CHAPTER 6:

PART B
Introduction of Hydrogeology
Nature of Groundwater and its Occurrence

OUTLINE

What is groundwater?
How much of the water (hydrosphere) is groundwater?
How water gets underground?
Where it store?
How it moves while underground?
How we look for it

INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the most common place compounds on earth.
The largest proportion Is in the oceans which roughly holds
1370 millions km3 of salt water.
The largest fresh water stored is in the glaciers and icecaps
which is about 30 millions km3.
Rivers, lakes, soils and the atmosphere contributes 200, 000
km3 of freshwater which is less than 1 fiftieth of 1 % of the
worlds total water supply.
Storage of water include atmospheric, river/streams, lake,
ocean, groundwater and ice.

Distribution of Water in the Hydrosphere (%)

(%)
Oceans

96.5

Glaciers and other ice

1.76

Groundwater

1.70

Fresh

0.76

Saline

0.94

Lakes

0.013

Fresh

0.007

Saline

0.006

Soil moisture

0.001

Atmosphere

0.001

Rivers

0.0002

Reproduced by Plummer et al.,(2013) Physical Geology, 14 Edition. McGraw Hill

What is GROUNDWATER ?
The water that lies beneath the ground surface, filling pores in
sediments and sedimentary rocks and cracks in other rock types
Represents 0.6% of the hydrosphere (35x the water in all lakes
and rivers combined)
resupplied by slow infiltration of precipitation
generally cleaner than surface water
accessed by wells

Schematic Representation of The Hydrologic Cycle

Schematic Representation of The Hydrologic Cycle

 Groundwater is one of the fundamental of the earth materials and the

process of groundwater flow is one of the principal geologic process
operating within the earth.
It is a major economic resource, particularly in the dry western area,
where surface water is scarce.
Particularly in parts of the developing world, groundwater is
probably the best solution (if not the only) for drinking water supply
and irrigation because commonly it less contaminated and more
economical to use than surface water.
In the last 30 or so years the specialist area of hydrogeology has
advanced by developing methods and techniques of sedimentology,
structural geology, hydraulics, civil engineering and drilling
technology.

Porosity & Permeability

Porosity - the percentage of rock or sediment that consists of voids
or openings
measurement of a rocks ability to hold water
loose sand has ~30-50% porosity
compacted sandstone may have only 10-20% porosity

Permeability - the capacity of a rock to transmit fluid through pores

and fractures

measures the relative ease of water flow

interconnectedness of pore spaces
most sandstones and conglomerates are porous and permeable
granites, schists, unfractured limestones are impermeable (does not
allow water to flow through it easily)

Types of Voids
a) Well-sorted sedimentary deposits
having high porosity.
b) Poorly-sorted sedimentary deposits
having low porosity.
c) Well-sorted sedimentary deposits
consisting of pebbles that are
porous, therefore has a very high
porosity.
d) Well-sorted sedimentary deposits
whose porosity has diminished by
the deposition of mineral matter in
the interstices.
e) Rock rendered porous by solution.
f)
Rock rendered porous by fracturing.

Table 6.1: Porosity & Permeability of Sediments

and Rocks

Table 6.2:Range of Values of Hydraulic Conductivity

and Permeability

The Water Table

Saturated zone subsurface zone in which
all rock openings are filled with water

Water table top of the saturated zone

water level at surface of most lakes and rivers
corresponds to local water table

Unsaturated zone zone above the water

table where not all sediment or rock openings are
filled with water.
Within the unsaturated zone, surface tension
causes water to be held above the water
table.

Capillary fringe a transition zone just

above the water table

The Water Table

Perched water table top of a body

of groundwater and separated from main
water table by an unsaturated zone
commonly produced by thin lenses of
impermeable rock (e.g., shales or clays)
within permeable ones

The Movement of Groundwater

Movement of ground water through pores
and fractures is relatively slow (cm to
meters/day) compared to flow of water in
surface streams
Groundwater moves in response to differences
in water pressure and elevation causing water
within the upper part of the saturated zone to
move downward following the slope of water
table.
flow velocities in cavernous limestones can be
much higher (kms/day)

Flow velocity depends upon:

slope of the water table
permeability of the rock or sediment
(Henry Darcy, 1856)

Darcys Law and Fluid Potential

The hydraulic head = elevation + pressure
Figure A
The points A and B on the water table, so
pressure = zero (there is no water to create
pressure).
Point A is at higher elevation than B, so A has
a higher hydraulic head than B
So, water will move from point A to point B water moves from a region
of high hydraulic head to a region of low hydraulic head
The difference in elevation (hA-hB) = difference in head (h)
The distance the water moves from A to B is labeled (L)
The hydraulic gradient = difference in head = h
distance
L

Darcys Law and Fluid Potential

The hydraulic head = elevation + pressure
Figure B
The points C and D underneath the water
table, have same elevation.
But pressure on point C > point D more
water to create pressure above point C than D
So, the hydraulic head point C > higher than
point D
Water will moves from C to D
Figure C
Point F has lower elevation than point G
But pressure on point F > point G more
water to create pressure above point C than D
The difference in pressure is greater than the
difference in elevation.
So, the hydraulic head point F > higher than
point G
Water will moves from F to G

Darcys Law and Fluid Potential

Groundwater moves from

regions of high head to
region of low head

Aquifers & Aquitards

Aquifer - body of saturated rock or sediment through
which water can move easily - Highly permeable & saturated
Good aquifers include:

sandstone
conglomerate
well-jointed limestone
sand and gravel
highly fractured volcanic rock

Aquitard - rock/sediment that slow down ground water

flow due to low porosity and/or permeability porosity < 1%
shale, clay, unfractured crystalline rocks

Aquiclude - no water passes through the rock/sediment.

K < 10-9 m/s

e.g. clay soils, unfractured low porosity rocks, highly anisotropic
rocks.

Aquifer Definitions with Sample K values

UnConfined vs Confined Aquifers

Unconfined Aquifer has a water
table, and is only partly filled with water
Exposed to the surface
rapidly recharged by precipitation
infiltrating down to the saturated zone
Rising & falling water table during wet
and dry season water drains out of the
saturated zones into rivers.
Rapid movement of groundwater through
it.

Wet season : water table and rivers are high

Dry season : water table and rivers are low

UnConfined vs Confined Aquifers

Confined Aquifer completely
filled with water under pressure
(hydrostatic head), separated from
surface by impermeable confining
layer/aquitard (overlain by an
impervious layer)
very slowly recharged
No response at all to wet & dry
seasons
Also called artesian aquifers

GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS AS AQUIFERS

Sedimentary Strata
Arenaceous rocks the classification of materials into
consolidated and unconsolidated due to high permeability and
excellent storage potential e.g. loose dune sand, gravels and
alluvium are unconsolidated materials whereas sandstone and
conglomerates are consolidated (cemented) materials.
Carbonate rocks the chemical composition makes it amenable to
solution by groundwater that are not fully saturated with calcium
carbonate e.g. limestones due to its fissured nature, dolostones
which contain decomposed portions with absence of extensive
water table and chalk provides excellent aquifers and good
storage potential if less clay content.

 Argillaceous rocks are relatively impermeable, therefore

functions as aquicludes e.g. fine-grained clays, marls, shales and
mudstones.

Igneous Rocks
Plutonic rocks are generally not good aquifers e.g. granites,
granodiorites, diorites and gabbros.
Extrusive igneous rocks are commonly represented by those of
volcanic origin and show considerable variation in aquifer
potential.
Intrusive igneous rocks can be restricted to sills and dykes where
injection into impermeable formations could be concentrated by
groundwater.

Metamorphic Rocks
Gneisses are not good aquifers.
Schists and slates resembles shale in their water-bearing
properties and may be aquicludes when their planes of schistosity
or of cleavage are horizontal.
The weathered zones, particularly if the dip is high, may be
tapped for water supplies down to the limit of decomposition.

Aquifer Examples

Aquifer Examples

Wells
Well - a deep hole dug or drilled into the
ground to obtain water from an aquifer
for wells in unconfined aquifers, water
level before pumping is the water table
water enters well from pore spaces within
the surrounding aquifer
water table can be lowered by pumping, a
process known as drawdown
water may rise to a level above the top of
a confined aquifer, producing an artesian
well

Groundwater Fluctuation
Water levels fluctuate commonly under both confined and
unconfined conditions, the causes which give rise to such
fluctuations are not always identical and may be natural or
artificial.
The most significant fluctuations in an unconfined
aquifer are those resulting from;
seasonal infiltration where the effects of pumping on changes of
groundwater levels may be important locally.
Under confined conditions,
the effect of transpiration and where adjacent river and sea may
respond to changes in river stage and tidal level can cause minor
fluctuations.

Similarly, wells in confined conditions exhibit

fluctuations that are related to loading such as brought by
atmospheric pressure, tides, earthquakes and landslips.

GROUNDWATER CHEMISTRY
Groundwater is never found in the chemically pure form of H2O
because prior to becoming groundwater, it has been involved in
chemical reactions with the materials comprising the atmosphere and
zone of aeration.
As a result of contact with a variety of gases in the air and a variety of
minerals beneath the surface, water is complex dilute solution by the
time it reaches the zone of saturation.
The dominant factor governing the change is the rate of groundwater
movement.
Chemical processes that are responsible for the actual changes are:
i)
Solution
ii)
Precipitation
iii) Reduction
iv) Concentration
v)
Absorption
vi) Ion exchange

Effects of Chemical Composition

The constituents of groundwater derived directly from;
solution of minerals in rocks are the cations and silica,
while most of the anions are derived from other sources.
The selection of lining materials, pipe work or amount of openarea available for flow will be influenced by;
the corrosive or encrusting nature respectively of the
groundwater.
A pH value of 7.0 - denotes a neutral reaction where lesser values
will result in acidic water which tends to be corrosive
pH higher than 7.0 - will be alkaline and tends to be encrusting.
Alkalinity - is a property determined by the amount of carbonate
and bicarbonate.
Hardness - is the property of water dominantly due to the presence
of calcium and magnesium compounds.

GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION

Purpose and Approach

The purpose of exploration is to enable the hydrogeological
conditions to be investigated in as detail a fashion as is necessary
to meet the requirement of the project.
The following stages are planned before data collection and
interpretation is conducted are:
i)
Desk study collation and analyses of existing data.
ii)
Feasibility study Collection and analyses of additional
data.
iii)
Pilot study site investigation and subsequent action.
iv) Development.

Field Reconnaissance
1.
2.
3.

Topography A base map showing topographic features and

elevation contours relative to some datum is a necessary
prerequisite to field reconnaissance.
Geology Photo geological interpretation and field control allow
preparation of a geological map that is representative of surface
conditions.
Hydrogeology A 3-dimensional representation of the sub-surface
hydro geological regime would be greatly assisted by field
measurement and determination of the following:
i) Precipitation and evaporation.
ii) Location, elevation and discharge of springs and seepages.
iii) Stream discharges.
iv) Evidence of saline and alkaline soils.
v) Distribution of vegetation types.
vi) Location of wells and measurement of water levels and
abstraction.

Groundwater Exploration Techniques

Geological exploration which consist of:
i)
Regional geology maps.
ii)
Local geology maps/field mapping.
iii) Geomorphology/Topography.
iv) Air photos/satellite imagery.
v) Hydrology and hydro geological data.
Geophysical exploration which consist of:
i)
Seismic.
ii)
Electrical resistivity.
iii) Electromagnetic methods.
iv) Gravity.
v) Drilling.
vi) Borehole logging.

Types of Geological Exploration

Field Mapping
Geological Maps

Hydrogeological Data

Geomorphology

Aerial Photographs

Types of Geophysical Exploration

Seismic Methods

Electrical Resistivity

Gravity Methods

Electromagnetic Methods

Drilling

Borehole Logging

EXERCISE
1)

1)

Explain with the aid of diagram the following

term of hydrogeology;
- Saturated zone
- Water table
- Unsaturated zone
- Aquifer
- Aquicludes
- Aquitards

Identify the types of rocks that make good

aquifers.
2) Identify the types of rocks that called
aquitards

1)

Describe the hydrological cycle by using an

illustration.
2) With the aid of diagram, distinguish
between:
- Confined aquifer
- Unconfined aquifer
1) Define the following term of hydrogeology:
- Permeability
- Porosity
- Hydraulic gradient
- Impermeable rock