% of the teeth
were broken (perhaps due to bit bouncing on bottom) and the other
50% were worn to two-eighths, then under the IADC the grading
would be a 6 or 7. Someone looking at this grading later would assume
that the 6 or 7 meant that the teeth were almost worn away and may
change the bit selection based on that. Knowing that the tooth wear
was moderate but breakage was present, it may be concluded that the
cutting structure was broadly suitable for the application, but that
drilling parameters and/or the BHA should be changed (such as by running a shock sub).
Digits three and four (cutting structure, characteristics, and location).
If more than one major cutting structure wear characteristic is present,
enter here the most severe (that which has the greatest effect on bit performance). If tooth wear and breakage are both present, do not enter
WT here (the fact that the teeth are worn will be obvious from the first
415
[ 3.6.6 ]
two digits); BT would be more important. (See Table 3-3 for bit codes.)
The fourth digit shows the location of this characteristic.
Table 3-3 Bit Codes for IADC 8 Point Grading Scheme
Dull Bit Characteristic Codes
BC Broken cones
BF Bond failure (PDC bits)
BT Broken teeth or cutters
BU Balled up bit
CC Cracked cone (note cone number[s])
CD Cone dragged (note cone number[s])
CI Cone interference
CR Cored bit
CT Chipped teeth or cutters
ER Erosion
FC Flat crested wear
HC Heat checking
JD Junk damage
LC Lost cone (note cone number[s])
Drill Bits
[ 3.6.6 ]
For sealed bearing bits, try to turn the cones. If there is any play
or roughness, or if the cones have skidded (bearing locked), then
grade F for a failed seal. If the cone is OK, then grade E for an effective seal. If unsure, grade Q for questionable. If unable to grade for any
reason, use an N.
The amount of bearing wear actually present can only be accurately gauged by cutting the bit open and measuring the bearing surfaces.
Grade each cone individually, if possible, starting with cone #1.
Digit six (gauge wear). Grade the reduction in bit diameter. Enter
the number of 1/16 in. For 1/8 in undergauge, enter a 2. For 11/2 in undergauge, enter 24.
Digit seven (other major dull characteristic). The third digit allows
you to enter a code referring to the most important dull characteristic
of the cutting structure. The seventh digit allows you to enter the next
most important dull characteristic, whether of the cutting structure or
anywhere else on the bit.
For instance, you may have a Tungsten Carbide insert bit with
many broken teeth, some heat checking of the cutters, and junk damage. The third digit would be BT (as the most significant cutting structure dull characteristic) and the seventh digit would be the most significant of HC or JD, whichever would have had the greatest impact in
reducing the bit life.
The codes used in the seventh digit are the dull bit characteristic
codes shown in Table 3-3 under digit three (cutting structure characteristics).
Digit eight (reason pulled). The reason that the bit was pulled is very
important for future evaluation. If the bit was pulled at the end of its
economic life (usually due to rate of penetration or torque indications
of bearing failure), and bit performance was maximized throughout its
run, then this will give an excellent guide for future bit choice at the
same place in offset wells. It also serves as a good guideline for how
many hours this bit could be run given similar size/WOB/RPM. See
Table 3-4 for reason pulled codes.
If the bit were pulled for other reasons then the information,
although still valuable, has to be considered in light of why it was
pulled and how much more performance might have been expected
from the bit.
417
[ 3.6.6 ]
DP
FM
HP
HR
PP
PR
TD
TQ
TW
WC
Drill plug
Formation change
Hole problems
Hours on bit
Pump pressure (suspected washout)
Penetration rate (based on CPF)
Total depth or casing point depth
Torque (excessive or fluctuating torque)
Twistoff
Weather conditions
Possible Cause
Possible Remedy
Broken teeth
Junk
Excessive string vibration or shock loading
Excessive WOB
Broken outer
teeth
Run in carefully
Reduce RPM
Bit balling
Bad hydraulics
Mud properties
Review hydraulics
Review mud properties
Cone dragged
Bearing failure
Junk jamming cones
418
Drill Bits
[ 3.6.6 ]
Possible Cause
Possible Remedy
Drilling on junk
Mechanical damage
hitting a ledge
Pinched bit from running
into undergauge hole
Chipped teeth
or cutters
Junk in hole
Hard nodules within
formation
Shock loading
Erosion
Heat checking
Balling
Low flow rate
Lost cone
Pinched bit
Round gauge
Abrasive formation
Junk
Wrong bit choice
Excessive WOB
Cone interference
419
[]
3.7
Directional Drilling
This subject was covered in Section 2 from a well planning viewpoint. There were many topics covered in Section 2 that are also relevant to the wellsite operation (such as selecting the appropriate length
of monel drill collars for magnetic surveys). Refer to Section 2.3 for
information on directional drilling, or check the Table of Contents or
Index for related subjects.
The material presented here only concentrates on the directional
aspects of bottom hole assemblies. For questions of preventing downhole failures relating to tool joint damage, casing wear, and drillstring
fatigue, refer to Section 1.5.2, Dogleg Severity LimitsCombined
Buildup and Turn Rate.
3.7.1. Rotary Bottom Hole AssembliesGeneral Points
[ 3.7.1 ]
Use a nearbit stabilizer, bored for a float, and run it with a float in
place. This gives extra protection in the event of a kick, when tripping,
or if there is a leak on the standpipe or pump when the well is shut in.
It is safer to routinely run one float when drilling with a diverter or on
top hole with no secondary well control equipment.
Float valves sometimes have a small hole to allow the string to fill
up while RIH and to allow Pdp to be read when the well is shut in.
The ported float provides protection against strong backflow or flow
through the drillstring. Although it does not stop flow completely,
the small port only allows a relatively small flow through it and therefore still performs a useful function in reducing backflow to a manageable level.
For the maximum anticipated WOB, calculate the number of drill
collars and HWDP needed to provide this, in mud, at the relevant
hole angle. The HWDP can be run in compression providing a shorter, lighter DC section to reduce hook loads, drags, and sticking. The
drillpipe can also be run in slight compression so it is not necessary
to pick up excess weight on the BHA. For calculating the axial force
exerted by a steel pipe in an inclined wellbore, refer to Tension due
to weight in a deviated wellbore in Section 1.4.13, Calculating,
Axial Loads.
Design of rotary BHAs for drilling straight. Position full gauge
stabilizers above bit, 10-15 m above the NB stab and another at 10-15
m above that. (Bit - NB Stab [Full Gauge] - DC - Stab [Full Gauge] DC - Stab [Full Gauge] - rest of BHA.) Position undergauge stabilizers
one per stand above the top full gauge stabilizer, to hold the drill collars off the wall to reduce sticking. More or less can be run if field experience shows this to be necessary. Run a Totco ring above the NB stabilizer; if a magnetic single shot is run then a monel drill collar is needed above the NB stab. Calculate the drill collars and HWDP for weight
as outlined in this section.
This BHA will minimize the likelihood of sticking and allow
greater overpull than a heavier BHA. Since it is well locked up, maximum WOB can be run on the bit without causing directional problems
and bit life should be maximized by reducing wear and whirl. Drags
will be kept lower as dogleg severities are kept at a minimum, especially if each kelly is reamed while circulating the cuttings above the
BHA before each connection, as recommended.
422
Directional Drilling
[ 3.7.2 ]
For vertical wells, locked BHAs should also be used to prevent bit
walk and crooked hole. Consider running the Anderdrift sub in the
BHA with a Totco ring on top. This tool will give inclination surveys
up to 5 when a connection is made by transmitting mud pulses to surface mechanically (the driller can see the pulses on the gauges). This
will allow close monitoring of your verticality with virtually no loss of
time and eliminates the risk of running slickline tools inside the drillstring to get a Totco survey.
Design of rotary BHAs for building or dropping angle. For a build
assembly, run the second stabilizer undergauge or remove it altogether,
depending on the severity of build required. (Bit - NB Stab [Full
Gauge] - DC - Stab [1/4 in-1/2 in undergauge] - DC - Stab [Full Gauge]
- rest of BHA.)
For a drop assembly, run the NB undergauge, remove it, or remove
both the NB and next stabilizer depending on the severity of drop
required. (Bit - NB Stab [1/4 in-1/2 in in undergauge] or bit sub - DC Stab [optional] - DC - Stab - rest of BHA.)
Note that the more flexible (severe) a build or drop assembly is, the
more likely it will walk sideways. This may cause an unwanted change
in azimuth. Soft formation mill tooth bits also tend to walk more on a
flexible assembly than most other bit types.
The closer a stabilizer is to the bit, the more it will influence the
forces at the bit. A near bit stabilizer undergauge by 1/16 in will have
much more effect on the deviation performance than if the next stab at
10 m goes undergauge by the same amount. Ensure that the bottom
three stabilizers are gauged on every trip out of the hole and changed
out if necessary.
Choose stabilizers compatible with the formations. The stabilizer
blades should be long enough to avoid them digging into the wall; a
short blade opposite soft formation would be a bad choice. If longer
bladed stabs are not available and this causes concern, run two stabs in
tandem to spread the load.
3.7.2. Preventing Keyseating
[ 3.7.3 ]
if problems occur while pulling out of the hole. There is a better alternative, however.
If a keyseat is possible, run a string reamer in the drillpipe, if available. Position it at the top of the dogleg section with the bit on bottom.
Size it greater than the DC OD and smaller than the bit; 1/2 in undergauge is usually about right. As drilling progresses, the reamer dresses
out the inside of the dogleg section, wiping out any keyseat. This prevents having to backream, which can be quite time consuming without
a top-drive system. Run the reamer every two or three trips as necessary. No extra time is taken since it works while drilling.
Directional Drilling
[ 3.7.4 ]
The hole should be clean before running the survey and with no
serious concerns as to hole condition. It is possible to take surveys in
fairly sticky hole with a lot of care, using a timer unit and stopping the
bit off bottom about 10 seconds before the survey, starting to move the
string down, initially, 60 seconds after stopping.
A kelly cock should always be put on the top of the string and if
wireline is to be run through it, use a metal protector with the bottom
cut out to prevent the line cutting the thread.
Sandline should not be used for running or pulling surveys if there
is an alternative. It is hard to control and the wire will twist up into a
tangled mess when the tension is released as the survey barrel lands,
unless the drum is stopped immediately. If it is used, do it with care
and keep everyone clear of the rotary. Rigs should be equipped with a
slick wireline winch.
The azimuth read from the magnetic compass should be corrected
for magnetic variation. If the variation is east, add the variation to the
magnetic azimuth. If the variation is west, subtract it from the magnetic azimuth to give the corrected azimuth. The variation should be
425
[ 3.7.5 ]
noted on the drilling program and is also marked on maps of the area
(which should be recent since variation changes over time).
Directional Drilling
[ 3.7.5 ]
This verifies that there is film ready to load into the camera. Open the
camera gate, push the film magazine loading lever in, and close the
camera gate. Check that the indication is loaded on the camera gate
closing ring; then, if all is OK, remove the film magazine. The camera
is now ready to use.
Attach the bottom of the camera to the rubber shock absorber
inside the survey outer barrel. Switch on the timer or motion sensor,
make up the outer barrel with 18 in pipe wrenches. If running on wireline make up to the line, otherwise drop down the drillstring. Keep
working the string until either the survey on wireline reaches bottom
or until a minute before the timer goes off (less if the hole is sticky).
Position the bit about 2 m off bottom and wait until either: 1 minute
after the timer was due to go off, or 1 minute 40 seconds after the
monel detector reached bottom, or 1 minute 40 seconds after the string
was stopped off bottom with the motion sensor. Note that the exposure
time is 1 minute.
In sticky hole conditions, it is good practice to stop moving the
string on a down stroke about 5-10 ft off bottom. When the survey has
been taken, move down initially and ensure that the string is free
before picking up. If the string has started to get stuck, moving down
will tend to free it, whereas picking up may embed the string further.
Developing the survey. When the survey barrel is recovered,
undo the outer barrel and recover the camera complete. Remove the
drillfloor. Prepare the developing tank by making sure it is clean;
reassemble it and pour developing fluid into the top until it is exactly level with the topno more, because it will drain through into the
developing chamber.
Hold the camera unit horizontally (no need to remove the angle
unit) and place the developing tank entry against the camera loading
gate so the pins are located in the holes and a light tight connection is
made, with the developing tank underneath. Open the camera gate;
the film can be heard as it drops into the chamber. Pull up the top part
of the developing tank and the film will drop right through to the
developing chamber.
Put the camera down, hold the developing tank upright, and shake
gently for one minute. Open the top, remove the film, and wash in running water. The film can be examined with the magnifying examiner.
427
[ 3.7.6 ]
The Totco tool is much simpler than the Magnetic Single Shot
(MSS). No monel collars are needed. A paper disk is pierced by two
pins showing inclination but not azimuth. The tool is loaded by
opening the angle unit, placing one of the marked paper disks inside
(compatible with the angle unit) and making the unit up again. The
timer is set and it can be run on wireline or dropped prior to pulling
out of the hole.
After recovering the paper disk, it can be examined under the magnifying examiner. The two pinholes should both show the same angle,
180 apart. There are two to act as a quality check of the survey; and as
long as they both show the same angle, the survey should be reliable.
The Totco is simpler and more reliable than the MSS. However, the
Totco does not give azimuth information.
3.7.7. Gyro Multishot Surveys
[]
3.8
[ 3.8.1 ]
were made. It is important that personnel are told that genuine mistakes will not be a cause for punishment as long as they admit to them
and learned from them. Note: Do not just concentrate on negative
points. Where the job was well planned and executed and performance
was good, show this was the case.
Most final well reports are useless for future well planning. Bulky
printoffs showing operations every 15 minutes are really just
padding. Information that is of little or no interest in the future is
readily available from the well files and serves only to make the report
look comprehensive when it may be inadequate. A proper final well
report takes time and effort to produce but looks good and is useful.
Following is a suggested format for a final well report.
3.8.1. Suggested Final Well Report Format
1. Title page with the name of the well and of the report author
2. Table of contents
3. General information
a) Well and rig summary information, plus the date that the well
was spudded and abandoned, suspended, and handed over to
production.
b) Well schematic showing final well status.
c) Time vs. depth graph, showing planned vs. actual performance.
d) Final cost breakdown showing planned vs. actual costs by
category.
e) A summary of good points from drilling the well.
f) A summary of areas of concern or problems encountered while
drilling the well.
4. Drilling operations
a) Description by hole section (text); use the drilling supervisors daily diary notes as the basis, along with daily drilling
reports, etc. Write out a description of events. Note especially information on how best to drill each formation encountered; include suggested bits, parameters, mud properties,
drilling practices, etc.
b) Bit performance analysis; planned vs. actual performance, constraints on bit performance, notes on how the bit and BHA
selection and parameters could be improved.
430
5.
6.
7.
8.
[ 3.8.1 ]
c) Mud performance analysis. Show planned vs. actual performance, problems encountered (especially borehole stability
related), how these problems were handled, and suggestions
for improvements on the next well.
d) Wellbore stability analysis. Where wellbore instability has
occurred (usually seen as cavings), give as much information
as possible on what was seen. Was the extent of it measured
(e.g., by carbide, caliper logs, cavings quantity estimation,
etc.)? Describe cavings fullyappearance and quantities. Can
particular instability events (such as a sudden temporary
increase in cavings) be related to drilling events (such as a
trip)? Consider what changes could be made to reduce instability on the next well.
e) Casing and cementing performance analysis. Discuss problems
encountered; also comment where performance was good.
f) Specific problem areas: fishing jobs, other remedial work,
kicks, etc.
g) Miscellaneous items not covered in the other areas listed.
h) Conclusions and recommendations. How time could be saved,
problems avoided or reduced, and anything to improve performance next time.
Rig: personnel, equipment, procedures, and contract.
a) Factors affecting drilling performance (related to personnel,
equipment, drilling program, procedures, or rig contract).
b) Solids control equipment performance analysis.
c) Conclusions and recommendations.
Logistics
a) Equipment lists as shown in the drilling program; show any
deficiencies in these lists (i.e., update for future reference).
b) Highlight any problems regarding vessels, helicopters, road
transport, etc.
c) Conclusions and recommendations.
Service companies
a) Problems with equipment, personnel, procedures, or contracts.
b) Conclusions and recommendations.
Geological results
a) Prognosed vs. actual lithology encountered.
b) Conclusions and recommendations.
431
[ 3.8.1 ]
9. General
a) Communications and computers.
b) Anything else not covered above.
c) Conclusions and recommendations.
10. Appendices
a) Any special reports, e.g., well control problems, prognosed vs.
actual lithology, bit record.
b) Casing and cementing reports.
c) Formation integrity test reports.
d) BHA details.
e) Directional surveys and well plots.
f) Printoff showing pore pressures, fracture gradients, mud densities, and overburden gradient against depth (e.g., Sperry Sun
PPFG printout).
g) Principal mud properties against depth.
h) Hole section summaries showing performance on this well
compared to offsets, if relevant.
i) Other reference information. Personnel involved in planning
and executing the well, for future reference.
j) A copy of the drilling program.
k) A copy of the technical justification.
432
[Appendix]
Appendix:1
[ Appendix 1]
Method
Once the fracture gradient is known, calculate the maximum gas
influx volume at the next casing point. For this kick situation, the
maximum pressure on the shoe usually occurs when the top of the gas
reaches the shoe (assuming one gas bubble). This may not be the case
if the height of the influx at the shoe is less than the height of the influx
around the drill collars, if the gas expansion is not enough to compensate for the changes in annular capacity.
Assume the drillers method. This is the worst case and would
apply if the string was plugged and a volumetric kill was required.
Calculation of the exact pressure at the top of a gas kick bubble is
not feasible; there are unknown factors that make little practical difference. The composition of the gas (compressibility factors) is unknown
and temperature effects can be ignored. The calculations given below
could be slightly more accurate with much greater effort, but this is not
worthwhile since even then the calculated figure cannot account for all
the small factors.
After calculating the kick tolerance, consider whether this is
enough. Kick tolerances may be set by company policy or government
regulation. Account for reaction time of men and equipment, how fast
a kick may occur (related to likely permeabilities), and the level of
training and competence of the rig crews. Extra precautions may be
taken in critical areas, such as restricting ROP, setting fixed drilling
parameters to allow a drilling break to be identified more easily, etc.
Example: Given a casing shoe at 5000 ft with a fracture gradient of
0.75 psi/ft, plan to drill to the next casing point at 8000 ft with a mud
gradient of 0.6 psi/ft in a vertical exploration well. Assume a gas gradient of 0.1 psi/ft at the casing shoe; 121/4 in hole, 5 in drillpipe, and 300
ft of 8 in drillcollars.
First, calculate the MAASP.
MAASP = 5000 x (0.75 0.6) = 750 psi.
Next, calculate the height of a gas influx at the casing shoe where
the pressure at the shoe = formation breakdown pressure, and the formation at casing point has a pore pressure gradient that is 10% greater
than the planned mud gradient.
436
[Appendix 1 ]
Shoe strength
gradient 0.75
Shoe frac
pressure = 3750
13.375" Shoe
at 5,000'
TD at 8000'
Mud hyd.
= 4800 psi
Calculate the maximum pressure at the shoe and the bottom hole
pressure.
Pshoe = 5000 x 0.75 = 3750 psi = pressure at the top of the gas bubble.
Pformation = 8000 x 0.6 x 1.1 = 5280 psi.
Shoe frac
pressure = 3750
13.375" Shoe
at 5,000'
TD at 8000'
SICP =
750 psi
Formation pressure
= 5,280 psi
437
[ Appendix 1]
We can now use simultaneous equations to solve for the height of
influx, Hi:
a. Hi + Hm = 3000 ft
b. 0.1 Hi + 0.6 Hm = (5280 - 3750) = 1530
Multiply equation a by 0.6:
c. 0.6 Hi + 0.6 Hm = 1800
Subtract b from i:
d. 0.5 Hi = 270; therefore Hi = 270/0.5 = 540 ft
Calculate the volume of this height of gas at the casing shoe and
the average pressure.
Hydrostatic pressure of the gas = 540 x 0.1 = 54 psi.
Hydrostatic pressure of half of the height of gas = 27 psi.
Annular capacity is 0.1214 bbl/ft; therefore Vi = 65.6 bbls.
Pressure in the center of the gas bubble is 3750 + 27 = 3777 psi.
Finally, calculate the volume of this gas at the next casing point.
Pressure in the center of the gas bubble will be 5280 - 27 = 5253 psi.
Using Boyles Law, P1V1 = P2V2 or rearrange using V2 = P1V1/P2
Therefore, V2 = 3795 x 65.6/5253 = 47.4 bbls, which is the kick
tolerance given the above assumptions.
13.375" Shoe
at 5,000'
TD at 8000'
SICP =
716 psi
438
Formation pressure
= 5,280 psi
[Appendix 1 ]
If the shoe strength is too low for the required kick tolerance, the
next casing shoe may have to be higher. If the mud gradient is changed,
recalculate the kick tolerance.
The heavier the mud weight used for drilling, the less tolerant the
well is (i.e., the shorter distance that can be drilled). A higher mud
weight gives less difference to the shoe strength; if mud weight equals
shoe strength gradient then MAASP = 0. Therefore, it follows that the
mud density should not be higher than is necessary for a trip margin
or wellbore stability considerations.
The rig should hold sufficient stock of barite to weigh up the complete active system volume to the equivalent mud density achieved by
the FIT.
Kick tolerance volume. What determines the acceptable kicking
pressure and volume of kick tolerance?
1) The degree of risk. Higher assumed pore pressures should be used
for:
a) Wildcat exploration wells
b) Areas where short transition zones are expected
2) The speed of reaction. Higher volumes should be used when:
a) There are larger diameter holes
b) High permeabilities are expected from kicking formations
c) Drilling from a floating rig where flow detection may be tricky
due to heave
d) Low standard kick detection equipment is being used
e) Drill crews are not well trained (some third world countries
with local crews)
439
Appendix:2
[ Appendix 2]
Well Design
section to confirm that the well is still able to contain the MAASP as
indicated at the casing shoe, if a weaker formation has been penetrated.
The recommended technique allows close control of the operation
to prevent formation breakdown. The amount pumped in between
each reading will depend on the depth of the casing shoe, since a
greater volume will need to be pumped for deeper casings for the same
pressure increase.
Test Procedure
Drill out the shoe and approximately 5 m of formation, circulate,
and condition mud until mud weight is consistent in the well. Pull the
bit back into the shoe. Confirm that the hole is full, then close the TPR
around the drillpipe and close in the annulus at the choke manifold.
Line up the cement pump on the drillstring.
Fill the cement pump displacement tank and note the volume.
Pump slowly until the pressure just starts to rise, stop the pump and
note the volume pumped and pressure. Allow pressure to stabilize for
a minute or so (longer if necessary). Pump increments of 1/4 or 1/2 bbl,
stopping to allow pressure stabilization each time and noting volume
vs. pressure. Either use a graph or a table to show when the increase in
pressure between readings starts to decrease.
Stop the test when either the increase in pressure per unit volume
pumped decreases or the stated limit is reached. Check the reading on
the choke manifold (i.e., the gauge that will be used during a well kill)
and use this as the end pressure. Bleed off back to the cement tank and
note the volume returned, except if there is a float in the string in
which case the pressure will have to be bled off and returns volume
measured at the choke manifold. MAASP at the mud weight in the hole
will be the pressure held at the end of the test, either at leakoff or limit.
Calculate the equivalent mud density for this pressure.
Open up the well, line up back to the mud pumps. Check that
there is enough barite on site to weigh up the entire active system to
this density and, if so, resume drilling.
Table A-1 provides an example of a tabular record for a leakoff test.
442
[Appendix 2 ]
Stabilized Pressure,
psi
Pressure Increase,
psi
0.5
50
50
1.0
150
100
1.5
250
100
2.0
350
100
2.5
420
70
443
Comments
Leakoff
Appendix:3
Information Sources
No book or manual can ever be complete and no person can
remember everything. It is useful to point the way to repositories of
useful information or advice.
Internet Resources
Access to the Internet is now essential for drillers. There are many
sites that can give you information, connect you to technical expertise,
and provide links to other related web sites (which may not have been
set up for drilling purposes). Following are the URLs of a few sites
which should be of interest.
http://www.drillers.com - I put this first because it is my site! Contains
files of interest such as spreadsheets, databases, Word templates, etc.,
as referenced in this book. There are links to other drilling web sites.
Also has information on jobs currently available. No charge for accessing or downloading from the site.
http://mfginfo.com/htm/pet_resources.htm - Not regularly updated but
contains an incredible list of petroleum related Internet resources,
including links to hundreds of web sites and Internet news groups.
445
[ Appendix 3]
http://www.iadc.org - Home page of the International Association of
Drilling Contractors.
http://www.api.org - Home page of the American Petroleum Institute.
http://www.spe.org - Home page of the Society of Petroleum Engineers.
http://www.slb.com - Schlumbergers home page. Contains an index of
hundreds of technical papers published by companies within the
Schlumberger group.
http://www.ogjonline.com - Home page of PennWells Oil & Gas Journal
online magazine, with weekly OGJ articles and forums, and links to a
wide variety of up-to-date industry information.
Office/Technical Library Resources
API publishes a vast amount of technical reference literature. A catalog is available from API. Copies of the current bulletins, recommended practices, and specifications related to drilling operations
should be in every drilling office.
Journal of Petroleum Technology, published monthly by the SPE for
all SPE Members.
Technology Review, published quarterly by Schlumberger. Contains
in-depth technical articles dealing with cutting-edge technology.
World Oil, published monthly by Gulf Publishing Company.
CD-ROMs
Appendix:4
Qty
A/R
Description
Comments
ROV, if required
447
[ Appendix 4]
Item Qty
36 in Hole
Description
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
2 ea
1 ea
2
2
1
2
1
3
9
2 ea
2
2
300 m
1 lot
3
2 ea
1 lot
1
1 lot
1 set
250 m
1
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
448
Item Qty
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1
1 lot
1
1
1
2 ea
1
1
1
1
3
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2
2
2
2
2
6
6
2
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
300 m
1 lot
3
1
1set
3 sets
2 sets
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
[Appendix 4 ]
449
[ Appendix 4]
Item Qty
1
2
3
4
5
6
2
1
A/R
1
1
3
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
2
2
2
2
2
6
6
2
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
300 m
1 lot
3
1
1 set
2 ea
2 ea
1 lot
1 lot
1
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
1
1
30
A/R
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
450
[Appendix 4 ]
Item Qty
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
2
1
A/R
1
1
4
2
2
2
2
12
1
2
300 m
1 lot
3
2
1 set
1 set
1 set
1 set
2 ea
2 ea
1 lot
1 lot
2
1
1
50
A/R
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
451
[ Appendix 4]
Item Qty
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
2
1
A/R
1
1
1
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
12
1
2
300 m
1 lot
3
2
1 set
1 set
1 set
2 ea
2 ea
1 lot
1 lot
2
1
1
1 ea
A/R
33
34
35
36
37
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
1 lot
452
Item Qty
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
1 jt
10 jts
2 jts
1
1
1
2
1
1 set
1 set
1 set
1
1 set
1
1
1 lot
1 lot
1
[Appendix 4 ]
Item Qty
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
2 jts
70 jts
1
2 pcs
2 pcs
2 pcs
1
A/R
2
1
1 set
1
2
1 set
2
453
Comments
[ Appendix 4]
16
17
18
19
20
1 set
1
A/R
1 lot
1
Item Qty
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
A/R
2 sets
2 pcs
2 pcs
2 pcs
2 sets
A/R
2
1 ea
2 pcs
2 pcs
1
2 pcs
1 set
2 pcs
1 ea
1 set
2 pcs
2 pcs
2 pcs
1
1
1
2 sets
1
1 lot
1
1 lot
454
Item Qty
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
A/R
2 sets
2 sets
2 pcs
2 pcs
2 pcs
A/R
2
2 sets
2
1 ea
2 pcs
2 pcs
2 pcs
2 pcs
1 set
2 pcs
1 ea
1 set
2 pcs
2 pcs
2 pcs
1 lot
1
1 lot
A/R
A/R
1
[Appendix 4 ]
455
Appendix:5
(180x0.55)-(100x0.045) = 54 =180
0.85-0.55
0.3
where
Height of flowline = 80 ft MSL.
Water depth = 100 ft.
Formation density gradient = 0.85 psi/ft.
Seawater in the area = 0.45 psi/ft.
Expected returns gradient = 0.55 psi/ft
Calculate the required minimum penetration for the conductor shoe.
457
[GLOSSARY]
Glossary
A, Area. Usually given in square inches (eg TFA = Total Flow Area,
area of bit nozzle configuration in square inches).
Absorption. The penetration or apparent disappearance of molecules
or ions of one or more substances into the interior of a solid or liquid. For example in hydrated bentonite, the planar water that is held
between the mica-like layers is the result of absorption.
Acidity. The relative acid strength of liquids as measured by pH. A
pH value below 7. See pH.
Adaptive Electromagnetic Propagation Tool. Schlumberger wireline
tool that measures phase shift and attenuation of a 1100 MHz wave.
Used for Hydrocarbon identification independent of formation water
salinity, thin bed detection, Hydrocarbon saturation and mobility and
to evaluate invaded zones.
Adhesion. The force which holds together unlike molecules.
Adsorption. A surface phenomenon exhibited by a solid (adsorbent)
to hold or concentrate gases, liquids or dissolved substances (adsorptive) upon its surface, due to adhesion. For example, water held to
the outside surface of hydrated bentonite is adsorbed water.
Aeration. The technique of injecting air or gas in varying amounts
into a drilling fluid for the purpose of reducing hydrostatic head. See
also Air Cutting.
Aggregate. A group of two or more individual particles held together
by strong forces. Aggregates are stable to normal stirring, shaking or
handling as powder or a suspension. They may be broken by drastic
treatment such as ball milling a powder or by shearing a suspension.
Air Cutting. The inadvertent mechanical incorporation and dispersion of air into a drilling fluid system. See also Aeration.
Alkalinity. The combining power of a base measured by the maximum number of equivalents of an acid with which it can react to
460
Glossary
form a salt. In water analysis, it represents the carbonates, bicarbonates, hydroxides and occasionally the borates, silicates and phosphates in the water. It is determined by titration with standard acid
to certain datum points.
Analysis, of Mud or Drilling Fluid. Examination and testing of
the drilling fluid to determine its physical and chemical properties
and condition.
Anchor, Deadline. Means of holding the deadline to the derrick
or substructure. Usually this is the primary element of the weight
indicator.
Annular Velocity. The velocity of a fluid moving in the annulus.
Usually expressed in feet per minute (fpm).
Annulus, or Annular Space. The space between a pipe and a hole.
The space between drillstring and hole or casing is an Annulus.
Apparent Viscosity. The viscosity a fluid appears to have on a given
instrument at a stated rate of shear. It is a function of the plastic viscosity and the yield point. The apparent viscosity in centipoises, as
determined by the direct-indicating viscometer, is equal to the 600
rpm reading. In a newtonian fluid, the apparent viscosity is numerically equal to the plastic viscosity.
Array Induction Imager Tool. Schlumberger wireline tool that gives
a resistivity image of the formation. Can give resistivity logs with
vertical resolutions of 1 ft in smooth boreholes, also true resistivity,
detailed description of invasion resistivity, Hydrocarbon saturation
and imaging.
Array Seismic Imager. Schlumberger wireline tool designed to
acquire multilevel triaxial seismic data in cased holes. Provides high
quality seismic images in relatively close proximity to the wellbore.
Array Sonic. Wireline logging tool.
461
Glossary
Array Sonic. Schlumberger wireline tool that digitizes compressional, shear, and Stoneley waveforms and is designed to minimize the
discrepancies between sonic and seismic data. Used for porosity
evaluation, shear seismic correlation, thin bed detection, fracture
prediction and detection, sand strength analysis, cement bond logging and through-casing sonic logging. Can calculate rock mechanical properties such as compressive strength and Poissons Ratio to
aid bit selection.
Attapulgite Clay. A colloidal, viscosity-building clay used principally
in salt-water muds. Attapulgite, a special fullers earth, is a hydrous
magnesium aluminum silicate.
Authority for Expenditure. A document signed by management that
authorizes funds to be spent against an approved budget.
Automatic Driller. Mechanism to automatically control the weight on
the bit.
Auxiliary Measurements Service. This Schlumberger module provides direct measurements of wellbore fluid resistivity and temperature, also cable tension below the toolstring head. Useful to run in
poor hole conditions; should allow differentiation of differential sticking and keyseat sticking. Logs temperature gradients, allows detection of lost circulation zones and cement tops.
Back-Up. Refers to the act of holding one section of pipe or a bolt
while the other section of pipe or a nut is being turned.
Back-Up Tong. A tong suspended in the derrick, normally on the
drillers right, used to hold box end of the tool joint while the pin end
is loosened and unscrewed. Also called a make-up tong, as it is
moved to pin end to tighten the joint to the recommended torque
after a joint is spun in.
Balance, Mud. A beam-type balance used in determining mud density. It consists primarily of a base, graduated beam and constant-volume cup, lid, rider, knife edge and counterweight. Two types are
462
Glossary
Glossary
Glossary
Glossary
Glossary
467
Glossary
Glossary
Glossary
Glossary
Glossary
Glossary
473
Glossary
Glossary
Equivalent Circulating Density. For a circulating fluid, the equivalent circulating density in lb/gal equals the hydrostatic head (psi)
plus the total annular pressure drop (psi) divided by the depth (ft)
and by 0.052.
Equivalent Weight or Combining Weight. The atomic or formula
weight of an element, compound, or ion divided by its valence.
Elements entering into combination always do so in quantities proportional to their equivalent weights.
Eutectic Point. When increasing the concentration of salt in a brine,
the temperature at which crystals come out of solution at first lowers.
At a certain point, addition of more salt will cause this crystallization
point temperature to increase. This point, the lowest temperature at
which a brine will precipitate salt crystals, is called the eutectic point.
Fast Line. The end of the drilling line which is fixed to the drawworks drum or reel. It is so called because it apparently travels with
greater velocity than any other portion of the drilling line.
Fault. Geological term denoting a formation break, upward or downward, in the subsurface strata. Faults can significantly affect the area
mud and casing programs.
Feed-Off. The act of unwinding a cable from a drum. Also a device
on a drilling rig that keeps the weight on the bit constant and lowers
the drilling line automatically. See also Automatic Driller.
Feet per hour (fph). Used to express rate of drilling penetration.
Feet per minute (fpm). Velocity, e.g., of flow in the annulus or pipe
movement.
Feet per second (fps). Velocity, e.g., of flow from the bit nozzles.
Fiber Or Fibrous Materials. Any tough stringy material used to prevent loss of circulation or to restore circulation. In field use, fiber
generally refers to the larger fibers of plant origin.
475
Glossary
Filling the Hole. Pumping drilling fluid continuously or intermittently into the wellbore to maintain the fluid level in the hole near
the surface. The purpose is to avoid danger of blowout, water intrusion and/or caving of the wellbore.
Fill-Up or Fillup Line. The line through which fluid is added to the
hole, usually into the flow nipple.
Filter Cake. The suspended solids that are deposited on a porous
medium during the process of filtration. See also Cake Thickness.
Filtercake Thickness. A measurement of the solids deposited on filter paper in 32nd of an inch during the standard 30-min API filter
test. See also Cake Thickness. In certain areas the filtercake thickness
is a measurement of the solids deposited on filter paper for a 7h min.
duration.
Filter Paper. Porous unsized paper for filtering liquids. API filtration
test specifies one thickness on 9-cm filter paper, Whatman No. 50, S
& S No. 576, or equivalent.
Filter Press. A device for determining fluid loss of a drilling fluid
having specifications in accordance with API RP 13B.
Filtrate. The liquid that is forced through a porous medium during
the filtration process. See also Fluid Loss.
Filtration. The process of separating suspended solids from their liquid by forcing the latter through a porous medium. Two types of fluid
filtration occur in a well; dynamic filtration while circulating and static filtration when at rest.
Finger Board. A rack located in the derrick to contain the top of the
stands of pipe while they are stacked in the derrick.
Fishing. Operations on the rig for the purpose of retrieving from the
well bore sections of pipe, collars, bit cones, junk, or other obstructive items which are in the hole.
476
Glossary
Glossary
478
Glossary
Glossary
Glossary
Glossary
Glossary
Glossary
Glossary
Lignosulfonates. Organic drilling fluid additives derived from byproducts of sulphite paper manufacturing process from coniferous
woods. Some of the common salts, such as the ferrochrome, chrome,
calcium, and sodium, are used as universal dispersants while others
are used selectively for calcium treated systems. In large quantities,
the ferrochrome and chrome salts are used for fluid-loss control and
shale inhibition.
Lime. Commercial form of calcium hydroxide.
Lime-Treated Muds. Commonly referred to as lime-base muds.
These high-pH systems contain most of the conventional freshwater
additives to which sacked lime has been added to impart spacial
properties. The alkalinities and lime contents vary from low to high.
Liner. Any string of casing whose top is situated at any point below
the surface inside of another casing.
Litho Density Log. Schlumberger wireline tool that measures bulk
density and photoelectric effect of the formation using a pad mounted gamma ray source and two detectors. Can deduce porosity, lithology, and abnormal pressures.
Live Oil. Crude oil that contains gas and has not been stabilized or
weathered. This oil can cause gas cutting when added to mud and is a
potential fire hazard.
Logging while drilling. Tools that are run as part of the drilling
assembly which measure downhole parameters. Data can be transmitted real time to surface and/or may be recorded downhole for transmission to a workstation once the tool is back on surface.
Lost Circulation Additives or Lost Circulation Material or LCM.
Materials added to the mud to control or prevent lost circulation.
These materials are added in varying amounts and are classified as
fiber, flake, or granular.
Lost Returns or Lost Circulation. To encounter an interruption in
485
Glossary
the circulation of drilling fluid due to the fact that the fluid is entering into a porous or fractured formation underground rather than
returning to the surface.
Low-Solids Muds. A designation given to any type of mud where
high performing additives, e.g., CMC, have been partially or wholly
substituted for commercial or natural clays. For comparable viscosity
and densities (weighted with barite), a low-solids mud will have a
lower volume percent solids content. Higher ROPs are often seen
with low-solids muds.
Making a Trip. Consists of hoisting the drill pipe to the surface and
returning it to the bottom of the well bore. This is done for the purpose of changing bits, preparing to take a core, etc.
Marsh Funnel. An instrument used in determining the Marsh funnel
viscosity. The Marsh funnel is a container with a fixed orifice at the
bottom so that when filled with 1,500 cc fresh water, 1 qt (946 ml)
will flow out in 26 0.5 sec. For 1,000 cc out, the efflux time for
water is 27.5 0.5 sec. See API RP 13B for specifications.
Master Bushing. Adapter used to reduce the size of the rotary table
opening to accommodate bushings, slips, etc.
Mechanical Powered Rig
1. Mechanical Clutch Type Rig - one which connects the internal
combustion engines to the load by means of friction clutches
which can be slipped a moderate amount to get the load started
while the engines are operating at a moderate speed.
2. Fluid drive, fluid coupling, and torque converter - consists of a
pump and turbine and fluid combination for transmitting power
from engine to load permitting considerably more slipping and
flexibility than a friction clutch and minimize shock loads getting
back to engine. The older fluid coupling involves little slip and the
same torque in the load as in the engine. The torque converter
involves a multistage turbine (sometimes adjustable) which, at low
speeds of the load, can develop several times as much torque in
the load as in the engine, obviously useful for accelerating heavy
loads. (Slightly less efficient.)
486
Glossary
Glossary
Glossary
Glossary
490
Glossary
Glossary
Glossary
493
Glossary
Glossary
495
Glossary
Shear Rate. This is the relative velocity of the fluid layers, divided by
their normal separation distance. See also Viscosity.
Shear Strength. A measure of the shear value of the fluid. The minimum shearing stress that will produce permanent deformation. See
Gel Strength.
Shear Stress. This is an expression used in muds to describe the
force required to overcome a fluids resistance to flow, divided by the
area that the force acts on. See also Viscosity.
Shoulder Effect. An anomaly on resistivity logs where a low resistance formation and a high resistance formation meet. The change in
resistivity channels the current causing characteristic horn-shaped
signal responses in uncorrected logs. The effects can be corrected by
tool design and signal processing.
Side Wall Coring. The taking of geological samples of the formation
which constitutes the wall of the well bore. Another term in general
use for this operation is side wall sampling.
Skid. Moving a rig from one location to another, usually on tracks,
where little dismantling is required.
Slim-Hole drilling. Slim hole, by current Industry definition, is one
where the well is TDd in 41/2 or smaller hole size. Slim-Hole
drilling brings significant cost and environmental benefits but
makes well control more difficult due to the high ECDs and small
annular capacities.
Slip Velocity. The difference between the annular velocity of the
fluid and the rate at which a cutting is removed from the hole.
Sloughing. The partial or complete collapse of the walls of a hole
resulting from incompetent, unconsolidated formations, high angle or
repose, and wetting along internal bedding planes. See also Heaving
and Cave-in.
496
Glossary
Slug the Pipe. A procedure before pulling the drill pipe whereby a
small quantity of heavy mud is pumped into the top section to cause
an unbalanced column. As the pipe is pulled, the heavier column in
the drill pipe will fall, thus keeping the inside of the drill pipe dry at
the surface when the connection is unscrewed.
Slurry. A plastic mixture of Portland cement and water which is
pumped into the well to cement casing or plug back.
Soft-torque rotary table control. The Soft-torque system was
designed to reduce torsional drillstring vibrations by controlling the
power input to the electric motors at the rotary. It was proposed by
Shell and developed in collaboration with Deutag. The system is marketed by Deutag for fitting onto existing electric rigs. Among the
claimed benefits are greater bit life, reduced drillstring vibrations
(with lower fatigue failures), and better borehole stability.
Spinner Survey. An operation designed to indicate the point at which
fluids are escaping from the well bore into a cavernous or porous formation. Also used to determine point of formation fluid entry.
Spontaneous potential. Measures the potential difference at depth
between the probe and the earths surface.
Spud Mud. The fluid used when drilling starts at the surface, often a
thick bentonite slurry.
Spudding In. The start of the drilling operations of a new hole.
Usually applies when the first bit penetrates below the conductor shoe.
Squeeze. A procedure where slurries of cement, mud, gunk plug, etc.
are forced into the formation by pumping into the hole while maintaining a back pressure, usually by closing the rams and/or running a
squeeze tool.
Stabbing Board. A temporary platform in the derrick, 20 to 40 feet
above the floor, on which a crewman works while casing is being
497
Glossary
run to guide a joint while it is being screwed into the joint in the
rotary table.
Standpipe. Part of the circulating system. A pipe extending, usually
along a derrick leg, to a height suitable for attaching the rotary hose.
Strain. When a material has a force applied to it, the material
deforms. Strain is a measure of the expansion divided by the original
length L. See also Hookes Law.
Stratigraphic High Resolution Dipmeter Tool. Schlumberger wireline
tool that determines structural and stratigraphic dip, stratigraphic
analysis, fracture identification, and borehole geometry.
Stress. When a material has a force applied to it, that force can be
expressed as the force exerted over the cross sectional area. For metals it is usually expressed in pounds per square inch (psi). See also
Hookes Law.
Supersaturation. If a solution contains a higher concentration of a
solute in a solvent that would normally correspond to its solubility at
a given temperature, this constitutes supersaturation. This is an
unstable condition, as the excess solute separates when the solution
is seeded by introducing a crystal of the solute. The term supersaturation is frequently used erroneously for hot salt muds.
Surfactant. A material which tends to concentrate at an interface.
Used in drilling fluids to control the degree of emulsification, aggregation, dispersion, interfacial tension, foaming, defoaming, wetting, etc.
Surge Loss. The flux of fluids and solids which occurs in the initial
stages of any filtration before pore openings are bridged and a filter
cake is formed. Also called spurt loss.
Swabbing. When pipe is withdrawn from the hole in a viscous mud
or if the bit is balled, a suction is created.
498
Glossary
499
Glossary
Glossary
Glossary
502
[INDEX]
INDEX.indd 505
7/15/08 3:37:02 PM
[ Index ]
A
absorption, 460
Abu Roash formation, 13, 15, 185
accumulator testing, surface BOP stack configurations
and, 328332
acidity, 460
acronyms, xxxxiv
adaptive electromagnetic propagation tool, 460
additives
brines, 33
lost circulation, 485486
mud, 488
oil mud, 240244
alkalinity control, 241
bridging agents, 244
emulsifier, 240241
filtration control, 243
oil-wetting agents, 244
rheology modifiers, 243244
viscosifiers, 241243
adhesion, 460
adjacent well separation, kicking off and, 173
adsorption, 460
advance detection, of shallow gas, 145
aerated fluid drilling, 248
aeration, 460
aggregate, 460
air cutting, 460
air drilling, 246
Alam el Bueib, 185
Alamein, 185
alkalinity control, 460461
oil mud additives, 241
alliancing contracts, xvi
alternative camera units, magnetic single shot survey
tool, 426
amine corrosion inhibitor, 250
amplitude variation with bandwidth (AVB), 47
analysis
drilling fluid, 461
mud, 461
anchor, 461
anhydrite scale, 231
anionic polymers, 212, 213214
annular space, 461
annular velocity, 461
annulus, 461
API 13 A specification, 249
API Bulletin 5C2, 37, 61, 71, 73
API C75/90/95 alloy, 89
API H40 alloy, 89
API J55 alloy, 89
API K55 alloy, 89
API L80 13Cr alloy, 89
API L80 alloy, 89
API N80 alloy, 89
API P105/110 alloy, 90
INDEX.indd 506
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[ Index ]
bicarb, 463
bit. See drill bit(s)
BITREX database, 183184
block line, 463
blowing by heads, 480
blowout, 463
underground, barite plugs, 377378
blowout preventer (BOP), 146, 464
casing design and, 38, 39
drilling program and, 128
equipment, 323
diverter system checklist, 325326
equipment rating, 152153
IADC classifications, 151
stack, drilling with, 151153
test diagram, 332
test procedure, 330332
boilerhouse, 464
boll-weevil, 464
borehole collapse, 298
bottom hole assemblies (BHAs), 15, 108, 109, 154,
158, 162, 164, 314, 354, 356
deviating, 115
drill bit and, 200
fishing operations, 372373
performance considerations, 115116
bottom hole circulating temperatures (BHCT), 261,
268
bottom hole static temperatures (BHST), 22, 261,
262, 268
box, 464
Boyle's law, 464
braking capacity, of rig, 495
break circulation, 464
breakout, 464
bridge, 464
bridging, 464
bridging agents, oil mud additives, 244
brine(s)
additives, 33
completion and, 3033
crystallization point, 32
density, 31
divalent, 30
eutectic point, 32
phase
invert emulsion mud, 235240
osmosis, 235238
properties of, 235239
salts used in, 3132
system
compatibility of, 31
cost of, 31
density of, 31
report example, 32
selection of, 3031
temperature vs. crystallization point graph, 33
temperature/pressure on, 3132
cake
consistency, 465
thickness, 465
calcium-treated mud, 465
carbonate
ion, 231
scale, 231
carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC), 213
casing(s), 381396
availability of, 87
axial forces in, from friction, 7980
cementing
design for, 267274
with plugs, 401402
centralization, good cement job factors, 264
collars, 388
conductor placement, 381385
connections, 9091
availability and, 9091
clearance and, 91
compatibility and, 90
cost and, 91
practicality and, 91
premium threads and, 90
sealing mechanisms and, 90
strength and, 90
contents, weight of, 76
cost of, 87
design
blowout preventer and, 38, 39
507
INDEX.indd 507
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[ Index ]
calculation methods for, 71
computer programs for, 38
conductor, 99
conductor pipe and, 3839
criteria, 71, 98
definitions, 71
documents for, 37
drilling liner, 103, 104
fracture gradients, 4351
intermediate casing, 3940, 56, 101
jobs for, 38
off massive salt formations, 8687
pore pressures, 4351
production casing, 40, 102103
production liner, 4041, 105106
references, 98
stove pipe and, 38
surface casing, 39, 100
total force on, 67
transition zone and, 46
displacement, 76
drilling program, 126
equipment preparation for, 385386
fishing operations for, 371
job preparation for, 386387
liner accessories and, 9195
materials, 141
grades of, 8790
points, 203
selection example, 57
properties, 87
protection, 494
running procedures, 388396
crew preparation checklist, 391392
running list example, 389, 390
single-stage casing running procedure,
392393
single-stage casing/cementation, 391392
stinger casing/cementation crew preparation
checklist, 393394
stinger/casing running procedure, 394396
running program, 253254, 253256
addressing potential problems, 254256
safety precautions for, 387388
shoe depth determination, 5154
sizes, 21
selection, 4243
surface, 5556
advantages/disadvantages, 5556
casing design and, 39, 100
cement job objectives for, 268269
drilling criteria, 100
wear, directional design and, 113114
with a whipstock, kicking off in, 176177
from a window, kicking off in, 176
casing collar locator (CCL), 366
catching samples, 465
cathead, 465
INDEX.indd 508
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[ Index ]
drilling program, 127128
field quality control procedures for, 403405
during job actions, 404405
post job actions, 405
pre-job actions, 403404
mud conditioning, for maximum displacement,
399
post-job evaluation, 402403
preparation, 399400
program, 257280
chemical spacers, 263264
chemical washes, 263264
good cement job factors, 264267
references for, 280
slurry properties, 258263
solids removal, 266267
slurry mixing options, 399
special purpose, cementing design, 278280
stinger, 402
well, 257
central data summary tool, 183
centralization, 9192
centralizers
placement, 9294
spring/rigid, 466
centrifuges, 466
decanting, solids control, 344345
value of, 15
Charles's law, 466
chemical(s), 466
barrel, 466
spacers
cementing program, 263264
good cement job factors, 266
stock levels, mud on rig, 334
washes
cementing program, 263264
good cement job factors, 266
choke line, 467
choke manifold, 467
Christmas tree, 467
chrome lignite, 467
chronological sample taker, 467
circulating pressures, horizontal phase 1, 321
circulation, 467
lost, 359364, 467, 485486
rate, 467
clay, 467
attapulgite, 462
dispersion of, 204, 205206
flocculation of, 205206
formations
drilling, 204
mixed layer, 204
organophilic, 241242
platelet dispersion, 205
to water reaction, 204205
clearance, casing connections and, 91
coagulation, 468
cohesion, 468
collapse, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105
hole orientation, 298299
loads, 7273
calculation of, 7172
resistance, 73
safety factors and, 61
steel temperature correction factors and, 64
colloid, 468
combined buildup, directional design and, 110114
combining weight, 475
compact surface wellhead, 96
compatibility
of brine system, 31
casing connections and, 90
compensated density neutron tool, 468
compensated dual resistivity tool, 468
compensated neutron log, 468
completion, 2136
brines and, 3033
component checking for, 3435
drilling program and, 129
dual/triple completion strings and, 34
fluids, 2930
characteristics, 23
corrosion/biodegradable properties of, 30
liner clearance and, 34
points to check on, 3436
preparation for, 2223
pressure testing, 24
production and, 24
production casing clearance and, 34
recompletions and, 25
running, 2324
stimulation, with gas lift, 2425
well abandonment and, 25
workovers and, 25
completion tools, running, inside diameter for, 87
component checking, for completion, 3435
Composite Catalog, 369
compression, 99, 100
loads, 81
safety factors and, 62
steel temperature correction factors and, 64
strength, slurry properties, 260261
computer programs
for casing design, 38
decision making with, xv
conductivity, 468
conductor, 5455
casing design criteria, 99
cement job objectives for, 268
drilled/cemented, 127
drilling criteria, 99
drilling program, 126
driven, 126127
pipe, casing design and, 3839
509
INDEX.indd 509
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[ Index ]
placement
casings, 381385
drilling/cementing for, 383
driving the conductor in, 383385
jetting in the conductor and, 382383
offshore, 381382
setting depth, for flowline returns taking, 457
cone capacities, hydrocyclones, 343
cone of uncertainty, 108
connate water, 468
consistency, 468
contamination, 468469
contingencies sheet, drilling program, 143
continuous phase, 469
invert oil emulsion mud, 233235
continuous pumping, good cement job factors, 266
contractors
lead, xvi
operators to, xvxvi
controlled aggregation, 469
conventional mud, 469
coring, 284290, 469
full-hole, 284
planning considerations, 285288
contingency planning, 287
core recovery/preservation/surface handling,
286
core transport/storage, 286287
costs, 288
laboratory analysis, 287
methods, 285286
objectives/justification, 285
safety/quality control, 287
timing, 287
wellsite analysis/reporting, 286
system considerations, 288290
general type description, 288289
horizontal coring, 289
inner barrel, 288
low-invasion coring, 289
oriented coring, 290
pressure coring, 289290
rubber sleeve coring, 289
slim hole coring, 289
correlated electromagnetic retrieval tool, 469
corrosion, 469
pipe yield strengths and, 63
corrosion/biodegradable properties, of completion
fluids, 30
cost estimates
of brine system, 31
drilling program, 133143
cost-effective well drilling, keys, xvii
covalent, 469
crater, 470
created fractures, 470
crew preparation checklist, casing running procedures, 391392
D exponent, 470
Dahab, 185
Dalton's law of partial pressures, 470
Darcy, 471
dead man, 471
deadline, 461, 471
decanting centrifuges, solids control, 344345
decision making, computers and, xv
deep propagation, 471
deflocculants, polymers as, 212
deflocculation, 471
dehydration, 471
density, 471
of brine system, 31
range, lowest OWR recommended by, 240
slurry properties, 258259
depth dependent costs, drilling program, 139
details sheet, drilling program, 141142
detection systems, well control, 315317
deviated wellbore
bending forces in, axial loads from, 7779
weight in, tension from, 7374
deviation
drilling program, 126
planning of, 108
diesel oil
bentonite plugs
drilling problems, 379380
procedure, 379380
invert emulsion mud and, 233234
differential pressure, 471
sticking, 15, 471472
stuck pipe, 305307
avoidance, 355357
cure, 357358
dipmeter tools, 169
dipole shear sonic imager (DSI), 190192, 282,
472
direct-indicating viscometer, 501
510
INDEX.indd 510
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[ Index ]
directional control, downhole tools affecting,
157179
directional design, 107119
casing wear and, 113114
combined buildup and, 110114
dogleg severity limits and, 110114
of horizontal wells, 116117
multilateral wellbores and, 118
slant rig drilling and, 118119
targets and, 119
turn rate and, 110114
wellpath planning and, 108110, 119
directional drilling, 421428
directional jetting and, 424425
gyro multishot surveys, 428
keyseating prevention, 423424
magnetic single shot survey tool, 426427
rotary bottom hole assemblies, 421423
single shot surveys, 425426
Totco single shot survey tool, 428
directional planning, 157179
dropping hole angle, 178179
gyro multishot surveys, 165166
inclination-only surface readout sub and, 164
logging while drilling, 167168
magnetic single shot surveys, 165
magnetic surveys, 165166
measurement while drilling, 167168
measurement/surveying for, 163173
potential sources of survey errors, 171173
survey intervals for, 163
tangent section drilling, 177178
Totco surveys and, 164165
universal bottom hole orientating sub and,
163164
vertical wells and, 164165
wireline deployed surface readout gyro,
166167
directional surveys, from wireline logging tools, 169
dispersant, 472
dispersed phase, 472
dispersed water-based muds, 206210
dispersion, 472
of clays, 204, 205206
displaced fluids weights, buoyancy calculation with,
66
distillation, 472
divalent, 472
divalent brines, scale from, 30
divalent cations, 205
diverter drilling
shallow gas, 147148
well control, 147148
diverter system checklist, BOP equipment, 325326
dogleg, 472
dogleg severity formula, 111, 472
dogleg severity limits, directional design and,
110114
dope, 472473
downhole motor, kicking off with, 175
downhole positive displacement mud motors, downhole tools, 162163
downhole tools
downhole positive displacement mud motors,
162163
drill collars, 160161
affecting directional control, 157179
drill bits, 158
roller reamers, 158160
stabilizers, 158159
sideforce generating tools, 162
drawworks, 473
drill bit(s)
alternate choices, 407409
bottom hole assemblies and, 200
breaker, 463
codes, for IADC 8 point grading scheme, 416
defining recommended, 194199
downhole tools, 158
drilling parameters, 409412
dull, IADC 8 point grading scheme, 417,
418419
features/selection, 195, 196
mill tooth bits, 192193
monitoring bit progress, 413414
mud motors, 413
parameter optimization, drilling parameters,
412
polycrystalline diamond compact, 132, 189,
193194, 195
post drilling bit analysis, 415416
pulling the bit and, 414
reason pulled, IADC 8 point grading scheme,
417, 418
rock, 192193
runs, writing field information notes for, 186
selection
drilling parameters and, 201
log data in, 190192
references for, 201
structured approach to, 181183
steerable systems, 413
tungsten carbide insert bits, 193
turbines, 413
types, 192194
whirl minimizing of, 410411
drill collars, downhole tools, 160161
drill stem, 473
drill stem test (DST), 18, 473
drilling
aerated fluid, 248
air, 246
below kick tolerance levels, 319320
with BOP stack, 151153
clay formations, 204
criteria
511
INDEX.indd 511
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[ Index ]
conductor, 99
intermediate casing, 101
production casing, 102103
surface casing, 100
hydraulics, 187190
industry, driving forces, xv
jars, stuck pipe, 306307
liner, casing design criteria, 103, 104
mechanics, wellbore instability, 299300
mist, 247
in mountainous areas, 46
mud, 473
out, 473
parameters
bit parameter optimization, 412
drill bits, 201, 409412
drill-off tests, 412
hydraulics and, 411412
minimizing bit whirl, 410411
rotary speed, 410
weight on bit, 407409
practices, wellbore instability, 297298
under pressure, 473
rotary, 495
stable foam, 247
stiff foam, 247
straight, rotary bottom hole assemblies for,
422423
drilling equipment
8 1/2 inch hole, 452
lists, by operation, 447455
9 5/8 inch casing, 455
rig positioning/preparation for operations, 447
17 1/2 inch hole, 450
subsea wellhead, 449455
13 3/8 inch casing, 454
30 inch conductor, 453
36 inch hole, 448
12 1/4 inch hole, 451
20 inch casing, 453454
26 inch hole, 449
drilling fluids, 337346, 473. See also fluid(s)
analysis, 461
drilling program, 141
functions, 478
hydrocyclones, 340341
proactive measures for, formation damage with,
229232
program, 203252
references for, 251
quality fluid, 345346
sand trap, 340
shale shakers, 338340
solids control, 337338, 337340
wellbore stability/instability, 294296
Drilling Practices Manual (Moore), 112
drilling problems, 293310, 347380
backing off, 365368
INDEX.indd 512
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[ Index ]
well objectives and, 124
well positioning and, 124
well suspension/abandonment, 129
well testing and, 129
wellhead, 128
wireline logs, 128129
writing of, 4
drilling/cementing, for conductor placement, 383
drill-off tests, drilling parameters, 412
drillstring
components, fishing operations for, 369371
fatigue, 112113
calculation, 112
driving the conductor, in conductor placement,
383385
dropping hole angle, directional planning, 178179
dual completion, 29, 223
dual induction resistivity log, 473
dual laterolog tool, 474
dual/triple completion strings, completion and, 34
dull bit features, IADC 8 point grading scheme, 417,
418419
Dutchman, 474
dynamic, 474
INDEX.indd 513
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[ Index ]
fluid(s), 477. See also drilling fluids
characteristics, completion and, 23
drilling, aerated, 248
flow, 477
in eccentric annulus, 265
loss, 477
properties, 30
slurry properties and, 259
viscosity, shear rate and, 262
formation damage, 477
emulsion blockage, 245
fractured/faulted, stuck pipe and, 304
from insoluble solids, 227
from liquid fraction, 227228
with oil mud, 244246
oil wetting, 245
partially soluble emulsifier, 245
proactive measures for, with drilling fluids,
229232
unreacted emulsifier, 245
with water-based muds, 226227
whole-mud invasion, 246
formation evaluation, 281292
electric logging/sampling, 281283
formation fluid samples, electric logging/sampling,
283
formation integrity test (FIT)
leakoff test example and, 443
maximum allowable annular surface pressure
and, 441442
recommended procedure, 441443
test process, 442
Formation Micro Imager tool (FMI), 169, 477
Formation MicroScanner tool (FMS), 169, 478
fracture gradients (FGs), 48, 478
casing design and, 4351
formula for, 50, 51
pore pressures and, 5051
fractured/faulted formations, stuck pipe and, 304,
354355
fractures, created, 470
fracturing, hole orientation, 299
free point indicator tool (FPIT), 366, 478
free water, slurry properties, 259260
freestanding conductors, buckling in, 81
full-hole coring, 284
galena, 478
gallons per minute (GPM), 14
gamma ray (GR), electric logging/sampling, 283
gamma ray spectrometry tool (GRST), 283, 478
gas cut, 478
gas lift, stimulation with, completion, 2425
gas migration, 44
gas on bottom, influx height with, calculation, 437
gas-oil ratio (GOR), 21, 478
INDEX.indd 514
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[ Index ]
parameters, 911
plectrum, 10
hole sizes, 4143
selection, 4243
homogeneous, 480
Hooke's Law, 57, 480
hopper, jet, 481
horizontal coring, 289
horizontal phase 1, circulating pressures, 321
horizontal wells
directional design of, 116117
measurement while drilling tools in, 168169
precautionary measures, 156
well control in, 155156
well planning in, 155156
horsepower (hp), 481
hostile environment litho density tool, 481
Hughes ATM05 (417X), 185
Hughes ATM11HG (437X), 185
Hughes ATM22GD (517X), 185
hydration, 481
hydraulic force
in inclined wellbore, 6971
sideways, calculation of, 6971
hydraulic horsepower (HHP), 15, 187, 188, 411
hydraulics, 481
drilling, 187190
drilling parameters and, 411412
hydrocyclones
balanced adjustment, 343
cone capacities, 343
drilling fluid, 340341
mud cleaners and, 343
problems, 343344
solids-removal process, 342
types, 341342
hydrogen ion concentration, 481
hydrometer, 481
hydrostatic head, 481
hydrostatic pressure, 65
calculation of, 6769
inclined wellbore
hydraulic force in, 6971
lateral forces in, axial forces and, 71
inclinometer, 482
individual casing points, 5456
influx height
calculation, 438
with gas on bottom, calculation, 437
influx volume, calculation, 438
information sources, 445446
CD-ROM, 446
internet, 445446
office/technical library, 446
inhibitive KCl-glycol mud, 224
inhibitors, 482
inner barrel, 288
inside diameter (ID), 23, 370
for running completion tools, 87
in-situ field stresses, wellpath planning and, 109110
in-situ stresses, wellbore instability, 297
insoluble solids, formation damage from, 227
interfacial tension, 482
intermediate casing
casing design and, 3940, 101
drilling criteria, 101
points, 56
intermediate liner, points, 56
internet information sources, 445446
invert oil-emulsion mud (IOIEM), 233, 482
brine phase, 235240
components, 233240
continuous phase, 233235
crude oil and, 233
diesel oil and, 233234
emulsion, 238
low-aromatic mineral oil and, 234
nonmineral oil and, 234235
oil phase, 233235
OWR, 238239
synthetic oil and, 234235
ion, 482483
iron scales, 231
J and K alloy, 89
jar placement, stuck pipe, 306307
jet hopper, 481
jet perforating, 483
jetting, 483
in the conductor, conductor placement and,
382383
directional, directional drilling and, 424425
kicking off and, 174175
tool, section through, 277
junk
fishing operations for, 369
stuck pipe, 304, 355
515
INDEX.indd 515
7/15/08 3:37:03 PM
[ Index ]
K
kelly, 483
cock, 318, 333
joint, 483
keyseat, 484
wiper, 480, 484
keyseating
prevention, directional drilling, 423424
stuck pipe, 302, 350
Kharita, 185
kick detection systems
ballooning effect, 319
false kicks, 319
response training/drills, 317318
well control, 315317, 315319
kick prevention, well control, 313315
kick tolerance
assumptions, 435
calculation of, 435439
levels, drilling below, 319320
method, 436439
volume, 439
kicking off, 173177
adjacent well separation and, 173
badgering and, 174175
build and, 173174
in casing from a window, 176
in casing with a whipstock, 176177
on cement plug, 175176
with downhole motor, 175
jetting and, 174175
kickoff plugs
cementing design, 276278
plug stability and, 278
setting depth temperature and, 276
slurry properties and, 277278
kill line, 484
knowledge box, 484
Koomey TR-5, 328
L and N alloy, 89
laminar flow, 484
last crystal to dissolve (LCTD), 32
lateral forces
axial forces and, in inclined wellbore, 71
calculation of, 70, 111
lead contractor, xvi
lead impression block (LIB), 369
lead slurry pumping, good cement job factors, 266
lead tong, 484
leakoff test, 50
example, formation integrity test and, 443
ledges, stuck pipe, 303, 351
light fluid column, abnormal pore pressure from, 45
lignosulfonates, 485
lime, 485
516
INDEX.indd 516
7/15/08 3:37:04 PM
[ Index ]
M
INDEX.indd 517
7/15/08 3:37:04 PM
[ Index ]
mudline suspension system wellhead, 96
mud-off, 489
multilateral wellbores, directional design and, 118
multiple string completions, 2829
518
INDEX.indd 518
7/15/08 3:37:04 PM
[ Index ]
systems, 215217
types, 211212
usage, 212213
as viscosifiers, 212213
water-based mud, 210226
xanthan gum, 213
pore pressures (PPs), 48
abnormal, 4650
from light fluid column, 45
pressure-depth graph of, 45
casing design and, 4351
fracture gradient and, 5051
mechanisms of abnormal, 4345
mechanisms of subnormal, 4546
porosity, 493
post drilling bit analysis, drill bits, 415416
potassium chloride, 215
mud, 225226
polymer mud, 220222
potential hazards, drilling program and, 124
Practical Well Planning and Drilling Manual, 156
precipitate, 493
precompletion, 2136
premium threads, casing connections and, 90
pre-spud meeting, 4
pressure
buoyant string weight plus, tension from, 7577
coring, 289290
measurements, electric logging/sampling, 283
surface circulating, calculation, 323
surge, 493
testing, completion, 24
pressure-depth graph
of abnormal pore pressure, 45
of transition zone, 52
pressure-drop loss, 493
prime mover, 493
"Process Implementation Improves Cement Plug
Success," 276
production
casing
casing design and, 40, 102103
cement job objectives for, 269270
clearance/completion and, 34
drilling criteria, 102103
points, 56
completion and, 24
liner
casing design and, 4041, 105106
points, 56
potential, 21
protection casing, 494
pulling the bit, drill bits and, 414
quiescence, 494
INDEX.indd 519
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[ Index ]
compression and, 62
tension and, 6162
safety precautions, for casing, 387388
sag, calculation of, 92
salt bed, high pressure and, 45
salt formations, massive
casing design of, 8687
cement job objectives for, 270272
salts, used in brines, 3132
saltwater mud, 495
samples, 495
sand control, 21
sand trap, drilling fluid, 340
saturated salt polymer mud, 222223
scale, from divalent brines, 30
scour, 7
scratchers, 95
seabed survey, 7
sealing mechanisms, casing connections and, 90
seamed electric resistance welded (ERW) pipe, vs.
seamless pipe, 87
seamless pipe, vs. seamed electric resistance welded
pipe, 87
seawater mud, 495
seawater polymer mud, 223224
Security SS84FD (517X), 185
seismic surveys, predicting overpressures from,
4748
seismic tools, electric logging/sampling, 283
setting depth, conductor, for flowline returns taking,
457
setting depth temperature, kickoff plugs and, 276
17 1/2 inch hole, drilling equipment, 450
shale, 495
density calculation, 49
formation sample preservation, mud logging,
292
gumbo, 237
interbeds, 14
salinity, 238
shakers, 495
drilling fluid, 338340
squeezing, undergage hole from, 349350
wellbore instability, 293294
shallow gas
advance detection of, 145
diverter drilling, 147148
planning points, 149
contingency planning, 150151
equipment, 149
procedures, 149150
precautions, 148149
riserless drilling of, 146147
shallow unconsolidated formations, lost circulation,
308309
severe/total losses and, 360361
shear rate, 494, 496
fluid viscosity and, 262
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[ Index ]
removal
cementing program, 266267
hydrocyclones, 342
sonic data, electric logging/sampling, 282
sonic transit time, vs. PDC cutter type, 191
spherically focused log, 491
spinner survey, 497
sponsoring department, approving signature, 6
spontaneous potential, 497
spool type surface wellheads, 96
spreadsheet example, drilling program, 134
spreadsheet format, drilling program, 135
spring centralizers, 91, 93, 94
spud mud, 207, 268, 497
squeezes, 497
cementing design for, 274278
squeezing shales, undergage hole from, 349350
stabbing board, 497498
stabilizers, 157
downhole tools, 158159
stable foam drilling, 247
standpipe, 498
static overbalance, stuck pipe, 306
stationary string, stuck pipe, 306
steel
mechanical properties, 5760
temperature correction factors
burst and, 64
collapse and, 64
compression and, 64
pipe yield strengths and, 6465
tension and, 64
steerable systems, 199
drill bits, 413
sticking mechanisms, stuck pipe, 301
stiff assembly, stuck pipe, 303, 350351
stiff foam drilling, 247
stinger
casing running procedure, 394396
casing/cementation crew preparation checklist,
393394
cementing, 402
stove pipe, casing design and, 38
strain, 57, 498
formula for, 78
vs. stress, 58
stratigraphic high resolution dipmeter tool, 498
stress, 57, 498
vs. strain, 58
strontium scale, 231
stuck pipe
cement blocks, 305, 355
cutting beds, 303, 351353
differential sticking, 305307
avoidance, 355357
cure, 357358
drilling jars, 306307
drilling problems, 301307, 347358
521
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[ Index ]
T
tour, 499
training programs, xv
transition zone
casing design and, 46
pressure-depth graph of, 52
transverse drillstring vibration, rotary speed, 410
triaxial stress analysis, 8586
trip
drill, 318
making a, 486
margin calculation, 314
tripping practices, wellbore instability, 298
true crystallization temperature (TCT), 32
true vertical depth (TVD), 50, 53, 70, 75, 78, 108,
110
tubing accessories, 23
tubing checking, for completion, 35
tubular items, fishing operations for, 369371, 371
tungsten carbide insert (TCI) bits, 193
turbines, 199
drill bits, 413
turbulent flow, 500
good cement job factors, 266
turn rate, directional design and, 110114
12 1/4 inch hole, drilling equipment, 451
20 inch casing, drilling equipment, 453454
26 inch hole, drilling equipment, 449
twist-off, 500
2000 psi WP classification, surface BOP stack configurations, 326
valency, 500
van Oort, Eric, 293
variable bore rams (VBR), 151, 500
velocity, critical, 500
vertical seismic profile, 500501
vertical wells
directional planning and, 164165
tangent section drilling in, 177178
viscometer, direct-indicating, 501
522
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[ Index ]
viscosifiers
oil mud additives, 241243
polymers as, 212213
viscosity, 501
apparent, 461
hump, 214
plastic, 492
viscosity-gravity viscometer, 501
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[ Index ]
wireline logs, 7
drilling program, 128129
workover fluid, 502
workovers, 502
completion and, 25
worm, 464
yield, 502
yield point (YP), 30, 502
Young's Modulus of Elasticity, 57, 62, 83, 502
Zechstein sequence, 44
zero-zero gel, 502
zinc carbonate, 250
zone abandonment, cementing design, 275
524
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