Apostle Paul

The Apostle Paul
Hyperdispensationalism
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Contents
Articles
Paul the Apostle
19
E. W. Bullinger
23
John Nelson Darby
27
Dispensationalist theology
32
Dispensationalism
40
The Way International
50
American Christian Press
59
Victor Paul Wierwille
62
Way Productions
64
The Way College of Biblical Research Indiana Campus
66
Pauline Christianity
67
Marcion of Sinope
72
Marcionism
75
References
Article Sources and Contributors
82
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
84
Article Licenses
License
85
Paul the Apostle
Paul the Apostle

Paul the Apostle
Ananias of Damascus restores the sight of Saint Paul.

A 1631 painting by Pietro Cortona.
Apostle to the Gentiles
[1]
Born
ca. AD 5
Died
ca. AD 67
Honored in
All Christianity
in Tarsus, present-day Turkey [Acts22:3]
[2]
[2]
in Rome
Major shrine Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls

Feast
January 25 (The Conversion of Paul)

February 10 (Feast of Saint Paul's Shipwreck in Malta)
June 29 (Feast of Saints Peter and Paul)
November 18 (Feast of the dedication of the basilicas of Saints Peter and Paul)
Attributes
sword
Patronage
Missions; Theologians; Gentile Christians;
Paul the Apostle, also called the Apostle Paul, Saul of Tarsus, and Saint Paul (c. AD 5 c. AD 67),[2] was one of
the most influential early Christian missionaries, with his writings forming a considerable portion of the New
Testament. His influence on Christian thinking has been of utmost significance[3] due to his role as a prominent
apostle of Christianity during the spreading of the Gospel through early Christian communities across the Roman
Empire.
According to the Bible, Paul was known as Saul prior to his conversion, and was dedicated to the persecution of the
early disciples of Jesus in the area of Jerusalem.[4] While traveling from Jerusalem to Damascus on a mission to
"bring them which were there bound unto Jerusalem", the resurrected Jesus appeared to him in a great light. Saul was
struck blind, but after three days his sight was restored by Ananias of Damascus, and Paul began to preach that Jesus
of Nazareth is the Jewish Messiah and the Son of God.[5]
Along with Simon Peter and James the Just he was one of the most prominent early Christian leaders.[6] He was also
a Roman citizena fact that afforded him a privileged legal status with respect to laws, property, and governance.[7]
[8]
Fourteen epistles in the New Testament are attributed to Paul. His authorship of seven of the fourteen is questioned
by modern scholars.[3] [9] Augustine of Hippo developed Paul's idea that salvation is based on faith and not "Works
of the Law".[3] Martin Luther's interpretation of Paul's writings heavily influenced Luther's doctrine of sola fide.
Paul's conversion dramatically changed the course of his life. Through his missionary activity and writings he
eventually transformed religious belief and philosophy around the Mediterranean Basin. His leadership, influence
Paul the Apostle
and legacy led to the formation of communities dominated by Gentile groups that worshiped the God of Israel,
adhered to the Judaic "moral code", but relaxed or abandoned the "ritual" and dietary obligations of the Mosaic law
all on the basis of Paul's teachings of the life and works of Jesus Christ and his teaching of a new covenant (or "new
testament")[10] established through Jesus' death and resurrection. The Bible does not record Paul's death.
Sources
The main source for historical information about Paul's life is the
material found in several of his epistles and the Book of Acts.
However, these epistles contain comparatively little information about
Paul's past. The Book of Acts also recounts Paul's career but leaves
several parts of Paul's life out of its narrative, such as his (alleged)
execution in Rome.[11] Scholars such as Hans Conzelmann and 20th
century theologian John Knox (not to be confused with the 16th
century John Knox) dispute the historical reliability of the Acts of the
Apostles.[12] [13] Paul's own account of his background is found
particularly in Galatians. According to some scholars, the account in
Acts of Paul visiting Jerusalem[Acts11:27-30] contradicts the account in
Paul's letters.[11] (See the Acts of the Apostles article). Some scholars
consider Paul's accounts to be more reliable than those found in
Acts.[14]
Conversion of Saint Paul, a fresco by

Michelangelo.
Names
Along with being ethnically Jewish, Paul was born a Roman citizen Acts22:28. "Paul" was part of his three-part
Roman name.[15] His given name was Saul (Hebrew: , ModernSha'ul Tiberianl; "asked for, prayed for"),
perhaps after the biblical King Saul, a fellow Benjaminite and the first king of Israel who was replaced by King
David, the second king of the united Kingdom of Israel.[16] In Ancient Greek: (Saul), (Saulos), and
(Paulos), in Latin Paulus or Paullus, in Hebrew: aul HaTarsi (Saul of Tarsus)[17]
When Jesus spoke to him prior to his conversion to Christianity on the Road to Damascus, Jesus called him "Saul" in
confronting him for persecuting the Christians: "Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?[Acts9:4] Shortly thereafter, in
addressing a disciple named Ananias, Jesus referred to "a man from Tarsus named Saul."[Acts9:4]
The earliest biblical reference to his being called "Paul" is recorded in Acts13:9: "...Saul, who was also called
Paul...." All subsequent New Testament verses refer to him as "Paul" or with the appended title "Apostle Paul."
Prior to conversion
Paul, whose Hebrew name was Saul,[18] claimed to be "of the stock of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of
the Hebrews; as to the law, a Pharisee."[Phil.3:5] Paul's "sister's son" is mentioned in Acts23:16. Acts identifies Paul
as from the Mediterranean city of Tarsus (in present-day south-central Turkey), well-known for its intellectual
environment. Acts also quotes Paul indirectly referring to his father by saying he was "a Pharisee, the son of a
Pharisee".[Acts23:6] Paul refers to his mother in Romans16:13, among those at Rome. Paul confesses that "beyond
measure" he persecuted the "church of God" prior to his conversion.[19] Paul was born a citizen of the city Tarsus as
well as a citizen of Rome, an honor not often granted to "outsiders." It is likely that Paul's family purchased the
Tarsian citizenship with money earned from their trade. His family were tent-makers, a trade that Paul uses to
support himself throughout his ministry. Scripture does not say how Paul's family acquired a Roman citizenship but
scholars speculate that his father or grandfather may have been honored with it for some sort of military service.[15]
Paul the Apostle
Although born in Tarsus, he was raised in Jerusalem "at the feet of Gamaliel",[20] who is considered to be "one of the
greatest teachers in all the annals of Judaism", and whose level headed advice to the council in Acts5:34-39, to
"refrain" from slaying the disciples, is in great contrast to the rashness of his student Saul, who went on a rampage,
after the death of Stephen, persecuting the "saints".(Acts9:13; Acts26:10)
Conversion and mission

Paul's conversion can be dated to 31 36[21] [22] [23] by his reference to
it in one of his letters.[11] According to the Acts of the Apostles, his
conversion (or metanoia) took place on the road to Damascus where he
claimed to have experienced a vision of the resurrected Jesus after
which he was temporarily blinded.[Acts9:1-31] [22:1-22] [26:9-24]
Post-conversion testimony
Geography relevant to Paul's life, stretching from

Jerusalem to Rome.
In the opening verses of Romans1, Paul provides a litany of his own

apostolic claim and his post-conversion convictions about the risen Christ:
Paul describes himself as
a servant of Christ Jesus
called to be an apostle
set apart for the gospel of God
Paul describes Jesus as
having been promised by God "beforehand" through his prophets in the holy Scriptures
being the Son of God
having biological lineage from David ("according to the flesh")[24]
having been declared to be the Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection from
the dead
being Jesus Christ our Lord
the One through whom we have received grace and apostleship to bring about the obedience of faith for the
sake of his name among all the nations, "including you who are called to belong to Jesus Christ."
Paul's writings give some insight into his thinking regarding his relationship with Judaism. He is strongly critical
both theologically and empirically of claims of moral or lineal superiority [2:16-26] of Jews while conversely strongly
sustaining the notion of a special place for the Children of Israel.[9-11]
Paul asserted that he received the Gospel not from any person, but by a personal revelation of Jesus
Christ.[Gal1:11-16] Paul claimed independence from the Jerusalem community[14] (possibly in the Cenacle), but was
just as quick to claim agreement with it on the nature and content of the gospel.[Gal1:22-24] What is remarkable about
such a conversion is the changes in the thinking that had to take place. He had to change his concept of who the
messiah was, particularly the absurdity of accepting a crucifed messiah. Perhaps more challenging was changing his
conception of the ethnic superiority of the Jewish people. There are debates as to whether Paul understood himself as
commissioned to take the gospel to the Gentiles at the moment of his conversion.[25]
Paul the Apostle
Early ministry
After his conversion, Paul went to Damascus, where Acts states he was
healed of his blindness and baptized by Ananias of Damascus.[26] Paul
says that it was in Damascus that he barely escaped death [2Cor.11:32].
Paul also says that he then went first to Arabia, and then came back to
Damascus.[Gal.1:17] Paul's trip to Arabia is not mentioned anywhere
else in the Bible, and some suppose he actually travelled to Mt. Sinai
for meditations in the desert.[27] [28] [29] He describes in Galatians how
three years after his conversion he went to Jerusalem. There he met
James and stayed with Simon Peter for 15 days.[Gal.1:13-24]
Paul asserted that he received the Gospel not from any person, but by
the revelation of Jesus Christ.[Gal.1:11-12]. Paul claimed almost total
independence from the Jerusalem community.[14] and yet appeared
eager to bring material support from the various budding Gentile
churches that he planted to Jerusalem. In his writings, Paul persistently
used the persecutions he claimed to have endured, in terms of physical
beatings and verbal assaults, to claim proximity and union with Jesus
and as a validation of his teaching.
Paul's narrative in Galatians states that 14 years after his conversion he
went again to Jerusalem.[Gal.2:1-10] It is not completely known what
happened during these so-called "unknown years," but both Acts and
Galatians provide some partial details.[30] At the end of this time,
Barnabas went to find Paul and brought him back to Antioch.
The house believed to be of Ananias of Damascus

in Damascus.
Bab Kisan, believed to be where Paul escaped

from persecution in Damascus.
[Acts11:26]
When a famine occurred in Judea, around 4546,[31] Paul and Barnabas journeyed to Jerusalem to deliver financial
support from the Antioch community.[32] According to Acts, Antioch had become an alternative center for Christians
following the dispersion of the believers after the death of Stephen. It was in Antioch that the followers of Jesus were
first called "Christians."[Ac.11:26]
First missionary journey

The author of the Acts arranges Paul's travels into three separate journeys. The first journey,[Acts13-14] led initially
by Barnabas,[33] takes Paul from Antioch to Cyprus then southern Asia Minor (Anatolia), and back to Antioch. In
Cyprus, Paul rebukes and blinds Elymas the magician[Ac13:8-12] who was criticizing their teachings. From this point
on, Paul is described as the leader of the group.[34]
They sail to Perga in Pamhylis. John Mark leaves them and returns to Jerusalem. Paul and Barnabas go on to
Pisidian Antioch. On the Sabbath they go to the Synagogue. The leaders invite them to speak. Paul reviews Israelite
history from life in Egypt to King David. He introduces Jesus as a descendant of David brought to Israel by God. He
said that his team came to town to bring the message of salvation. He recounts the story of Jesus' death and
resurrection. He quotes from the Hebrew scriptures to show that Jesus was the promised Messiah who brought them
forgiveness for their sins. Both the Jews and the 'God-fearing' Gentiles invited them talk more the next Sabbath. At
that time almost the whole city gathered. This upset some influential Jews who spoke against them. Paul used the
occasion to announce a change in his mission which from then on would be to the Gentiles. [Ac13:13-48]
Antioch served as a major Christian center for Paul's evangelizing.[35]
Paul the Apostle
Second missionary journey

Paul leaves for his second missionary journey from Jerusalem, in late Autumn 49,[36] where they were having a
council with other apostles, and where the circumcision question was lifted up. On their trip around the
Mediterranean sea, Paul and his companion Barnabas stopped in Antioch where they had a sharp argument about
taking John Mark with them on their trips. It is mentioned in the book of Acts that John Mark had left them in a
previous trip and went home; Paul did not think he was ready for this kind of evangelism. Paul and Barnabas decided
to separate. Barnabas ended up taking John Mark with him, while Silas joined Paul.
Paul and Silas traveled to a lot of different cities such as Tarsus, Derbe and Lystra. In Lystra, they met Timothy, a
disciple who was spoken well of, and decided to take him with them. The Church kept growing, adding believers,
and strengthening their faith daily (Acts 16:5). In Philippi, men who were not happy about the conversion of their
slave turned the city against the missionaries and Paul and Silas were put in jail. After a miraculous earthquake, the
gates of the prison fell apart and Paul and Silas were able to escape; this event led to the conversion of the jailor.
They continued traveling, went by Berea and Athens where Paul preached to the Jews and Greeks; and in Corinth
where Paul met Aquila and Priscilla who became faithful believers and helped Paul through his other missionary
journeys. The couple followed Paul and his companions to Ephesus, and stayed there to start one of the strongest,
and most faithful Church at that time. In 52, the missionaries sailed to Caeserea to greet the Church there, and
traveled down to Antioch to stay there for about 1 year before leaving again on their third missionary journey.[37]
Third missionary journey

Paul began his third missionary journey by traveling all
around the region of Galatia and Phrygia to strengthen,
teach and rebuke the believers. When he arrived in
Ephesus, he stayed there for a little less than 3 years and
performed a lot of miracles, like healing people and
casting demons out. Then he went through Macedonia,
went up to Greece, and as he was getting ready to leave
for Syria, he changed his plans because of Jews who had
made a plot against him, and had to go back through
Macedonia. He finished his trip in Caeserea.[40] [41]
Journey to Rome
Saint Paul delivering the Areopagus sermon in Athens, by

Raphael, 1515. This sermon addressed early issues in
[38] [39]
Christology.
Paul and his companions went on to Rome, which was

probably their last missionary journey, in 60. They started
in Jerusalem where the brothers there received them
joyfully. Paul was beaten and almost killed before he was arrested and kept as a prisoner in Caesarea for about one
year and a half even before starting his journey. He was transferred to Rome after his request and was released after
the Roman commander realized that he was born a Roman citizen. Paul continued to preach in Rome and possibly
traveled to other countries like Spain and Britain before he died as a martyr in 68AD.[42]
Persecution
Many plots were made against Paul in the last years of his life, especially by Jews who would stir the crowd and
excite them when Paul was preaching . He was beaten more than once, and put in prison. He was persecuted in every
one of his missionary journeys. He was persecuted because of a lack of understanding, preconceptions, irritations
and provocation.[43] The message of a risen Christ and Savior was aggravating for Jews as well as many pagan
believers. During his first missionary journey, Paul was stoned in the city of Lystra for healing a crippled man. Some
Paul the Apostle
Jews dragged him out of the city thinking he was dead but when his disciples came around him, he miraculously got
up and went into the city. Paul was also put in prison while he was in Philippi and also in Jerusalem.
Council of Jerusalem
Most scholars agree that a vital meeting between Paul and the
Jerusalem church took place some time in the years 48 to 50,[11]
described in Acts15:2 and usually seen as the same event mentioned
by Paul in Galatians2:1.[11] The key question raised was whether
Gentile converts needed to be circumcised.[44] At this meeting, Paul
claims in his letter to the Galatians that Peter, James, and John
accepted Paul's mission to the Gentiles. See also Circumcision
controversy in early Christianity.
Jerusalem meetings are mentioned in Acts, in Paul's letters, and some
appear in both.[45] For example, the Jerusalem visit for famine
relief[Acts11:27-30] apparently corresponds to the "first visit" (to Cephas
and James only).[Gal.1:18-20][45] F. F. Bruce suggested that the
"fourteen years" could be from Paul's conversion rather than the first
visit to Jerusalem.[46]
Incident at Antioch
Paul on chapel
Despite the agreement achieved at the Council of Jerusalem, as

understood by Paul, Paul recounts how he later publicly confronted
Peter, also called the "Incident at Antioch" over Peter's reluctance to share a meal with Gentile Christians in
Antioch.[47]
Writing later of the incident, Paul recounts: "I opposed [Peter] to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong". Paul
reports that he told Peter: "You are a Jew, yet you live like a Gentile and not like a Jew. How is it, then, that you
force Gentiles to follow Jewish customs?"[Gal.2:11-14] Paul also mentions that even Barnabas (his traveling
companion and fellow apostle until that time) sided with Peter.[48]
The final outcome of the incident remains uncertain. The Catholic Encyclopedia [49] states: "Paul's account of the
incident leaves no doubt that Peter saw the justice of the rebuke." In contrast, L. Michael White's From Jesus to
Christianity claims: "The blowup with Peter was a total failure of political bravado, and Paul soon left Antioch as
persona non grata, never again to return."[50]
The primary source for the Incident at Antioch is Paul's letter to the Galatians.
Visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles

This table is adapted from White, From Jesus to Christianity.[45] Note that the matching of Paul's travels in the Acts
and the travels in his Epistles is done for the reader's convenience and is not approved of by all scholars.
Paul the Apostle
Acts
First visit to Jerusalem[Acts9:26-27]
There is debate over whether Paul's visit in Galatians 2 refers to the visit for famine relief (Acts
11:30, 12:25) or the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15). If it refers to the former, then this was the trip
made "after an interval of fourteen years" (Gal. 2:1).
Another
[51]
visit to Jerusalem[Gal.2:1-10]
14 years later (after Damascus conversion?)

with Barnabas and Titus
possibly the "Council of Jerusalem"
Paul agrees to "remember the poor"
followed by confrontation with Peter and Barnabas in Antioch[Gal.2:11-14]
Apparently unmentioned.
Another
to "greet the church"
Fifth visit to Jerusalem[Acts21:17ff]
three years after Damascus conversion[Gal.1:17-18]

sees only Cephas (Peter) and James
with Barnabas
"Council of Jerusalem"
followed by confrontation with
Barnabas in Antioch[Acts15:36-40]
Fourth visit to Jerusalem[Acts18:21-22]
First visit to Jerusalem[Gal.1:18-20]
for famine relief
Third visit to Jerusalem[Acts15:1-19]
"after many days" of Damascus

conversion
preaches openly in Jerusalem with
Barnabas
meets apostles
Second visit to
Jerusalem[Acts11:29-30],[Acts12:25]
Epistles
after an absence of several

years[Acts24:17]
to bring gifts for the poor and to
present offerings
Paul arrested
[52]
[53]
visit to Jerusalem
to deliver the collection for the poor
Resumed mission
Around 5052, Paul spent 18 months in Corinth.[11] The reference in Acts to proconsul Gallio helps ascertain this
date (cf. Gallio inscription).[11] Here he worked with Silas and Timothy.[11]
After Corinth, the next major center for Paul's activities was Ephesus.[11] Ephesus was an important center for early
Christianity from the year 50, see also Early centers of Christianity#Western Anatolia. From 52 to 54, Paul lived
here, working with the congregation and apparently organizing missionary activity into the hinterlands.[54] Paul's
time here was marked by disturbances and possibly imprisonment. Finally, he was forced to leave.[11]
Next, he traveled to Macedonia[55] before going probably to Corinth for three months (5657) before his final visit to
Jerusalem.[11] Though Paul wrote that he visited Illyricum, he meant what would now be called Illyria Graeca[56]
that was part of the Roman province of Macedonia, which is now modern day Albania.[57]
Paul the Apostle
Arrest and death

Paul arrived in Jerusalem in 57 with a collection of money for the
community there.[11] Acts reports that he was warmly received. But
Acts goes on to recount how he was interrogated by James for
'teaching all the Jews living among the gentiles to forsake Moses, and
that you tell them not to circumcise their children or observe the
customs'.(Acts 21, 21) Paul underwent a purification ritual in order to
give the Jews no grounds to bring accusations against him for not
following their law. Paul however continued to preach against
circumcision, Jewish dietary restrictions, and other requirements of the
Torah. This made a final rift inevitable with the Jews. [11] Paul caused
a stir when he appeared at the Temple, and he escaped being killed by
the crowd by being taken into custody.[11] He was held as a prisoner
for two years in Caesarea until a new governor reopened his case in
59.[11] When accused of treason, he appealed to Caesar, claiming his
right as a citizen of Rome to appear there before a proper court and to
defend himself of the charges.[11]
Saint Paul arrested, early 1900s Bible illustration.
Acts recounts that on the way to Rome Paul was shipwrecked on

"Melite" (Malta),[11] [Acts28:1] where he was met by Publius[Acts28:7]
and the islanders, who showed him "unusual kindness".[Acts28:2] He
arrived in Rome c 60 and spent two years under house arrest.[11]
[Acts28:16]
All told, during his ministry the Apostle Paul spent roughly
5 to 6 years as a prisoner or in prison.
Irenaeus of Lyons in the 2nd century believed that Peter and Paul had
Saint Paul's beheading. Painting by Enrique
Simonet in 1887.
been the founders of the Church in Rome and had appointed Linus as
[58]
succeeding bishop.
Paul was not a bishop of Rome nor did he bring
Christianity to Rome since there were already Christians in Rome when he arrived there (Acts 28:14-15). Also Paul
wrote his letter to the church at Rome before he had visited Rome (Romans 1:1,7,11-13; 15:23-29). However, Paul
would have played an important role in the life of the early church at Rome.
Neither the Bible nor other history says how or when Paul died. According to Christian tradition, Paul was beheaded
in Rome during the reign of Nero around the mid-60s at Tre Fontane Abbey (English: Three Fountains Abbey).[59]
By comparison, tradition has Peter being crucified upside-down. Paul's Roman citizenship accorded him the more
merciful death by beheading.[60]
In June 2009, Pope Benedict announced excavation results concerning the tomb of Paul at the Basilica of Saint Paul
Outside the Walls. The sarcophagus itself was not opened but was examined by means of a probe. It revealed pieces
of incense and purple and blue linen as well as small bone fragments. The bone was radiocarbon dated to the 1st to
2nd century. According to the Vatican, this seemed to confirm the tradition of the tomb being Paul's.[61]
Writings
Fourteen epistles in the New Testament are attributed to Paul, of which seven are almost universally accepted, and
seven are disputed, (Ephesians, Colossians, 2nd Thessalonians, 1st Timothy, 2nd Timothy and, Titus, and Hebrews),
of which four are considered in some academic circles as other than Pauline for textual and grammatical reasons, and
the other three are in dispute in those same circles.[62] Paul apparently dictated all his epistles (except Galatians)
through a secretary (or amanuensis), who would usually paraphrase the gist of his message, as was the practice
among 1st-century scribes.[62] [63] These epistles were circulated within the Christian community, where they were
Paul the Apostle

read aloud by members of the church along with other works. Paul's epistles were accepted early as scripture and
later established as Canon of Scripture. Critical scholars regard Paul's epistles (written 5062) to be [among] the
earliest-written books of the New Testament. They are referenced as early as c. 96 by Clement of Rome.[64]
Authorship
Paul's letters are largely written to churches which he had visited; he
was a great traveler, visiting Cyprus, Asia Minor (modern Turkey),
mainland Greece, Crete, and Rome. His letters are full of expositions
of what Christians should believe and how they should live. He does
not tell his correspondents (or the modern reader) much about the life
of Jesus; his most explicit references are to the Last Supper[1Cor.
11:17-34]
and the crucifixion and resurrection.[1Cor. 15] His specific
references to Jesus' teaching are likewise sparse,[1Cor. 7:10-11] [9:14]
raising the question, still disputed, as to how consistent his account of
Paul Writing His Epistles, 16th century (Blaffer
the faith is with that of the four canonical Gospels, Acts, and the
Foundation Collection, Houston, Texas).
Epistle of James. The view that Paul's Christ is very different from the
historical Jesus has been expounded by Adolf Harnack among many
others. Nevertheless, he provides the first written account of what it is to be a Christian and thus of Christian
spirituality.
Of the fourteen letters attributed to Paul and included in the Western New Testament canon, there is little or no
dispute that Paul actually wrote at least seven, those being Romans, First Corinthians, Second Corinthians, Galatians,
Philippians, First Thessalonians, and Philemon. Hebrews (no relation to the Gospel according to the Hebrews),
which was ascribed to him in antiquity, was questioned even then, never having an ancient attribution, and in modern
times is considered by most experts as not by Paul (see also Antilegomena). The authorship of the remaining six
Pauline epistles is disputed to varying degrees.
The authenticity of Colossians has been questioned[65] on the grounds that it contains an otherwise unparalleled
description (among his writings) of Jesus as 'the image of the invisible God,' a Christology found elsewhere only in
John's gospel. On the other hand, the personal notes in the letter connect it to Philemon, unquestionably the work of
Paul. Internal evidence shows close connection with Philippians.[66] Ephesians is a very similar letter to Colossians,
but is almost entirely lacking in personal reminiscences. Its style is unique. It lacks the emphasis on the cross to be
found in other Pauline writings, reference to the Second Coming is missing, and Christian marriage is exalted in a
way which contrasts with the reference in 1Cor. 7:8-9. Finally, according to R.E. Brown, it exalts the Church in a
way suggestive of a second generation of Christians, 'built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets' now
past.[67] The defenders of its Pauline authorship argue that it was intended to be read by a number of different
churches and that it marks the final stage of the development of Paul of Tarsus's thinking. It has to be noted, too, that
the moral portion of the Epistle, consisting of the last two chapters has the closest affinity with similar portions of
other Epistles, while the whole admirably fits in with the known details of St. Paul's life, and throws considerable
light upon them.[66]
Paul the Apostle
10
The Pastoral Epistles, 1 and 2Timothy, and Titus have likewise been put in
question as Pauline works. Three main reasons are advanced: first, their
difference in vocabulary, style, and theology from Paul's acknowledged
writings; Defenders of the authenticity note, that they were then probably
written in the name and with the authority of the Apostle by one of his
companions, to whom he distinctly explained what had to be written, or to
whom he gave a written summary of the points to be developed, and that
when the letters were finished, St. Paul read them through, approved them,
and signed them.[66] Secondly, the difficulty in fitting them into Paul's
biography as we have it.[68] They, like Colossians and Ephesians, were
written from prison but suppose Paul's release and travel thereafter.
However, Christianity was not yet declared a religio illicita at the time they
were written, and according to Roman law there was nothing deserving of
death against him.[66] Finally, the concerns expressed are very much the
practical ones as to how a church should function. They are more about
maintenance than about mission.
2Thessalonians, like Colossians, is questioned on stylistic grounds, with
some noting, among other peculiarities, a dependence on 1Thessalonians
yet a distinctiveness in language from the Pauline corpus. This, again, is
explainable by the possibility of St. Paul requesting one of his companions
to write the letter for him under his instructions.[66]
Atonement
Russian Orthodox icon of the Apostle Paul,

18th century (Iconostasis of Transfiguration
Church, Kizhi Monastery, Karelia, Russia).
Paul wrote down much of the theology of atonement.[69] Paul taught that
Christians are redeemed from the Law (see Supersessionism) and from sin
by Jesus' death and resurrection.[69] His death was an expiation; as well as a propitiation, and by Christ's blood,
peace is made between God and man.[69] By baptism, a Christian shares in Jesus' death and in his victory over death,
gaining, as a free gift, a new, justified status of sonship.[69]
Relationship with Judaism

Some scholars see Paul (or Saul) as completely in line with 1st-century Judaism (a "Pharisee" and student of
Gamaliel), others see him as opposed to 1st-century Judaism (see Marcionism), while still others see him as
somewhere in between these two extremes, opposed to "Ritual Laws" (see for example Circumcision controversy in
early Christianity) but in full agreement on "Divine Law". These views of Paul are paralleled by the views of
Biblical law in Christianity.
Paul's theology of the gospel accelerated the separation of the messianic sect of Christians from Judaism, a
development contrary to Paul's own intent.[11] He wrote that the faith of Christ was alone decisive in salvation for
Jews and Gentiles alike, making the schism between the followers of Christ and mainstream Jews inevitable and
permanent.[11]
He
argued
that
Paul the Apostle
Gentile converts did not need to become Jews, get circumcised, follow Jewish
dietary restrictions, or otherwise observe Mosaic laws.[11] Nevertheless, in
Romans he insisted on the positive value of the Law, as a moral guide.
E. P. Sanders' publications[70] have since been taken up by Professor James
Dunn who coined the phrase "The New Perspective on Paul"[71] and N.T.
Wright,[72] the Anglican Bishop of Durham. Wright, noting a difference
between Galatians and Romans, the later being much more positive about the
continuing covenant between God and his ancient people than the former,
contends that works are not insignificant but rather proof of attaining the
redemption of Jesus Christ by grace (free gift received by faith)[Rom.2:13ff]
and that Paul distinguishes between works which are signs of ethnic identity
and those which are a sign of obedience to Christ.
World to come
According to Ehrman, Paul believed that Jesus would return within his
lifetime.[18] He states that Paul expected that Christians who had died in the
mean time would be resurrected to share in God's kingdom, and he believed
that the saved would be transformed, assuming supernatural bodies.[18]
Paul's teaching about the end of the world is expressed most clearly in his
letters to the Christians at Thessalonica. Heavily persecuted, it appears that
they had written asking him first about those who had died already, and,
secondly, when they should expect the end. He assures them that the dead
Saint Paul, Byzantine ivory relief, 6th
early 7th century (Muse de Cluny)
will rise first and be followed by those left alive.[1Thes. 4:16ff] This suggests
an imminence of the end but he is unspecific about times and seasons, and
encourages his hearers to expect a delay.[73] The form of the end will be a battle between Jesus and the man of
lawlessness[2Thess. 2:3] whose conclusion is the triumph of Christ.
Role of women
A verse in the first letter to Timothy, 1 Timothy 2:12 ("I suffer not a woman"), traditionally attributed to Paul, is
often used as the main biblical authority for prohibiting women from becoming ordained clergy and or holding
certain other positions of ministry and leadership in Christianity, though Paul's authorship of this letter is debated.
The Letter to Timothy is also often used by many churches to deny women a vote in church affairs, reject women
from serving as teachers of adult Bible classes, prevent them from serving as missionaries, and generally
disenfranchise women from the duties and privileges of church leadership.[74] The apparent message of this verse
may seem anachronistic to 21st century Western societies with their emphasis on gender egalitarianism and
non-discrimination.
11
Let the woman learn in silence with all subjection.
12
But I suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the man, but to be in silence.
13
For Adam was first formed, then Eve.
14
And Adam was not deceived, but the woman being deceived was in the transgression.
1Timothy 2:11-14, KJV
The KJV translation of this passage seems to be saying that women in the churches are to have no leadership roles
vis a vis men.[75] Whether it also forbids women from teaching children and women is dubious as even those
Catholic churches that prohibit female priests, permit female abbesses to teach and exercise authority over other
females. Any interpretation of this portion of Scripture must wrestle with the theological, contextual, syntactical, and
11
Paul the Apostle
12
lexical difficulties embedded within these few words.[76] Fuller Seminary theologian J. R. Daniel Kirk finds
evidence in Pauls letters of a much more inclusive view of women. He writes that Romans16 is a tremendously
important witness to the important role of women in the early church. Paul praises Phoebe for her work as a
deaconess and Junia who was (according to some scholars) an Apostle. Kirk points to recent studies that have led
"many scholars" to conclude that the passage in 1Corinthians 14 ordering women to "be silent" during worship was
a later addition, apparently by a different author, and not part of Pauls original letter to Corinth. Other scholars such
as Giancarlo Biguzzi, claim that Paul's restriction on women speaking in 1Corinthians14 is genuine to Paul but
applies to a particular case of prohibiting asking questions or chatting and is not a general prohibition on any woman
speaking since in 1Corinthians11 Paul affirms the right of women to prophesy.[77] Kirk's third example of a more
inclusive view is Galatians3:28: "There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one
in Christ Jesus (italics added). In pronouncing an end within the church to the divisions which are common in the
world around it, he concludes by highlighting the fact that "...there were New Testament women who taught and had
authority in the early churches, that this teaching and authority was sanctioned by Paul, and that Paul himself offers a
theological paradigm within which overcoming the subjugation of women is an anticipated outcome."[78]
Influence on Christianity
Paul's influence on Christian thinking arguably has been more
significant than any other New Testament author.[3] Paul declared that
faith in Christ made the Torah unnecessary for salvation, exalted the
Christian church as the body of Christ, and depicted the world outside
the Church as under judgment.[11]
Lord's Supper
Paul's writings include the earliest reference to the supper of the Lord,
a rite traditionally identified as the Christian Eucharist.
Eastern tradition
The conversion on the way to Damascus, by
Caravaggio.
In the East, church fathers reduced the element of election in Romans 9

to divine foreknowledge.[11] The themes of predestination found in
Western Christianity do not appear in Eastern theology.
Western tradition
Augustine's foundational work on the gospel as a gift (grace), on morality as life in the Spirit, on predestination, and
on original sin all derives from Paul, especially Romans.[11]
In the Reformation, Martin Luther expressed Paul's doctrine of faith most strongly as justification by faith alone.[11]
John Calvin developed Augustine's predestination into double predestination.[11]
Modern theology
In his commentary The Epistle to the Romans (Ger. Der Rmerbrief; particularly in the thoroughly re-written second
edition of 1922) Karl Barth argued that the God who is revealed in the cross of Jesus challenges and overthrows any
attempt to ally God with human cultures, achievements, or possessions. Some theologians believe this work to be the
most important theological treatise since Friedrich Schleiermacher's On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured Despisers.
Paul the Apostle

As in the Eastern tradition in general, Western humanists interpret the reference to election in Romans 9 as reflecting
divine foreknowledge.[11]
Church tradition
Various Christian writers have suggested more details about Paul's life.
1 Clement, a letter written by the Roman bishop Clement of Rome,
around the year 90 reports this about Paul:[79]
"By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his example
pointed out the prize of patient endurance. After that he
had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile,
had been stoned, had preached in the East and in the West,
he won the noble renown which was the reward of his
faith, having taught righteousness unto the whole world
and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and
when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he
departed from the world and went unto the holy place,
having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance."
Statue of Saint Paul in Damascus.
Commenting on this passage, Raymond Brown writes that while it
"does not explicitly say" that Paul was martyred in Rome, "such a
martyrdom is the most reasonable interpretation."[80] Eusebius of Caesarea, who wrote in the 4th century, states that
Paul was beheaded in the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero. This event has been dated either to the year 64, when
Rome was devastated by a fire, or a few years later, to 67. The San Paolo alle Tre Fontane church was built on the
location where the execution was believed to have taken place. A Roman Catholic liturgical solemnity of Peter and
Paul, celebrated on June 29, may reflect the day of his martyrdom, other sources have articulated the tradition that
Peter and Paul died on the same day (and possibly the same year).[81] The apocryphal Acts of Paul, the apocryphal
Acts of Peter suggest that Paul survived Rome and traveled further west. Some hold the view that he could have
revisited Greece and Asia Minor after his trip to Spain, and might then have been arrested in Troas, and taken to
Rome and executed.[2Tim. 4:13] A tradition holds that Paul was interred with Saint Peter ad Catacumbas by the via
Appia until moved to what is now the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome. Bede, in his Ecclesiastical
History, writes that Pope Vitalian in 665 gave Paul's relics (including a cross made from his prison chains) from the
crypts of Lucina to King Oswy of Northumbria, northern Britain. However, Bede's use of the word "relic" was not
limited to corporal remains.
Paul, who was quite possibly martyred in Rome, has long been associated with that city and its church. Paul is the
patron saint of London.
13
Paul the Apostle
14
Critical views
Elaine Pagels, professor of religion at Princeton University and an
authority on Gnosticism, argues that Paul was a Gnostic [82] and that
the anti-Gnostic Pastoral Epistles were "pseudo-Pauline" forgeries
written to rebut this.
British Jewish scholar Hyam Maccoby contended that the Paul as
described in the Book of Acts and the view of Paul gleaned from his
own writings are very different people. Some difficulties have been
noted in the account of his life. Paul as described in the Book of Acts is
much more interested in factual history, less in theology; ideas such as
justification by faith are absent as are references to the Spirit,
according to Maccoby. He also pointed out that there are no references
to John the Baptist in the Pauline Epistles, although Paul mentions him
several times in the Book of Acts.
Others have objected that the language of the speeches is too Lukan in
style to reflect anyone else's words. Moreover, George Shillington
writes that the author of Acts most likely created the speeches
accordingly and they bare his literary and theological marks.[83] Conversely, Howard Marshall writes that the
speeches were not entirely the inventions of the author and while they may not be accurate word-for-word, the author
nevertheless records the general idea of them.[84]
Facial composite of Paul by experts of the LKA
NRW, Germany.
F. C. Baur (17921860), professor of theology at Tbingen in Germany, the first scholar to critique Acts and the
Pauline Epistles, and founder of the Tbingen School of theology, argued that Paul, as the "Apostle to the Gentiles",
was in violent opposition to the original 12 Apostles. Baur considers the Acts of the Apostles were late and
unreliable. This debate has continued ever since, with Adolf Deissmann (18661937) and Richard Reitzenstein
(18611931) emphasising Paul's Greek inheritance and Albert Schweitzer stressing his dependence on Judaism.
Maccoby theorized that Paul synthesized Judaism, Gnosticism, and
mysticism to create Christianity as a cosmic savior religion. According
to Maccoby, Paul's Pharisaism was his own invention, though actually
he was probably associated with the Sadducees. Maccoby attributed
the origins of Christian anti-Semitism to Paul and claims that Paul's
view of women, though inconsistent, reflects his Gnosticism in its
misogynist aspects.[85]
Professor Robert Eisenman of California State University, Long Beach
argues that Paul was a member of the family of Herod the Great.[86]
Professor Eisenman makes a connection between Paul and an
individual identified by Josephus as "Saulus," a "kinsman of
Agrippa."[87] Another oft-cited element of the case for Paul as a
member of Herod's family is found in Romans16:11 where Paul
writes, "Greet Herodion, my kinsman."
Among the critics of Paul the Apostle was Thomas Jefferson who
wrote that Paul was the "first corrupter of the doctrines of Jesus."[88]
Howard Brenton's 2005 play "Paul" takes a skeptical view of his
conversion.
A statue of Paul holding a scroll (symbolising the

Scriptures) and the sword (symbolising his
martyrdom).
Paul the Apostle

F.F. Powell argues that Paul, in his epistles, made use of many of the ideas of the Greek philosopher Plato,
sometimes even using the same metaphors and language.[89] For example, in Phaedrus, Plato has Socrates saying
that the heavenly ideals are perceived as though "through a glass dimly."[90] These words are echoed by Paul in
1Corinthians 13:12.
References
Notes
[1] Peter and Paul . In the Footsteps of Paul . Tarsus . 1 (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ empires/ peterandpaul/ footsteps/ footsteps_1_1. html). PBS.
Retrieved on 2010-11-19.
[2] Harris, p. 411
[3] Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church ed. F.L. Lucas (Oxford) entry on Paul
[4] Acts 8:1 "at Jerusalem"; Acts 9:13 "at Jerusalem"; Acts 9:21 "in Jerusalem"; Acts 26:10 "in Jerusalem".
[5] Acts 9:20 And straightway he preached Christ in the synagogues, that he is the Son of God.
Acts 9:21 But all that heard him were amazed, and said; Is not this he that destroyed them which called on this name in Jerusalem, and came
hither for that intent, that he might bring them bound unto the chief priests?
[6] "The Canon Debate," McDonald & Sanders editors, 2002, chapter 32, page 577, by James D. G. Dunn: "James, the brother of Jesus, and Paul,
the two other most prominent leading figures [beside Peter] in first-century Christianity"
[7] Encyclopedia Britannica,[Acts22:24-29], Paul the Apostle, 2008, O.Ed.
[8] [Acts22:24-29]
[9] Ehrman 2004:385
[10] Hebrews9:15
[11] "Paul, St" Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
[12] Walton, Steve (2000). Leadership and Lifestyle: The Portrait of Paul in the Miletus Speech and 1Thessalonians (http:/ / books. google.
com/ ?id=P9NznB__-E0C& pg=PA3& vq="these+ scholars+ see+ the+ paul"& dq=conzelmann+ paul+ acts). Cambridge University Press.
p.3. ISBN0521780063. .
[13] Hare, Douglas R. A. (1987). "Introduction" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=g_42mQjLOVsC& pg=PR10& vq="proper+ historical+
method+ requires+ us"& dq=paul+ primary+ sources+ acts+ epistles). In Knox, John. Chapters in a Life of Paul (Revised ed.). Mercer
University Press. pp.xxii, 135 p.. ISBN086554266X.
[14] Harris, p. 316320
[15] Hawthorne, Gerald F. (1993). Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. pp.681.
[16] According to the Hebrew Bible and, according to the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, an ancestor of Jesus Christ.
[17] Bauer lexicon; Acts13:9, from "The New Testament of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ: According to the Received Greek Text"
(University Press, Cambridge 1876)
[18] Ehrman, Bart. Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend. Oxford University Press, USA. 2006.
ISBN 0-19-530013-0
[19] Galatians1:13-14, Philippians3:6, and Acts8:1-3
[20] Acts22:3
[21] Bromiley, Geoffrey William (1979). International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: AD (International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
(Wbeerdmans)). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p.689. ISBN0-8028-3781-6.
[22] Barnett, Paul (2002). Jesus, the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times. InterVarsity Press. p.21.
ISBN0-8308-2699-8.
[23] L. Niswonger, Richard (1993). New Testament History. Zondervan Publishing Company. p.200. ISBN0-310-31201-9.
[24] through his mother Mary
[25] Horrell, Daivd G (2006). An Introduction to the Study of Paul. New York: T&T Clark. p.30. ISBN0-567-04083-6.
[26] Hengel, Martin and Anna Maria Schwemer, trans. John Bowden. Paul Between Damascus and Antioch: The Unknown Years (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=PRIKVslqctkC& pg=PA43& vq="the+ baptism+ of+ Saul/ Paul+ in+ Damascus"& dq=paul+ baptized+ damascus&
as_brr=3& sig=DLbwPWBw-HL4JYp6MmR3ZsIxoqg) Westminster John Knox Press, 1997. ISBN 0-664-25736-4
[27] (PDF) N.T. Wright, "Paul, Arabia and Elijah" (http:/ / www. ntwrightpage. com/ Wright_Paul_Arabia_Elijah. pdf)
[28] [Why did Paul go to Arabia?]
[29] Martin Hengel, "Paul in Arabia" Bulletin for Biblical Research 12.1 (2002) pp. 4766 (http:/ / www. ibr-bbr. org/ IBRBulletin/ BBR_2002/
BBR_2002a_04_Hengel_PaulInArabia. pdf)
[30] Barnett, Paul The Birth Of Christianity: The First Twenty Years (Eerdmans Publishing Co. 2005) ISBN 0-8028-2781-0 p. 200 (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=iEfBfYC5NU4C& pg=PA200& vq="Paul's+ Unknown+ Years"& dq=paul+ fourteen+ years+
unknown& as_brr=3& sig=T8cKbW6QxSY-NEYkWsPszP_14ws)
[31] Ogg, George, Chronology of the New Testament in Peake's Commentary on the Bible (Nelson, 1963)
15
Paul the Apostle

[32] Barnett p. 83 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=iEfBfYC5NU4C& pg=PA83& vq="famine+ relief+ sent+ by+ members+ of+ the+
church+ of+ Antioch"& dq=paul+ fourteen+ years+ unknown& as_brr=3& sig=Riugmq-417hSFp4dQYcIhk301Rc)
[33] The only indication as to who is leading is in the order of names. At first, the two are referred to as Barnabas and Paul, in that order. Later in
the same chapter the team is referred to a Paul and his companions.
[34] "Map of first missionary journey" (http:/ / www. biblestudy. org/ maps/ pauls-first-journey-map. html). Biblestudy.org. . Retrieved
2010-11-19.
[35] Harris
[36] Andreas J. Kstenberger, L. Scott Kellum and Charles Quarles (2009). The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New
Testament. Nashville, Tennessee, B&H Publishing Group. p. 400 (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=g-MG9sFLAz0C& pg=PA400&
dq="second+ missionary+ journey",+ paul,+ date,+ 49& hl=en& ei=3ti_Te2NAoabtwfvv8CvBQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result&
resnum=3& ved=0CEUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage& q="second missionary journey", paul, date, 49& f=false)
[37] http:/ / www. biblestudy. org/ maps/ pauls-secd-journey-map. html
[38] Christianity: an introduction by Alister E. McGrath pages 2006 ISBN 1405109017 137141
[39] Mercer Commentary on the New Testament by Watson E. Mills 2003 ISBN 0865548641 pages 11091110
[40] http:/ / www. biblestudy. org/ maps/ pauls-third-journey-map. html
[41] Bible. NIV Fully revised. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1994. 1944. Print.
[42] http:/ / www. biblestudy. org/ maps/ paul-to-rome-map. html
[43] Schnabel, Eckhard J. Early Christian Mission. Vol 2. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity, 2004. 1927. Print
[44] Acts15:2ff; Galatians2:1ff
[45] White, L. Michael (2004). From Jesus to Christianity (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=w4ehxXoIxCUC& pg=PA149& vq="Two+ more+
of+ Paul's+ visits+ to+ Jerusalem"& dq=paul+ "visits+ to+ jerusalem"+ acts+ letters). HarperCollins. pp.148149. ISBN0060526556. .
[46] Paul: Apostle of the Free Spirit, F. F. Bruce, Paternoster 1980, p.151
[47] Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 08537a. htm) see section titled: "The Incident At Antioch"
[48] Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 08537a. htm): "On their arrival Peter, who up to this had eaten with
the Gentiles, "withdrew and separated himself, fearing them who were of the circumcision," and by his example drew with him not only the
other Jews, but even Barnabas, Paul's fellow-labourer."
[49] http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 08537a. htm
[50] White, L. Michael (2004). From Jesus to Christianity (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=w4ehxXoIxCUC& pg=PA170& vq="total+ failure+
of+ political+ bravado"& dq=paul+ "visits+ to+ jerusalem"+ acts+ letters). HarperSanFrancisco. p.170. ISBN0060526556. .
[51] Paul does not exactly say that this was his second visit. In Galatians, he lists three important meetings with Peter, and this was the second on
his list. The third meeting took place in Antioch. He does not explicitly claim that he did not visit Jerusalem in between this and his first visit.
[52] Note that Paul only writes that he is on his way to Jerusalem, or just planning the visit. There might or might not have been additional visits
before or after this visit, if he ever got to Jerusalem.
[53] Romans15:25,2Corinthians8-9, 1Corinthians16:1-3
[54] "Paul, St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
[55] Paul: His Story by Jerome Murphy-O'Connor,page 247 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=pbePRvOCPaAC& pg=PA248& dq=illyria+
map& cd=80#v=onepage& q=illyria map& f=false). Books.google.com. 2005-10-15. ISBN9780199283842. . Retrieved 2010-11-19.
[56] A critical and exegetical commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=b52QYgZg6W8C& pg=PR26&
dq="illyris+ graeca"& cd=1#v=onepage& q="illyris graeca"& f=false). Books.google.com. 1977. ISBN9780567050298. . Retrieved
2010-11-19.
[57] Catholic Encyclopedia: Durazzo (Albania) (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 05209a. htm). Newadvent.org (1909-05-01). Retrieved on
2010-11-19.
[58] Ireneaus Against Heresies 3.3 (http:/ / www. ccel. org/ ccel/ schaff/ anf01. ix. iv. iv. html).2: the "...Church founded and organized at Rome
by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul; as also [by pointing out] the faith preached to men, which comes down to our time by
means of the successions of the bishops. ...The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church, committed into the hands of
Linus the office of the episcopate."
[59] Serena De Leonardis and Stefano Masi (1999). Art and history: Rome and the Vatican. Casa Editrice Bonechi. p. 21 (http:/ / books. google.
ca/ books?id=owS4gojfggEC& pg=PA21& dq=paul+ beheaded+ "Tre+ Fontane+ Abbey"& hl=en& ei=o_W_TdHmAcOdgQfk-5XcBQ&
sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=paul beheaded "Tre Fontane Abbey"& f=false)
[60] Lashway, Calvin. "HOW and WHERE did the Apostle Paul die?" Web: HOW and WHERE did the Apostle Paul die? (http:/ / www.
biblestudy. org/ question/ sauldie. html)
[61] St Paul's tomb unearthed in Rome (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ europe/ 6219656. stm) from BBC News (20061208); http:/ / www.
dw-world. de/ dw/ article/ 0,,4442169,00. html?maca=en-rss-en-all-1573-rdf
[62] Harris, pp. 316320. Harris cites Galatians6:11, Romans16:22, Colossians4:18, 2Thessalonians 3:17, Philemon19
[63] Joseph Barber Lightfoot in his Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians writes: "At this point[Gal.6:11] the apostle takes the pen from his
amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name([2Thes. 2:2];
2Thes. 3:17) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries. In the
present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in
large, bold characters (Gr. pelikois grammasin), that his handwriting may reflect the energy and determination of his soul."
16
Paul the Apostle

[64] "1 Clement 47:1" (http:/ / earlychristianwritings. com/ text/ 1clement-lightfoot. html). Earlychristianwritings.com. 2006-02-02. . Retrieved
2010-11-19.
[65] MacDonald, Margaret Y. Sacra Pagina: Colossians and Ephesians. Liturgical Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-8146-5819-2
[66] "Epistle to the Colossians - Catholic Encyclopedia" (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 04131b. htm). Newadvent.org. . Retrieved
2010-11-19.
[67] Brown, R.E., The Churches the Apostles left behind p.48.
[68] Barrett, C.K. the Pastoral Epistles p.4ff.
[69] "Atonement." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
[70] Paul and Palestinian Judaism in 1977; Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People in 1983
[71] J.D.G. Dunn's Manson Memorial Lecture (4.11.1982): 'The New Perspective on Paul' BJRL 65(1983), 95122.
[72] "''New Perspectives on Paul''" (http:/ / www. ntwrightpage. com/ Wright_New_Perspectives. htm). Ntwrightpage.com. 2003-08-28. .
Retrieved 2010-11-19.
[73] Rowlands, Christopher. Christian Origins (SPCK 1985) p.113
[74] Kroeger, Richard C. and Catherine C. I Suffer Not a Woman. Baker Book House, 1992. ISBN 0-8010-5250-5
[75] Wright, N.T. "The Biblical Basis for Womens Service in the Church." Web:
<www2.cbeinternational.org/CBE_InfoPack/pdf/wright_biblical_basis.pdf Biblical Basis for Womens Service> 16 Dec. 2009
[76] Moore, Terri D. "Chapter Six: Conclusions on 1Timothy 2:15." bible.org Aug. 30, 2009:
[77] Giguzzi, Giancarlo "Paolo, un apostolo contro le donne?" in Credere Oggi: in dialogo con San Paolo e le sue lettere no. 124, Edizioni
Messaggero Padova, 2004, pp. 95107. http:/ / www. credereoggi. it/ upload/ 2004/ articolo143_95. asp
[78] Kirk, J.R. Daniel. "Was Paul a Misogynist?" Web:
[79] The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, 5:5-6, translated by J.B. Lightfoot in Lightfoot, Joseph Barber (1890). The Apostolic
Fathers: A Revised Text with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations, and Translations (http:/ / earlychristianwritings. com/ text/
1clement-lightfoot. html). Macmillan. p.274. ISBN0801056128. OCLC54248207. .
[80] Brown, Raymond Edward; John Paul Meier (1983). Antioch and Rome: New Testament Cradles of Catholic Christianity (http:/ / books.
google. com/ ?id=_6H3XKLXGvYC& pg=PA124& vq="such+ a+ martyrdom+ is+ the+ most+ reasonable+ interpretation"& dq=paul+
clement+ death). Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. p.124. ISBN0809125323. .
[81] Lactanius, John Chrysostom, Sulpicius Severus all agree with Eusebius' claim that Peter and Paul died under Nero. Lactantius, Of the
Manner in Which the Persecutors Died II; John Chrysostom, Concerning Lowliness of Mind 4; Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.2829
[82] Pagels, Elaine. The Gnostic Gospels. Vintage Publishers, 1989, p.62
[83] V. George Shillington, An introduction to the study of Luke-Acts, Continuum International Publishing Group, p. 18. 2007 ISBN
0567030539
[84] Howard Marshall, The Acts of the Apostles: an introduction and commentary, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1980, pg. 42. ISBN
0802814239
[85] Maccoby,Ch. 1
[86] See Paul as Herodian, JHC 3/1 (Spring, 1996), 110122. http:/ / depts. drew. edu/ jhc/ eisenman. html
[87] Antiquities, Book XX, Chapter 9:4. http:/ / www. ccel. org/ j/ josephus/ works/ ant-20. htm
[88] The Writings of Thomas Jefferson: Being his Autobiography, Correspondence, Reports, Messages, Addresses, and Other Writings, Official
and Private. Published by the Order of the Joint Committee of Congress on the Library, from the Original Manuscripts, Deposited in the
Department of State, With Explanatory Nites, Tables of Contents, and a Copious Index to Each Volume, as well as a General Index to the
Whole, by the Editor H. A. Washington. Vol. VII. Published by Taylor Maury, Washington, D.C., 1854.
[89] Powell, F. F. Saint Paul's Homage to Plato (http:/ / www. worldandi. com/ newhome/ public/ 2004/ April/ mtpub2. asp), worldandi.com
retrieved on Nov. 16, 2008.
[90] Plato Phaedrus (http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plato/ phaedrus. html) translated by Benjamin Jowett
Bibliography
Auln, Gustaf. Christus Victor (SPCK 1931)

Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament. Anchor Bible Series, 1997. ISBN 0385247672.
Brown, Raymond E. The Church the Apostles left behind(Chapman 1984)
Bruce, F.F. 'Is the Paul of Acts the Real Paul?' Bulletin John Rylands Library 58 (1976) 283305
Bruce, F.F., Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free (ISBN 0802847781)
Conzelmann, Hans, the Acts of the Apostlesa Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles (Augsburg Fortress 1987)
Davies, W. D. "The Apostolic Age and the Life of Paul" in Matthew Black, ed. Peake's Commentary on the Bible.
London: T. Nelson, 1962. ISBN 0-8407-5019-6
Davies, W. D. Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology. S.P.C.K., 3rd ed.,
1970. ISBN 0-281-02449-9
17
Paul the Apostle

Dunn, James D.G., 1990, Jesus, Paul and the Law Louisville,KY: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN
0-664-25095-5
Hanson, Anthony T. Studies in Paul's Technique and Theology. Eerdmans, 1974. ISBN 0-8028-3452-3
Harris, Stephen L. Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. ISBN 978-1-55934-655-9
Holzbach, Mathis Christian, Die textpragmat. Bedeutung d. Kndereinsetzungen d. Simon Petrus u.d. Saulus
Paulus im lukan. Doppelwerk, in: Jesus als Bote d. Heils. Stuttgart 2008, 166-172.
Irenaeus, Against Heresies, i.26.2
Maccoby, Hyam. The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity. New York: Harper & Row, 1986. ISBN
0060155825.
Kim, Yung Suk. A Theological Introduction to Paul's Letters. Eugene, Oregon: Cascade Books, 2011. ISBN
978-1608997930
MacDonald, Dennis Ronald, 1983. The Legend and the Apostle: The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon
Philadelphia: Westminster Press.
Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Jesus and Paul: Parallel lives (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 2007) ISBN
0-8146-5173-9
Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Paul the Letter-Writer: His World, His Options, His Skills (Collegeville, Minn.:
Liturgical Press, 1995) ISBN 0-8146-5845-8
Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Paul: A Critical Life (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996) ISBN 0-19-826749-5
Ogg, George. Chronology of the New Testament. Matthew Black, ed. Peake's Commentary on the Bible.
Nelson, 1962. ISBN 0-8407-5019-6
Rashdall, Hastings, The Idea of Atonement in Christian Theology (1919)
Ruef, John, Paul's First letter to Corinth (Penguin 1971)
Sanders, E.P., Paul and Palestinian Judaism (1977)
Segal, Alan F. Paul, the Convert, (New Haven/London, Yale University Press, 1990) ISBN 0-300-04527-1.
Segal, Alan F., "Paul, the Convert and Apostle" in Rebecca's Children: Judaism and Christianity in the Roman
World (Harvard University Press 1986).
External links
St Paul (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00kjk8z) on In Our Time at the BBC. ( listen now (http://
www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/b00kjk8z/In_Our_Time_St_Paul))
2008 Saint Paul year (http://www.saintpaultarsus.com/html/saint_paul1.html)
Catholic Encyclopedia: Paul of Tarsus (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11567b.htm)
Catholic Perspective on Paul (http://pauliscatholic.com)
Documentary film on Apostle Paul (http://www.zenit.org/rssenglish-20538)
Encyclopdia Britannica: Paul (http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Paul), 1911
Maps of Paul's three missionary journeys and final captive journey (http://www.biblestudy.org/maps/
pauls-first-journey-map.html)
Novena to Saint Paul Apostle (http://www.catholic.net/index.php?option=dedestaca&id=703)
Paul's mission and letters (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/missions.html)
From PBS Frontline series on the earliest Christians.
Representations of Saint Paul (http://www.cattoliciromani.com/forum/showthread.php/
iconografia_paolo_tarso-18221.html)
Saint Paul of Tarsus: the true story (http://www.earlychristians.org/docs_interest/saint_paul_year.html)
"Saint Paul, the Apostle." (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/447019/Saint-Paul-the-Apostle)
Encyclopdia Britannica Online. 2009.
The Apostle and the Poet: Paul and Aratus (http://spindleworks.com/library/rfaber/aratus.htm) Dr. Riemer
Faber
18
Paul the Apostle

The Apostle Paul's Shipwreck: An Historical Examination of Acts 27 and 28 (http://www.parsagard.com/
shipwreck.htm)
Works by or about Paul the Apostle (http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n79-64565) in libraries (WorldCat
catalog)
Why Paul Went West: The Differences Between the Jewish Diaspora (http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.
asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=37&Issue=1&ArticleID=10) Biblical Archaeology Review
Hyper-dispensationalism (or ultra-dispensationalism[1] or more rarely "Bullingerism"[2] ) is a niche Protestant
doctrine that views the teachings of the Apostle Paul both as unique from earlier apostles and as foundational for the
church, a perspective sometimes characterized by proponents as the "Pauline Distinctive" [3] . E. W. Bullinger
(18371913), an Anglican clergyman and scholar, is the best known early expositor of hyper-dispensationalism,
although the ideas trace back further to John Nelson Darby (18001882).
Hyper-dispensationalism is rejected by mainstream dispensationalism, which holds that the Church began at
Pentecost[4] long prior to Paul's conversion to Christianity as described early in the New Testament book entitled
"Acts of the Apostles". Popular dispensationalist Harry A. Ironside (18761951) declared Bullingerism an
"absolutely Satanic perversion of the truth" [5] . Anti-dispensationalists simultaneously admire
hyper-dispensationalism as a "consistent Dispensationalism" and condemn it as much like a "cult or sect" [6] .
Evangelicals eject adherents as "divisive" [7] . The clearest scholarly references to hyper-dispensationalism are made
by Charles C. Ryrie [8] and Charles F. Baker.[9]
Advocates of hyper-dispensationalism accept the term "dispensationalism", but reject the prefix "hyper" or "ultra" as
pejorative. Within the United States, advocates often refer to themselves as members of the "Grace Movement"[10] ,
and affiliate with the Grace Gospel Fellowship [11] denomination and its Grace Bible College in Grand Rapids,
Michigan.
General views
Hyper-dispensationalism holds that the early Christian Church lost four basic truths starting near the end of the
Apostle Pauls ministry [12] . The four truths are (in order of loss) [13] :
The Distinctive Message and Ministry of the Apostle Paul

The Pre-Tribulational Rapture of the Church, the Body of Christ
The Difference between Israel and the Church, the Body of Christ
Justification by Faith Alone, in Christ Alone.
The truths, advocates say, were gradually recovered in reverse order starting during the Protestant Reformation [14] ;
for example, Martin Luther is credited with recovery of "justification by faith" and John Nelson Darby with "Church
Truth".
Hyper-dispensationalists reject water baptism [15] [16] [17] , which divides them from mainstream dispensationalists
who are often Baptists, like W. A. Criswell[18] , or in earlier times Presbyterians[19] [20] like James H. Brookes.
Hyper-dispensationalists themselves are divided on the Lord's Supper.
19
Divisions
Hyper-dispensationalists disagree among themselves as to whether the apostle Paul's early ministry was transitional
or normative for the church. They differentiate among themselves by terminology reflecting when the normative
portion of Paul's ministry began in the book of Acts. The most obvious result of this internal differentiation is
whether the Lord's Supper is accepted in their church.
Bullinger held that Paul's authoritative teaching began at the conclusion of the book of Acts, a viewpoint now
characterized as "Acts 28" dispensationalism (chapter 28 being the concluding chapter of the book), a position he
solidified in cooperation with Charles H. Welch[21] . Other writers holding this position include Sir Robert Anderson,
Oscar M. Baker, and Otis Q. Sellers. Acts 28 Dispensationalists distinguish themselves with their belief that todays
Church, is exclusively revealed in Pauls later writings, in the so-called "Prison Epistles." [22] Acts 28
Dispensationalists tend to reject all ordinances including the Lords Supper [23] .
The so-called "mid-Acts" position was developed later by Cornelius R. Stam, Charles F. Baker, among others, and
reflects their position that Paul's normative ministry began in either the ninth or thirteenth chapter. The mid-Acts
position accepts the Lord's Supper [24] .
John Nelson Darby, sometimes called the father of dispensationism, held views similar to the mid-Acts position.
Darby writes[25] :
"Stephen formed the link between Jewish rejection and the position and state of the church which
followed...Stephen was the closing of the Jewish possibility of the dispensation.' But a new scene now
opensthe regular Gentile form and order of the dispensation in the hands of the apostle Paul, the apostle of
the uncircumcision, the apostle of the Gentiles. Did he then derive it from the apostles? or was he indeed a
successor to our Lord by earthly appointment and derivation? No; in no wise."[26]
"if Christianity were the new covenant, which it is not, the Holy Ghost is the seal of faith now as circumcision
was then. Matthew 28 was never carried out. The mission to the Gentiles was given up to Paul explicitly (Gal.
2) who was not sent to baptize..."[27]
"the outward symbol and instrument of unity is the partaking of the Lord's supper - for we being many are one
'bread, one body, for we are all partakers of that one bread.' And what does Paul declare to be the true intent
and testimony of that rite? That whensoever 'ye eat this bread and drink this cup, ye do shew the Lord's death
till he come.' Here then are found the character and life of the church"[28]
Mainstream dispensationalists are referred to holding the "Acts 2" position in the spectrum, because that chapter
describes the events at Pentecost.
Notes
[1] Eleventh Avenue Church (http:/ / www. eleventhavenuechurch. com/ ultra. html)
[2] J. C. O'Hair. "The Unsearchable Riches of Christ, Chapter 51: "Did the Church Begin with Pentecost of Acts Two?"" (http:/ / www.
bereanbiblesociety. org/ ohair/ HTML/ UROC/ chapter51. html). . "If one believes that the Body of Christ began historically with the advent
of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost, he is given the right hand of fellowship by the regular Fundamentalists. If one believes that the
Body of Christ began after the close of the Acts period, the regulars brand him as an ultradispensationalist and from their camp goes up
the cry Bullingerism."
[3] Robert Hanna. "The Pauline LegacyOur Heritage" (http:/ / www. bereanbiblesociety. org/ articles/ 1031607735. html). Berean Bible
Society. . "Unless one recognizes the distinctive message committed to Paul, one is left in darkness and confusion as to his spiritual standing,
purpose, and destiny as a child of God."
[4] Harry A. Ironside. "Wrongly Dividing The Word of Truth. Chapter 3: The Transitional Period. Is the Church of The Acts the Body of
Christ?" (http:/ / www. plymouthbrethren. org/ article/ 181). . "Here we are distinctly informed as to the way in which the Body has been
brought into existence, and this is exactly what took place at Pentecost."
[5] Harry A. Ironside. "Wrongly Diving the Word of Truth: Ultra-Dispensationalism Examined in the Light of the Holy Scriptures. Chapter 1:
What is Ultra-Dispensationalism?" (http:/ / www. gotothebible. com/ HTML/ wrongly1. html). . "Having had most intimate acquaintance with
Bullingerism as taught by many for the last forty years, I have no hesitancy in saying that its fruits are evil. It has produced a tremendous crop
of heresies throughout the length and breadth of this and other lands, it has divided Christians and wrecked churches and assemblies without
20
number; it has lifted up its votaries in intellectual and spiritual pride to an appalling extent, so that they look with supreme contempt upon
Christians who do not accept their peculiar views; and in most instances where it has been long tolerated, it has absolutely throttled Gospel
effort at home and sown discord on missionary fields abroad. So true are these things of this system that I have no hesitancy in saying it is an
absolutely Satanic perversion of the truth."
[6] Jamin Hubner (2010-07-16). "A Theological Introduction to Hyper-Dispensationalism" (http:/ / www. aomin. org/ aoblog/ index.
php?itemid=4066). Alpha & Omega Ministries, directed by James White (theologian). . "Hyper-Dispensationalism is consistent
Dispensationalism. Darby effectively replaced Gods covenants (i.e covenant with Adam) with his dispensations (i.e. dispensation of
innocence). But only hyper-dispensationalists fully carry out the implications. In conclusion, it appears that Hyper-Dispensationalism has
attributes of both a cult and a sect..."
[7] Sarah Pulliam (2007-10-10). "Christianity Today magazine, "Dispensational Dustup: Student dismissed from leadership for 'potentially
divisive' beliefs."". "Northwestern College in St. Paul, Minnesota removed a senior [Josh Strelecki] as student ministries director because of
theological views that some at the college called "hyper-dispensational [and] potentially divisive"...Strelecki holds to three controversial
beliefs: that the book of James was written for Israel and not for the church; that the church started with Paul and not at Pentecost; and that
Israel was saved by faith and works, not by faith alone... Northwestern upholds a broadly evangelical doctrinal statement..."
[8] "Dispensationalism Today by Charles C. Ryrie, pages 194-195, Chicago, Moody Press, 1965
[9] "Dispensational Theology" by Charles F. Baker, page 16, Grace Publications, 1971]
[10] http:/ / www. biblicaladvancedbasics. com/ pdf/ Grace. pdf
[11] http:/ / www. ggfusa. org
[12] E. W. Bullinger. "The Loss and Recovery of Truth" (http:/ / thethings2come. org/ ?p=165). . "We are told, on every hand, today, that we
must go back to the first three centuries to find the purity of faith and worship of the primitive church! But it is clear from this comparison of
Acts 19:10 and II Timothy 1:15, that we cannot go back to the first century. No, not even to the apostles own lifetime!"
[13] E. W. Bullinger (1905). "The Loss and Recovery of Truth" (http:/ / thethings2come. org/ ?p=165). . "It was Pauline truth and teaching from
which all had turned away. ...that led necessarily To the loss of the teaching concerning the Mystery; that truth concerning the one Body of
Christ... the truth of the Lords promised return from heaven; and of resurrection[and] the truth as to what God had made us to be in Christ;
and justification by faith"
[14] J.C. O'Hair (1905). "The Loss and Recovery of Truth" (http:/ / www. bereanbiblesociety. org/ ohair/ HTML/ UROC/ chapter44. html#first). .
"Martin Luther, he said, recovered justification by faith. John Darby recovered the Blessed Hope and something of Church Truth."
[15] E. W. Bullinger (1916). "HOW TO ENJOY THE BIBLE" (http:/ / levendwater. org/ books/ enjoy/ how_to_enjoy_the_bible_bullinger. pdf).
. ""the gospel of the kingdom" will again be made (see above) and accompanied by its companion ordinance of baptism"
[16] J.C. O'Hair. quote=Tongues, visions and miraculous signs are inseparably connected with water baptism in the Bible and any Scriptural
exegesis which will eliminate the one will eliminate the other. "The Recovery of Lost Bible Truth" (http:/ / www. bereanbiblesociety. org/
ohair/ GRACE WORKS IN ADOBE/ RECOVERY OF LOST BIBLE TRUTH, THE. pdf). quote=Tongues, visions and miraculous signs are
inseparably connected with water baptism in the Bible and any Scriptural exegesis which will eliminate the one will eliminate the other..
[17] John C. O'Hair. "THE RECOVERY OF LOST TRUTH: LETS DE-JUDAIZE THE CHURCH OF CHRIST: THIS WILL BRING A
MIGHTY REVIVAL" (http:/ / www. bereanbiblesociety. org/ ohair/ GRACE WORKS IN ADOBE/ LET'S DE-JUDAIZE THE CHURCH OF
CHRIST. pdf). . "one of the principal reasons why baptism has caused so much disunity and so many unpleasant controversies is because
many Christian have confused the baptism by Christ in the Spirit (Luke 3:17 and Acts 1:5) with the death baptism of Luke 12:50 and the death
baptism of Romans 6:3 and 4. Another reason is that they have not carefully compared the six or more baptisms of the Four Gospels and the
Book of Acts with the one baptism of Ephesians 4:5"
[18] Ernest Reisinger. "Founders Journal. A History of Dispensationalism In America" (http:/ / www. founders. org/ journal/ fj09/ article1. html).
. "I believe I am safe in saying that Dr. Wally Amos Criswell has been the most influential and articulate Southern Baptist Dispensationalists.
Dr. Criswell is one of the great, esteemed and respected leaders of our denomination and every Southern Baptist is deeply indebted to him as a
defender of the Bible and conservative Christianity."
[19] Ernest Reisinger. "Founders Journal. A History of Dispensationalism In America" (http:/ / www. founders. org/ journal/ fj09/ article1. html).
. "the Presbyterian Church [] was more influenced by Dispensationalism than any other denomination."
[20] "1944 PCUS Report on Dispensationalism" (http:/ / www. pcahistory. org/ documents/ pcus1944. html). . "Recently it has come to our
attention that Dr. D. James Kennedy, when examining a candidate for ordination, routinely asks for that candidate's views on the subject of
dispensationalism, and particularly asks him to state his agreement with or disapproval of the 1944 report issued by the Presbyterian Church in
the U.S. (i.e., the Southern Presbyterian Church). In light of that anecdote and in an effort to assist those hapless candidates who might
otherwise have no knowledge of this document, we reproduce it here. Excerpted from the Minutes of the Eighty-Fourth General Assembly of
the Presbyterian Church in the United States, as it met in the Anderson Auditorium at Montreat, North Carolina, May 2530, 1944. This
Report of the Ad-Interim Committee occurs in the Appendix to the Minutes, on pages 123-127."
[21] Juanita S. Carey, E.W. Bullinger: A Biography, ")p.180) As recounted by Welch in his autobiography: Toward the end of 1908 I felt moved
to write to Dr. Bullinger [and at their meeting asked] you do not believe the church began at Pentecost, but rather, the Dispensational
Boundary must be drawn at Acts 28? Dr Bullinger [replied] that is so. I have made that quite clear. [Welch continued, why then do] you treat
the whole of Paul's epistles as one group[?] To my amazement and joy, the Doctor looked at me for a moment, then slapping his hand on his
thigh said: "That scraps half the books I have written. But we want the Truth, and the Truth is there in what you said.""
[22] Charles Welch. "The Berean Expositor. Acts xvii. 10, 11" (http:/ / www. charleswelch. net/ BE Vol 11 Final. pdf). . "Paul was not under the
law so far as salvation was concerned, but at the same time he was not standing in the full light of the Mystery, as made known in his prison
21
epistles."
[23] Charles Welch. "The Berean Expositor. Acts xvii. 10, 11" (http:/ / www. charleswelch. net/ BE Vol 11 Final. pdf). . "This settles the
question of baptism and the Lords supper, the decrees of Acts xv., the order and gifts of I Corinthians, and the many other questions which
half-grasped truth begets. The church of the one body is a new creation."
[24] Paul M. Sadler. "The Truth About the Truth" (http:/ / www. bereanbiblesociety. org/ articles/ 1023136679. html). . "Concerning the Lord's
Supper, Pastor Stam has always taught that the Apostle Paul received a special revelation from our Lord regarding communion. The command
of Christ is unmistakably clear that it should be observed until He returns for the Church,"
[25] Larry V. Crutchfield (http:/ / www. columbiaseminary. org/ aboutus/ faculty. html#larryvcrutchfield). The Origins of Dispensationalism:
The Darby Factor. "Darby sees Stephen's testimony as the hinge upon which the transition between the Jewish and Christian order of things
swings, for Stephen had seen Jesus in the heavenlies (undoubtedly a reference to Acts 7:55). 'Thus', says Darby, 'he formed the linked between
Jewish rejection and the position and state of the church which followed.' At the death of Stephen, the 'Gentile dispensation' began as a distinct
thing because that event serviced as a witness that the Jews were resisting the Holy Spirit just as their fathers had."
[26] J. N. Darby, "The Collected Writings Of J. N. Darby, Ecclesiastical No. 1, Volume 1: The Character Of Office In The Present
Dispensation," (http:/ / www. plymouthbrethren. org/ article/ 10884)
[27] J. N. Darby, "The Collected Writings of J. N. Darby, Ecclesiastical Writings The Collected Writings Of J. N. Darby, Ecclesiastical No. 4,
Volume 20: A Reply To Defence Of The Doctrine Of Baptismal Regeneration" (http:/ / www. plymouthbrethren. org/ article/ 10884)
[28] J. N. Darby, Considerations on the Nature and Unity of the Church of Christ (http:/ / www. stempublishing. com/ authors/ darby/
ECCLESIA/ 01002E. html)
References
Stam, Cornelius R., Things That Differ, 1951, Berean Bible Society, Germantown, WI
Bullinger, E.W.,The Foundations of Dispensational Truth, Reprinted 1972, Samuel Bagster & Sons LTD 72
Marylebone Lane, London. W.I.
Baker, Charles F., A Dispensational Theology, 1971, Grace Bible College Publications, Grand Rapids, MI
External links
Writings and recordings of Acts 28 dispensationalist Charles H. Welch (http://www.charleswelch.net/)

Acts 28 dispensationalist Oscar M. Baker's writings (http://www.tftmin.org/)
GraceImpact.org (http://www.graceimpact.org/) by Richard Jordan
Ultra-dispensationalism (http://mb-soft.com/believe/text/ultradis.htm) from Elwell Evangelical Dictionary
85 Pages in the Bible (http://www.85pagesinthebible.com/) Comprehensive survey of the divisions of
Scripture from the Post-Acts dispensational perspective
Berean Bible Society (http://www.bereanbiblesociety.org/history.html) History of the Grace Movement
God's Invitation to the World (http://www.godinvitesyou.com) A clear presentation of the Dispensational
Approach to Scripture.
Grace Gospel Fellowship (http://www.ggfusa.org/)
Magnified Word (http://www.magnifiedword.com/index2.htm) site maintained by a former "mid-Acts"
hyperdispensationalist adherent
22
E. W. Bullinger
23
E. W. Bullinger
Ethelbert William Bullinger
E. W. Bullinger (1837-1913)
Born
15 December 1837Canterbury, Kent, England
Died
6 June 1913 (aged75)
Education
King's College London
Occupation clergyman, Biblical scholar, and theologian

Knownfor
The Companion Bible
Ethelbert William Bullinger AKC (December 15, 1837 June 6, 1913) was an Anglican clergyman, Biblical
scholar, and ultradispensationalist theologian.
Life and work

He was born in Canterbury, Kent, England, the youngest of five children of William and Mary (Bent) Bullinger.[1]
His family traced their ancestry back to Heinrich Bullinger, the Swiss Reformer.[2]
His formal theological training was at King's College London from 18601861, earning an Associate's degree.[3]
After graduation, on October 15, 1861, he married Emma Dobson, thirteen years his senior.[4] He later received a
Doctor of Divinity degree in 1881 from Archibald Campbell Tait, Archbishop of Canterbury who cited Bullinger's
"eminent service in the Church in the department of Biblical criticism."[5]
Bullinger's career in the Church of England spanned 1861 until 1888. He began as associate curate in the parish of
St. Mary Magdalene, Bermondsey in 1861,[4] and was ordained as a priest in the Church of England in 1862.[6] He
served as parish curate in Tittleshall from 18631866; Notting Hill from 18661869; Leytonstone, 18691870; then
Walthamstow until he became vicar of the newly established parish of St. Stephen's in 1874. He resigned his
vicarage in 1888.[7]
In the spring of 1867, Bullinger became clerical secretary of the Trinitarian Bible Society, a position he would hold
till his death in 1913.[8] Bullinger was editor of a monthly journal Things to Come subtitled A Journal of Biblical
Literature, with Special Reference to Prophetic Truth. The Official Organ of Prophetic Conferences for over 20
years (18941915) and contributed many articles.
In the great Anglican debate of the Victorian era, he was a Low Churchman rather than High Church sacerdotalist.
His three major works were
A Critical Lexicon and Concordance to the English and Greek New Testament (1877) ISBN 0-8254-2096-2;
Figures of Speech Used in the Bible (1898) ISBN 0-8010-0559-0
Primary editor of The Companion Bible (published in 6 parts, 1909-1922) ISBN 0-8254-2177-2. It was completed
after his death by his associates.
E. W. Bullinger
These works and many others remain in print (2007).
Bullinger's friends included well-known Zionist Dr. Theodore Herzl. This was a personal friendship, but accorded
with Bullinger's belief in a Biblical distinction between the Church and the Jewish People.
Trinitarian Bible Society

In 1867, at age 29, Bullinger accepted the office of clerical secretary of the Trinitarian Bible Society (TBS), an office
which he exercised, with rare lapses due to illness in his later years, until his death. Accomplishments of TBS during
his secretariat include:
Completion and publication of a Hebrew version of the New Testament under a TBS contract with Christian
David Ginsburg after the demise of Isaac Salkinson.
Publication of Ginsburg's first edition of the Tanakh (Introduction to the Massoretico-Critical Edition of the
Hebrew Bible).
Formation of the Brittany Evangelical Mission Society under Pasteur LeCoat and translation of the Bible into the
Breton language.[9]
First-ever Protestant Portuguese Reference Bible.
Distribution of Spanish language Bibles in Spain after the Spanish Revolution of 1868.
Bullinger was also a practiced musician. As part of his support for the Breton Mission, he collected and harmonized
several previously untranscribed Breton hymns on his visits to Trmel, Brittany.
Bullinger's TBS workload in his later years was reduced by the assistance of Henry Charles Bowker and Charles
Welch. Their assistance enabled him to focus on The Companion Bible in his final years. Bullinger and Ginsburg
parted ways, and another edition of Tanakh was published by the British and Foreign Bible Society.
Theology
Bullinger's views were often unique, and sometimes controversial. He is so closely tied to what is now called
"hyperdispensationalism" that it is sometimes referred to as Bullingerism.[10] Noted dispensationalist Harry A.
Ironside (18761951) declared Bullingerism an "absolutely Satanic perversion of the truth" [11] Bullingerism differs
from mainstream dispensationalism with regard to the beginning of the church. Mainstream dispensationalism holds
that the Church began at Pentecost as described early in the New Testament book entitled "Acts of the Apostles". In
stark contrast, Bullinger held that the church, the so-called Body of Christ, began after the close of Acts,[12] only
revealed in the Prison Epistles of the Apostle Paul.[13]
Bullinger described dispensations as divine "administrations" or "arrangements" wherein God deals at distinct time
periods and with distinct groups of people "on distinct principles, and the doctrine relating to each must be kept
distinct". He emphasizes that "Nothing but confusion can arise from reading into one dispensation that which relates
to another.",[14] and lists seven dispensations:
24
E. W. Bullinger
25
Dispensational Scheme of Bullinger

Edenic state of
Innocence
Genesis 1-3
ended with the
expulsion from
Eden
Period "without
law"
Period under the Law
Period of
Grace
Epoch of Judgment
Genesis 4 to Exodus Exodus 20 to Acts 28

Church
Tribulation
19
ended at the rejection
History
end at the destruction
ended with the flood by Israel of the grace of end at the Day
of the Antichrist
and judgment on
God
of the Lord
Babel
at the end of Acts
Millennial Age
The Eternal
State of Glory
Rev 20:4-6
end with the
destruction of
Satan
Rev 20-22 no
end
Outside of ultradispensationalism, many other examples of Bullinger's unique views can be found. For example,
Bullinger argues that Jesus was crucified with four, not just two, criminals.[15] Bullinger argued for mortality of the
soul, the cessation of the soul between death and resurrection.[16] While Bullinger did not express any views
concerning the final state of the lost, many of his followers did hold to annihilationism. Purportedly, Bullinger was
also a member of the Universal Zetetic Society.[17]
Footnotes
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
E. W. Bullinger: A Biography, Carey, Juanita, 2000, p.27

E. W. Bullinger: A Biography, Carey, Juanita, 2000, p. 28-29
E. W. Bullinger: A Biography, Carey, Juanita, 2000, p. 35
E. W. Bullinger: A Biography, Carey, Juanita, 2000, p. 39
E. W. Bullinger: A Biography, Carey, Juanita, 2000, pp.62
E. W. Bullinger: A Biography, Carey, Juanita, 2000, p.40, states July 6, 1862.
E. W. Bullinger: A Biography, Carey, Juanita, 2000, pp.42-47, 55, 65
E. W. Bullinger: A Biography, Carey, Juanita, 2000, pp. 71-73
"THE STORY OF PASTEUR LECOAT. The Breton Mission At Tremel" (http:/ / www. gospelmagazine. org. uk/ february1957. pdf). . "As
Dr. E. W. Bullinger so aptly points out in his book, The Story of the Breton Mission, M. Lecoat had returned to a land of a corrupt religion...
an organised crusade was begun to graft the Romish religion on to that of the Druids. Many of the tall-standing stones were transformed into
crosses, but, where the stone was too hard for the mason's chisel, crosses and crucifixes were fastened to them. Dr. Bullinger tells how that in
one vear no less than five thousand were so transformed by the then Bishop of St. Pol de Leon."
[10] Elwell, Walter A. (1984). Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House. ISBN0801034132. p. 1120
[11] Harry A. Ironside. "Wrongly Diving the Word of Truth: Ultra-Dispensationalism Examined in the Light of the Holy Scriptures. Chapter 1:
What is Ultra-Dispensationalism?" (http:/ / www. gotothebible. com/ HTML/ wrongly1. html). . "Having had most intimate acquaintance with
Bullingerism as taught by many for the last forty years, I have no hesitancy in saying that its fruits are evil. It has produced a tremendous crop
of heresies throughout the length and breadth of this and other lands, it has divided Christians and wrecked churches and assemblies without
number; it has lifted up its votaries in intellectual and spiritual pride to an appalling extent, so that they look with supreme contempt upon
Christians who do not accept their peculiar views; and in most instances where it has been long tolerated, it has absolutely throttled Gospel
effort at home and sown discord on missionary fields abroad. So true are these things of this system that I have no hesitancy in saying it is an
absolutely Satanic perversion of the truth."
[12] E. W. Bullinger. "The Companion Bible, Appendix 181: The Dispensational Position of the Book of the "Acts"" (http:/ / www. levendwater.
org/ companion/ append181. html). . ""all the truth"...was reserved, and not permitted to be revealed, until the public proclaiming of "the
kingdom" had ended, after the close of the "Acts". (See Notes on the Epp., specially Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians.) Then it was, at the
commencement of this present interim period during which "blindness in part is happened to Israel" (Romans 11:25), that "the church which is
His body" (Ephesians 1:22, 23) began to be formed "to the praise of the glory of His grace" (Ephesians 1:6, and Note on 15:14)"
[13] E. W. Bullinger. "The Companion Bible, Appendix 192. THE PAULINE EPISTLES." (http:/ / www. levendwater. org/ companion/
append192. html). . "It is ignorance of this Divinely given standard that results in the deplorable attempts to "square" the teachings of our Lord
in the Gospels, which concern the kingdom of heaven (Ap. 114) and the Jewish Polity, with the teaching of Paul the apostle and bondservant
of Jesus Christ in the Church Epistles. And so, when it is found that they cannot be "squared", we have the unseemly utterances and procedure
of those who throw over the "Pauline doctrine", as they term it, in favor of "the teaching of Jesus", with contemptuous references to "the
Hellenistic tendencies of Paul's mind", &c.; and such statements as "the Master's words must be preferred to a disciple's; "we must get back to
Jesus", and so on."
[14] "Companion Bible, Appendix 195: THE DIFFERENT AGES AND DISPENSATIONS OF GOD'S DEALINGS WITH MEN." (http:/ /
www. biblestudysite. com/ 195. htm). . "Nothing but confusion can arise from reading into one dispensation that which relates to another. To
connect with God said and did in one dispensation with another, in which His administration was on an altogether different principle, is to
ensure error. And finally, to take doctrine of late revelation and read it into the time when it was "hidden" leads to disaster. The nations, Israel
the Chosen Nation, and the church (Ap 186) are each dealt with in distinct "times" and on distinct principles, and the doctrine relating to each
E. W. Bullinger
must be kept distinct."
[15] E. W. Bullinger. "The Companion Bible, Appendix 164: The "Others" Crucified With The Lord (Matt. 27:38 and Luke 23:32)." (http:/ /
www. levendwater. org/ companion/ append164. html). . "Mislead by tradition and the ignorance of Scripture on the part of medieval painters,
it is the general belief that only two were crucified with the Lord. But Scripture does not say so...it is clear [from cited Scriptural evidence]
that there were four "others" crucified with the Lord...To show that we are not without evidence, even from tradition, we may state that there is
a "Calvary" to be seen at Ploubezre near Lannion, in the Cotes-du-Nord, Brittany, known as Les Cinq Croix ("The Five Crosses"). There is a
high cross in the center, with four lower ones, two on either side."
[16] Bullinger, E. W. (1902). The Rich Man and Lazarus or "The Intermediate State". London: Eyrie & Spottiswood.
[17] Christine Garwood (2007). Flat Earth. Macmillan.
References
Carey, Juanita S. (1988). E.W. Bullinger: A Biography. Kregel Publications. ISBN0-8254-2372-4.
External links
E.W. Bullinger Books Website (http://www.ewbullingerbooks.com/)
E.W. Bullinger Books online (http://levendwater.org/frameset.htm?books4.htm&books4_inhoudsopgave.
htm) (html & pdf)
The Companion Bible In PDF Format... Free Downloads (http://www.companion-bible.com/)
Appendixes to The Companion Bible (http://levendwater.org/companion/frameset.htm?index_companion.
html&inhoudsopgave_companion.htm) (All 198 appendices to the Bible)
Google has a limited preview of The Companion Bible (http://books.google.com/
books?vid=ISBN0825422035)
The Companion Bible (Condensed) on line (http://www.companionbiblecondensed.com/)
The Companion Bible Notes/Appendices in software module format (http://www.bibleanalyzer.com/
companion.html) (not PDF images. Fully searchable)
E.W. Bullinger: Did Jephthah really sacrifice his daughter? (http://www.jba.gr/Articles/jbadec06b.htm)
Number in Scripture (http://philologos.org/__eb-nis/)
E.W. Bullinger: The Christian's Greatest Need (http://www.bibleunderstanding.com/greatestneed.htm)
E.W. Bullinger: Number in Scripture Its Supernatural Design and Spiritual Significance (4th Edition, Revised)
(http://philologos.org/__eb-nis/)
E.W. Bullinger: The Rich Man and Lazarus - the Intermediate State (http://www.bibleunderstanding.com/
richmanandlazarus_contents.htm)
E.W. Bullinger: Great Cloud of Witnesses (http://www.peterwade.com/articles/bullingr/cloud00.shtml)
E.W. Bullinger: The Two Natures in the Child of God (http://www.bibleunderstanding.com/twonatures.htm)
E.W. Bullinger: The Witness of the Stars (http://www.heavendwellers.com/hd_witness_of_the_stars.htm)
E.W. Bullinger, Critical Lexicon Concordance EngGreek NT. 5thed,(1908) (http://www.archive.org/details/
Criticallexiconconcordanceenggreeknt.5thed1908).
For more information on Bullinger's dispensationalism go here : E.W. Bullinger's "How to Enjoy the Bible - Rightly
Dividing the Word as to its Times and Dispensations" (http:/ / philologos. org/ __eb-htetb/ 133. htm#2d) and here :
E.W. Bullinger's "How to Enjoy the Bible" (http://philologos.org/__eb-htetb/).
26
John Nelson Darby
27
John Nelson Darby

John Nelson Darby (18 November 1800 29 April 1882) was an
Anglo-Irish evangelist, and an influential figure among the original
Plymouth Brethren. He is considered to be the father of modern
Dispensationalism. He produced a translation of the Bible based on
the Hebrew and Greek texts called The Holy Scriptures: A New
Translation from the Original Languages by J. N. Darby.
Biography
Early years
John Nelson Darby was born in Westminster, London, and
christened at St. Margaret's on 3 March 1801. He came from an
Anglo-Irish landowning family seated at Leap Castle, King's
County, Ireland. He was the nephew of Admiral Henry D'Esterre
Darby and his middle name was given in recognition of his
godfather and family friend, Lord Nelson.
John Nelson Darby.
Darby was educated at Westminster School and Trinity College, Dublin where he graduated Classical Gold
Medallist in 1819. Darby embraced Christianity during his studies, although there is no evidence that he formally
studied theology. He joined an inn of court, but felt that being a lawyer was inconsistent with his religious belief. He
therefore chose ordination as an Anglican clergyman in Ireland, "lest he should sell his talents to defeat justice." In
1825, Darby was ordained deacon of the established Church of Ireland and the following year as priest.
John Nelson Darby
Middle years
Darby became a curate in the Church of Ireland parish of Delgany,
County Wicklow, and distinguished himself by convincing Roman
Catholic peasants in the Calary area to abandon the Catholic Church.
The well-known gospel tract "How the Lost Sheep was Saved" [1]
gives his personal account of a visit he paid to a dying shepherd boy in
this area, painting a vivid picture of what his work among the poor
people involved. He later claimed to have won hundreds of converts to
the Church of Ireland. However, the conversions ended when William
Magee, the Archbishop of Dublin, ruled that converts were obliged to
swear allegiance to George IV as rightful king of Ireland.
Darby resigned his curacy in protest. Soon after, in October 1827, he
fell from a horse and was seriously injured. He later stated that it was
during this time that he began to believe that the "kingdom" described
in the Book of Isaiah and elsewhere in the Old Testament was entirely
different from the Christian church.
Over the next five years, he developed the principles of his mature
theologymost notably his conviction that the very notion of a
clergyman was a sin against the Holy Spirit, because it limited the
Gravestone of John Nelson Darby
recognition that the Holy Spirit could speak through any member of the
Church. During this time he joined an interdenominational meeting of
believers (including Anthony Norris Groves, Edward Cronin, J. G. Bellett, and Francis Hutchinson) who met to
"break bread" together in Dublin as a symbol of their unity in Christ. By 1832, this group had grown and began to
identify themselves as a distinct Christian assembly. As they traveled and began new assemblies in Ireland and
England, they formed the movement now known as the Plymouth Brethren.
It is believed that John Nelson Darby left the Church of Ireland around 1831.[2] He participated in the 183133
Powerscourt Conference, an annual meeting of Bible students organized by his friend,[3] the wealthy widow Lady
Powerscourt (Theodosia Wingfield Powerscourt). At the conference Darby publicly described his ecclesiological and
eschatological views, including the pretribulation rapture.[4] For about 40 years William Kelly (18211906) was his
chief interpreter and continued to be a staunch supporter until his own death. Kelly in his work "John Nelson Darby
as I knew him" stated that "a saint more true to Christ's name and word I never knew or heard of".
Darby defended Calvinist [5] doctrines when they came under attack from within the Church in which he once
served. His biographer Goddard [6] states, "Darby indicates his approval of the doctrine of the Anglican Church as
expressed in Article XVII of the Thirty-Nine Articles" on the subject of election and predestination. Darby said:
"For my own part, I soberly think Article XVII to be as wise, perhaps I might say the wisest and best
condensed human statement of the view it contains that I am acquainted with. I am fully content to take it in its
literal and grammatical sense. I believe that predestination to life is the eternal purpose of God, by which,
before the foundations of the world were laid, He firmly decreed, by His counsel secret to us, to deliver from
curse and destruction those whom He had chosen in Christ out of the human race, and to bring them, through
Christ, as vessels made to honour, to eternal salvation." [7]
28
John Nelson Darby
29
Later years
Darby traveled widely in Europe and Britain in the 1830s and 1840s, and established many Brethren assemblies. He
gave 11 significant lectures in Geneva in 1840 on the hope of the church (Lattente actuelle de l'glise.) [see
references] These established his reputation as a leading interpreter of biblical prophecy. The beliefs he disseminated
then are still being propagated (in various forms) at such places as Dallas Theological Seminary and Bob Jones
University and by authors and preachers such as Hal Lindsey and Tim LaHaye.
In 1848, Darby became involved in a complex dispute over the proper method for maintaining shared standards of
discipline in different assembles that resulted in a split between Open Brethren, which maintained a congregational
form of government and Exclusive Brethren. After that time, he was recognized as the dominant figure among the
Exclusives, who also came to be known as "Darbyite" Brethren. He made at least 5 missionary journeys to North
America between 1862 and 1877. He worked mostly in New England, Ontario, and the Great Lakes region, but took
one extended journey from Toronto to Sydney by way of San Francisco, Hawaii, and New Zealand. A Geographical
Index of his letters is currently available and lists where he traveled.[8] He used his classical skills to translate the
Bible from Hebrew and Greek texts. In English he wrote a Synopsis of the Bible and many other scholarly religious
articles. He wrote hymns and poems, the most famous being, "Man of Sorrows".[9] He was also a Bible
Commentator. He declined however to contribute to the compilation of the Revised Version of the King James
Bible.[10]
He died 1882 in Sundridge House, Bournemouth and is buried in Bournemouth, Dorset, England.[11]
Later influence
If one accepted Darby's view of the secret rapture... [Benjamin Wills] Newton pointed out, then many Gospel
passages must be "renounced as not properly ours."...this is precisely what Darby was prepared to do.
Too traditional to admit that biblical authors might have contradicted each other, and too rationalist to admit that the
prophetic maze defied penetration, Darby attempted a resolution of his exegetical dilemma by distinguishing between
Scripture intended for the Church and Scripture intended for Israel...
The task of the expositor of the Bible was, in a phrase that became the hallmark of dispensationalism, "rightly
dividing the word of truth".
From "The Roots of Fundamentalism:
British and American Millenarianism 1800-1930" (1970)
by Ernest R. Sandeen, University of Chicago Press
ISBN 0-22-73467-6, p.65-67
Darby is noted in the theological world as the father of "dispensationalism", later made popular in the United States
by Cyrus Scofield's Scofield Reference Bible. However, Darby held a view that would today be called
hyperdispensationalist; for rather than identifying Pentecost as the start of the church age, Darby writes[12] :
"Stephen formed the link between Jewish rejection and the position and state of the church which
followed...Stephen was the closing of the Jewish possibility of the dispensation.' But a new scene now
opensthe regular Gentile form and order of the dispensation in the hands of the apostle Paul, the apostle of
the uncircumcision, the apostle of the Gentiles. Did he then derive it from the apostles? or was he indeed a
successor to our Lord by earthly appointment and derivation? No; in no wise."[13]
Charles Henry Mackintosh, 18201896, with his popular style spread Darby's teachings to humbler elements in
society and may be regarded as the journalist of the Brethren Movement. Mackintosh popularised Darby, although
not his hyperdispensational approach,[14] more than any other Brethren author. In the early twentieth century, the
Brethren's teachings, through Margaret E. Barber, influenced the Little Flock of Watchman Nee and Witness Lee[15]
As there was no Christian teaching of a rapture before Darby began preaching about it in the 1830s, he is
sometimes credited with originating the "secret rapture" theory wherein Christ will suddenly remove His bride, the
John Nelson Darby

Church, from this world before the judgments of the tribulation. Some claim that this book was the origin of the idea
of the "rapture." Dispensationalist beliefs about the fate of the Jews and the re-establishment of the Kingdom of
Israel put dispensationalists at the forefront of Christian Zionism, because "God is able to graft them in again," and
they believe that in His grace he will do so according to their understanding of Old Testament prophecy. They
believe that, while the ways of God may change, His purposes to bless Israel will never be forgotten, just as He has
shown unmerited favour to the Church, He will do so to a remnant of Israel to fulfill all the promises made to the
genetic seed of Abraham.
Criticism
Charles Haddon Spurgeon, Pastor of the Metropolitan Tabernacle and contemporary of Darby published criticism of
Darby and Brethrenism.[16] His main criticism was that Darby and the Plymouth Brethren rejected the vicarious
purpose of Christ's obedience as well as imputed righteousness. He viewed these of such importance and so central
to the gospel that it led him to this statement about the rest of their belief. "With the deadly heresies entertained and
taught by the Plymouth Brethren, in relation to some of the most momentous of all the doctrines of the gospel, and to
which I have adverted at some length, I feel assured that my readers will not be surprised at any other views,
however unscriptual and pernicious they may be, which the Darbyites have embraced and zealously seek to
propagate"
Works
The Holy Bible a new translation by J.N. Darby, a parallel edition, Bible Truth Publishers: Addison, Illinois.
The Writings of J. N. Darby [17] courtesy of Stem Publishing [18]
The Holy Scriptures (A New Translation from the Original Languages by J. N. Darby) [19] courtesy of Stem
Publishing [18]
A Letter on Free Will by J.N. Darby, Elberfeld, 23 October 1861 [20]
The Collected Writings Of J. N. Darby, Ecclesiastical No. 1, Volume 1: The Character Of Office In The Present
Dispensation [21]
References
[1] J. N. Darby. "How the Lost Sheep was Saved" (http:/ / www. stempublishing. com/ authors/ darby/ New7_96/ KERRY. html). .
[2] The year in which Darby left the Church of Ireland, a branch of the Anglican Church, is not certain but a consensus of opinion is that it was
possibly around 1831. Searches for formal documentation of his resignation have been made in the Church of Ireland archives, but nothing has
been found.
[3] It is widely believed that Darby and Lady Powerscourt were romantically attached but friends persuaded him that any marriage may prove a distraction.
[4] Dictionary of Premillennial Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications. 1996. ISBN0825423511. page 82
[5] Marsden, George M (2006). Fundamentalism and American Culture (2nd ed ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp.351.
ISBN0195300475. page 46
[6] Goddard, "The Contribution of Darby," p. 86
[7] J. N. Darby, "The Doctrine of the Church of England at the Time of the Reformation," (http:/ / www. stempublishing. com/ authors/ darby/
DOCTRINE/ 03001E. html)
[8] "Thy Precepts (magazine), Jan/Feb 1996, Vol. 11, # 1" (http:/ / www. presenttruthpublishers. com/ pdf/ Precepts-1996. pdf). . "The
Correspondents of John Nelson Darby, with Geographical Index and Chart of Travels. For the three volumes of Letters of J. N. Darby, it
gives the page #, the language it was written in, recipient, place written, and date written; also contains a geographical index and a chart of his
travels."
[9] The Man of Sorrows (http:/ / www. plymouthbrethren. com/ jndms. htm)
[10] John Nelson Darby Biography (http:/ / www. museumstuff. com/ learn/ topics/ John_Nelson_Darby::sub::Biography)
[11] |url=http:/ / digital. library. unt. edu/ ark:/ 67531/ metadc3609/ m1/ 1/ high_res_d/ dissertation. pdf |title=John Nelson Darby: His
Contributions to Contemporary Theological Higher Education (Dissertation Prepared for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy), pp.20-21
|author=Winston Terrance Sutherland, B.S., Th.M |publisher=University of North Texas |date=May 2007 |quote=John Nelson Darby died in
Bournemouth, on April 29, 1882 of protracted illness (Pickering, 1986; Turner, 1986). In John Nelson Darby: A Memorial, is outlined the
funeral service of the revered theologian. Therein is documented that he was brought to Bournemouth some weeks before his death, to the
30
John Nelson Darby

house of Mr. Hammond, an exClergyman of the Church of England. A large following attended the burial, from eight to ten hundred
participating in prayers, singing hymns (some written by Darby), and reading, with comment, the Scriptures. There has been a large plain
stone to mark the resting place of the richly-gifted servant of the Lord displaying the caption: JOHN NELSON DARBY AS UNKNOWN
AND WELL KNOWN. DEPARTED TO BE WITH CHRIST, 29TH APRIL 1882. AGED 81 2 COR. V. 21. Lord let me wait for thee alone,
My life be only this, To serve Thee here on earth unknown, Then share Thy heavenly bliss. J. N. D }}
[13] J. N. Darby, "The Collected Writings Of J. N. Darby, Ecclesiastical No. 1, Volume 1: The Character Of Office In The Present
Dispensation," (http:/ / www. plymouthbrethren. org/ article/ 10884)
[14] Charles Henry Mackintosh. "The Assembly of God; or, The All-sufficiency of the Name of Jesus" (http:/ / www. stempublishing. com/
authors/ mackintosh/ Bk2/ ASSEMBLY. html). . "The termini of the church's earthly history are Pentecost (Acts 2), and the rapture. (1 Thess,
4: 16, 17)]"
[15] Elmer L. Towns (2000-01-01). "The Ten Greatest Revivals Ever: from Pentecost to the Present" (http:/ / digitalcommons. liberty. edu/ cgi/
viewcontent. cgi?article=1002& context=towns_books). Liberty University. . Retrieved 2011-03-13. "Years later, Nee To-sheng, better known
outside of China as Watchman Nee, was influenced by a single British missionary, Margaret E. Barber. In 1909, Barber had submitted to
believers baptism and left her Anglican mission to become an independent faith worker. She conducted breaking of bread meetings similar
to those of the Christian Brethren. Nee To-sheng organized the Little Flock, a Brethren-style indigenous Chinese denomination. The True
Jesus Church and Little Flock soon had more adherents than all other mission-sponsored churches combined."
[16] Charles Spurgeon. "Darby Brethrenism (Plymouth)" (http:/ / nicenecouncil. com/ media/ display. pl?media_file=45). .
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
http:/ / www. stempublishing. com/ authors/ darby/

http:/ / www. stempublishing. com/
http:/ / www. stempublishing. com/ bible-darby/
http:/ / www. inthebeloved. org/ letterfreewill. htm
http:/ / www. plymouthbrethren. org/ article/ 10884
The Watching Servant, Words of Truth: Belfast, Northern Ireland

John Nelson Darby as I knew him, William Kelly, Words of Truth: Belfast, Northern Ireland
External links
My Brethren (http://www.mybrethren.org/bios/framjnd.htm), a biography of J. N. Darby
The writings of John Nelson Darby (http://www.stempublishing.com/authors/darby/) courtesy of Stem
Publishing (http://www.stempublishing.com/)
Look Higher ! - Download the 1871 Darby New Testament in PDF format (http://lookhigher.org/download/
englishbibles/index.html?wik)
The Exclusive Brethren (http://www.theexclusivebrethren.com/), the only site endorsed by Taylor 'Exclusive
Brethren'
Darby & Other Resources (http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/byauthor/5/john_nelson_darby)
J.N. Darby's Early Years (http://www.pre-trib.org/article-view.php?id=104)
Correspondence between Darby and Rev. James Kelly of the Church of England 5 megabytes (http://ia311507.
us.archive.org/3/items/theclaimsofthech00kelluoft/theclaimsofthech00kelluoft.pdf)
Darbyism Its Rise,Progress & Development (http://www.bruederbewegung.de/pdf/grovesdarbyism.pdf)
Papers of John Nelson Darby (http://archives.li.man.ac.uk/ead/search/?operation=summary&rsid=203286&
firstrec=1&numreq=20&highlight=1&hitposition=0) Archive of Darby's personal papers at the John Rylands
University Library, Manchester, England
Continuing church truth taught by J. N. Darby and his contemporaries (http://www.biblecounsel.homestead.
com/)
Roy A. Huebner: Detailed historian regarding J. N. Darby, early Brethren, their theology, and dispensational truth
(http://www.presenttruthpublishers.com/)
31
Dispensationalist theology refers to the unified teachings of Dispensationalism that address what other views teach
as divergent theologies in the Old Testament and New Testament. Its name reflects a view that biblical history is best
understood as a series of dispensations, or separated time-periods, in the Bible.
Each dispensation is said to represent a different way in which God deals with man. Some writers also believe that it
also involves a different testing of Man. "These periods are marked off in Scripture by some change in God's method
of dealing with mankind, in respect to two questions: of sin, and of man's responsibility," explained C. I. Scofield.
"Each of the dispensations may be regarded as a new test of the natural man, and each ends in judgmentmarking
his utter failure in every dispensation."
The seven dispensational periods

Dispensationalism seeks to address what many see as opposing theologies between the Old Testament and New
Testament. Its name comes from the fact that it sees biblical history as best understood in light of a series of
dispensations in the Bible. Most dispensationalists cite seven dispensations although this is not a critical or
foundational factor to the theology:
the dispensation of innocence (Gen 1:13:7), prior to Adam's fall,

of conscience (Gen 3:88:22), Adam to Noah,
of government (Gen 9:111:32), Noah to Abraham,
of patriarchal rule (Gen 12:1Exod 19:25), Abraham to Moses,
of the Mosaic Law (Exod 20:1Acts 2:4), Moses to Christ,
of grace (Acts 2:4Rev 20:3except for Hyperdispensationalists and Ultradispensationalists), the current church
age, and
of a literal, earthly 1,000-year Millennial Kingdom that has yet to come but soon will (Rev 20:420:6).
John Nelson Darby did not consider the Garden of Eden to represent a dispensation, and listed only six.
Each one of these dispensations is said to represent a different way in which God deals with man, specifically a
different test for man. "These periods are marked off in Scripture by some change in God's method of dealing with
mankind, in respect to two questions: of sin, and of man's responsibility," explained C. I. Scofield. "Each of the
dispensations may be regarded as a new test of the natural man, and each ends in judgmentmarking his utter
failure in every dispensation."
Viewing the flow of biblical history as a series of "dispensations" may be seen in some works that predate Darby's
dispensationalism. Joachim of Fiore proposed that human history would be divided into the three ages of the Father,
Son, and Holy Spirit. The term "dispensation" is drawn from Calvinist theology, as in the Westminster Confession,
to describe the different forms of divine worship and law practiced in Judaism and Christianity. Some writers, such
as L'conomie Divine by Pierre Poiret (16461719), listed multiple dispensations. However, these earlier works did
not include the unique testing/failure motif described by Scofield or any hint of the four underlying tenets of classic
dispensationalism listed below.
The four dispensational periods

An alternative to the above seven-dispensations approach derives from the question: How and by whom is God
evangelizing lost men and women at any given time? A pattern can be traced through the Bible from Genesis to
Revelation. First, through various Gentile nations; second, through Abraham, Isaac, and Jacobthe progenitors of
the nation Israel; thirdly, through Jesus Christ; fourthly, through the Church, the Body of Christ. (Israel becomes the
focus of divine dealings again after the Rapture for 7 more years). This is followed by the Second Coming proper
and the instituting of the millennial kingdom.
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the dispensation or age of Gentile nations (Gen 1-11), from Adam to Abrahams Call;
of Israel (Gen 12 Acts 1), from Abrahams Call to Pentecost in Acts 2;
of the Church (Acts 2 Rev. 2), from Pentecost in Act 2 to the end of the Church age;
of the (missionary) tribulation of Israel (Rev. 6-19), A yet-future seven-year period;
of a literal, earthly 1,000-year millennial kingdom that has yet to come but soon will (Rev 20:420:6).
Basic Tenets of Dispensationalism

Progressive Revelation
One of the most important underlying theological concepts for dispensationalists is progressive revelation. While
some nondispensationalists start with progressive revelation in the New Testament and refer this revelation back into
the Old Testament, dispensationalists begin with progressive revelation in the Old Testament and read forward in a
historical sense. Therefore there is an emphasis on discontinuity as seen in Scripture. Biblical covenants are
intricately tied to the dispensations. When these Biblical covenants are compared and contrasted, the result is a
historical ordering of different dispensations. Also with regard to the different Biblical covenant promises,
dispensationalists place more emphasis on to whom these promises were written, the original recipients. This has led
to certain fundamental dispensational beliefs, such as a distinction between Israel and the church.
Historical-Grammatical Interpretation
Another important theological concept is the emphasis on what is referred to as the historical-grammatical method of
interpretation. This is often popularly referred to as the "literal" interpretation of Scripture. Just as it is with
progressive revelation, the historical-grammatical method is not a concept or practice that is exclusive to
dispensationalists. However, a dispensational distinctive is created when the historical-grammatical method of
interpretation is closely coupled with an emphasis on progressive revelation along with the historical development of
the covenants in Scripture.
Distinction Between Israel and the Church
All dispensationalists perceive a clear distinction between Israel and the church, particularly as different groups who
receive a different set of promises. Dispensationalists hold that God provided the nation of Israel with specific
promises which will be fulfilled at a future time in the Jews. The Church has received a different set of promises than
that of Israel. Most dispensationalists also recognize "membership" overlap between Israel and the Church. Jewish
Christians such as Paul, Peter and John are in this category. While most do not believe that Israel and the church are
mutually exclusive groups, there is a small minority of past and present dispensationalists who do. Those who do
hold that Israel and the church are mutually exclusive include some classical dispensationalists and virtually all
ultradispensationalists.
Other Proposed Distinctions: Law and Grace
Classical dispensationalism teaches that law and grace are mutually exclusive concepts. Statements made by Scofield
and other early classic dispensationalists teach a radical law-grace distinction.[1] [2] In other words, they teach that
law contains no grace, and that grace is not conditioned on keeping the law. This does not mean that grace was
missing from the dispensation of law, only that the law itself was diametrically opposed to grace, which operated by
other means (such as promises and blessings). Some modern dispensationalists disagree with making such a radical
distinction. In fact, Daniel Fuller, a non-dispensationalist, stated in his book Gospel and Law (p.51) that "Although
today's dispensationalism explains the relationship between law and grace in wording that is different from that of
covenant theology, there is no substantial difference in meaning."
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Types of dispensationalism
Traditional dispensationalism
The traditional view is the majority view for dispensationalists today. John Walvoord and Charles Ryrie are two
traditional dispensational authors. The Revised Scofield Bible of the 1960s also reflects a traditional dispensational
view, which is why traditional dispensationalists are sometimes called "Revised" dispensationalists.
Progressive dispensationalism
In the late 1980s a number of dispensational scholarsin particular Craig A. Blaising, Darrell L. Bock, and Robert
L. Saucy -- proposed a significant new position developed from within dispensationalism. The major difference
between traditional and progressive dispensationalism is in how each views the relationship of the present
dispensation to the past and future dispensations.
Traditional dispensationalists perceive the present age of grace to be a parenthesis or "intercalation" with relation to
past and future dispensations. In general that means God's plans as revealed in the past dispensations have been "put
on hold" until after the rapture. Progressive dispensationalists however hold that this present dispensation is a key
link between past dispensations and the future dispensations. In general that means God's plans have continued in
this present dispensation, marking it as a crucial link between past and future dispensations and not a parenthesis.
This idea of a key link or progression between dispensations has resulted in the label progressive dispensationalism.
Progressive dispensationalism holds much in common with traditional dispensationalism, including a distinction
between Israel and the Church, a future rapture, a 7 year tribulation, and the rule of Christ over the earth centered in
Jerusalem during the millennial kingdom.
Both progressive and traditional dispensationalists hold to a clear distinction between Israel and the Church. In short,
God has provided the nation of Israel with specific promises such as possession of the land, promises which will be
fulfilled in the future. Both Progressive and traditional dispensationalists do recognize some "membership" overlap
between the Israel and the Church: Jewish Christians such Paul, Peter, and John are both Jewish (of Israel) and
Christian (members of the church). This is in contrast to ultradispensationalists who see the Church and Israel as
mutually exclusive.
Both progressive and traditional dispensationalists hold to a distinctly "dispensational" end-time view with a
pretribulation rapture and a millennial kingdom with Jesus physically reigning from Jerusalem. This common view
with traditional dispensationalism is also what clearly distinguishes progressive dispensationalism from historical
premillennialism.
The reasons for progressives holding to a progression of dispensations as opposed to a parenthesis is related to: 1)
the relationship between the covenants, and 2) hermeneutics.
Relationship between the covenants
One of the most crucial covenants which highlight the differences between progressive and traditional
dispensationalists is the new covenant. In the past, dispensationalists have had a surprising variety of views with
regard to the new covenant. Some dispensationalists (Charles Ryrie, Walvoord in the 1950s) argued for two new
covenants: one new covenant for the church and another new covenant for Israel. Other dispensationalists (Darby
and John Master) argued for one new covenant applied only to Israel. And still other dispensationalists (Scofield and
John McGahey 1950s) have argued for one new covenant for 1) believing Israel today and an ongoing partial
fulfillment, and for 2) a future believing Israel when Jesus returns for a complete fulfillment.
Progressive dispensationalists, like Scofield and McGahey, argue for one new covenant with an ongoing partial
fulfillment and a future complete fulfillment for Israel. Progressives hold that the new covenant was inaugurated by
Christ at the last supper. Progressives hold that while there are aspects of the new covenant currently being fulfilled,
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there is yet to be a final and complete fulfillment of the new covenant in the future. This concept is sometimes
referred to as an already-but not yet fulfillment.
Hermeneutics
Both traditional and progressive dispensationalists share the same historical-grammatical hermeneutic. As with all
dispensationalists, progressive revelation is emphasized so that the dispensationalist interprets the Old Testament in
such a way as to retain the original meaning and audience. Thus progressives, like traditionalists, place great
emphasis on the original meaning and audience of the text.
The primary differences in hermeneutics between traditionalists and progressives are that 1) progressives are more
apt to see partial or ongoing fulfillment, and 2) progressives are more apt to utilize Complementary hermeneutics.
These differences between traditionalists and progressives show up in how one views the Old Testament texts and
promises in the New Testament and how they are handled by the New Testament writers.
For traditionalists who perceive the present dispensation as a parenthesis, the standard approach has been to view
Old Testament quotations in the New Testament as applications rather than fulfillment. If an Old Testament
quotation is said to have a fulfillment role in the New Testament, then that may imply that the present dispensation is
no longer a parenthesis, but has a relationship or connection with the prior dispensation.
In contrast, progressives, instead of approaching all Old Testament quotations in the New Testament as application,
attempt to take into account the context and grammatical-historical features of both OT and New Testament texts.
An Old Testament quote in the New Testament might turn out to be an application, but it also might be a partial
fulfillment or a complete fulfillment or even something else.
Complementary hermeneutics means that previous revelation (such as the Old Testament) has an added or expanded
meaning alongside the original meaning. For example in Jeremiah 31:31-34, the original recipients of the new
covenant were Jews - i.e., "the house of Israel and the house of Judah." Progressives hold that in Acts 2, believing
Jews first participated in the new covenant based on Jer 31:31-34. Gentiles were not named as original participants.
However, additional revelation came in Acts 9-10 concerning believing Gentiles where God (through Peter and
Cornelius) formally accepted believing Gentiles as co-heirs with the Jews. In other words God used additional NT
revelation to further expand the participants of the new covenant to include believing Gentiles. God did not replace
the original recipients or change the original meaning of the new covenant, he simply expanded it. This expansion
of meaning while keeping the original intact is called complementary hermeneutics.
Hyper-dispensationalism and Ultra-dispensationalism

The majority of dispensationalists are known as Acts 2 dispensationalists, or mainstream dispensationalism. They
believe the present church began on the day of Pentecost in Acts chapter 2. The majority also believe the New
Testament epistles of James through Jude were written directly to the present church. Likewise, most
dispensationalists also believe the doctrine contained in the Four Gospels also pertains to the present church.
However, there are two minority camps within dispensationalism commonly referred to as hyper-dispensationalists
and ultra-dispensationalists. One camp, known as the Mid-Acts view, believe the church began with the Apostle Paul
in Acts chapters 9-15. The second camp believe that the church began with the Apostle Paul in Acts 28:28 in Paul's
announcement "Be it known therefore unto you, that the salvation of God is sent unto the Gentiles, and that they will
hear it." [3] The latter camp differs over the relevance of Paul's ministry from the middle of Acts to the end of the
book, and consequently over Paul's epistles written prior to the so-called Prison Epistles.
Both camps believe that the Church of today is based on Paul's unique ministry.[4] This belief is referenced in
Scripture in what may be referred to as the "Pauline Distinctive"[5] and the "Gospel of the Grace of God",[6] and
marks an unmistakable shift away from the Mosaic law[7] and the beginning of a completely new Church,[8] called
the physical "Body of Christ"[9] consisting of both Jews and Gentiles "in one body."[10] It is this distinction, rather
than eschatology as such, that marks both camps.
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One notable implication of both hyper-dispensationalism and ultra-dispensationalism is the view that the doctrine
contained in the four Gospels (biographies of Jesus' earthly ministry) and many of the New Testament epistles
written by the Twelve Apostles was applicable to the Jews of Jesus' day, and which will come to fruition in the
coming millennial kingdom. These books are held as proclaiming the "Gospel of the Kingdom", and as such are not
applicable for the Christian, largely Gentile, church of today. The Pauline Epistles are held to be the primary
authority for the Church as they proclaim the Gospel of the Grace of God.
The prefixes "hyper" or "ultra" simply mean "farther than", and are not meant to be derogatory terms, although some
mainstream dispensationalists use them as such. These two groups are called "hyper-dispensationalists" and
"ultra-dispensationalists" because they tend to take dispensational concepts farther than their more traditional
brethren.
Classical dispensationalism
Early dispensational writers such as Darby and Chafer are referred to as classical dispensationalists. This view
differs from today's traditional or "revised" dispensationalists. The early Scofield Bible (but not the Revised Scofield
Bible) reflects a classical dispensational view. Classical dispensationalists are a small minority today, and Miles
Stanford is one writer who represents this point of view.
Biblical arguments in favor of dispensationalism

The Apostles determined at the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15) that it was not necessary for Gentiles to become
Jewish in order to become Christians. Thus, the church is not a sect of Judaism but a separate entity.
The term "Israel" is used 75 times in the New Testament. At least 73 of the 75 times, it refers to the physical
nation of Israel.
Similarly, it is argued that the terms "church" and "kingdom" are never used interchangeably in Scripture.
Paul claims that Israel will be grafted in again (Rom 11).
Biblical arguments in opposition to dispensationalism

The issues between dispensationalist theology and others involve issues in biblical interpretation, including taking
texts literally or figuratively, contextually or hermeneutically, issues involving predictive prophecy concerning
Israel, conditions upon prophesies, and interpreting texts in (eisegesis), or (exegesis).
For example, interpreting the Book of Revelation, the New Jerusalem's dimensions are accepted at face value,
including its height of 12,000 stadia (about 1,400 miles) as literal, and understanding the seven cities of Asia to
represent periods of church history figuratively.
Regarding conditions: Deuteronomy 28:5864 indicates that the promises of God were conditional. "If thou
wilt not observe to do all the words of this law that are written in this book [...] the Lord shall scatter thee
among all people, from the one end of the earth even unto the other; and there thou shalt serve other gods,
which neither thou nor thy fathers have known, even wood and stone." The conditional nature of predictive
prophecy is explained clearly in Jer 18:110, with immediate application to God's people in Judah and
Jerusalem (vv. 1117). It is also the subject of the entire book of Jonah. Both Jeremiah and Jonah indicate that
prophecies can be conditional even when the conditions are not explicitly stated. Other prophecies without
stated conditions are understood as conditional (e.g., 2 Sam 12:1423).
One example of differing opinions is contained in Titus 2:13, in which some separate the "glorious hope" from the
"blessed appearance" by the seven-year tribulation period.
Progressive Dispensationalists conceives of the church as a substitution for the Kingdom of God, and as the
fulfillment of God's eternal purpose and plan: the faithful remnant of the Jews (the faithful apostles and the
earliest Jewish disciples) accepted Jesus as Messiah, joined by a great multitude of Gentiles who have come to
faith through their ministry. Progressives see the church as the new Israel, and is the heir of God's promises to the
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unbelieving nation. This theme begins with the preaching of John the Baptizer (see Matt 3:910), continues
throughout the ministry of Jesus (see Matt 21:43), and is confirmed by the apostolic ministry (Acts 10:3543;
Rom 9:2233; 1 Pet 2:410; etc.).
Romans 11 speaks of the "olive tree" (Israel) as having branches broken off (unbelieving Jews) and branches
grafted in (believing Gentiles). The broken branches can be grafted back in, however, if the unbelieving Jews
were to come to faith in Jesus: "And they also, if they abide not still in unbelief, shall be grafted in: for God is
able to graft them in again" (Rom 11:23). As far as God is concerned, then, the entire treeroots, trunk, natural
branches (the faithful remnant), and grafted branches (believing Gentiles) is still Israel and subject to divine
blessing under the New Covenant. Classical Dispensational theology holds that Israel and the church are two
completely separate entities, and the church (wild olive branch) is held by the root - Israel, specifically Paul's
letters.
Passages such as Deut 6:4 ("Hear, O Israel, the LORD our God, the LORD is one." NIV) and Ps 103:1718 ("But
from everlasting to everlasting the LORD's love is with those who fear him, and his righteousness with their
children's childrenwith those who keep his covenant and remember to obey his precepts.") are seen as stating
that there is only one entity and one covenant. (Dispensational theology - "his" covenant does not necessarily
imply only "one" covenant. God made a covenant with "Abraham" and his "Seed" - meaning Christ. Abraham's
children through Jacab (Israel) are promised the land portions, esp Ezekiel's prophesies, and Christ's children are
promised eternal life, and inheritance reserved in heaven.)
Jeremiah 31 says that the New Covenant will be with the "house of Israel" and the "house of Judah."
(Dispensational theology take this as to mean the New Covenant described in Ezekiel for the Kingdom Age
(1,000 yr reign of Christ).) Progressive dispensational blend Israel with the Church.
Progressive Dispensationalists claim that passages in which "kingdom" and "church" are interchangeable. These
include the Parables of the Kingdom (Mark 4; Matt 13; Luke 8); Jesus' veiled prediction of His resurrection (Mark
14:25; Luke 22:16,18; Matt 26:29); verses about entering or seeing the kingdom (Classical Dispensational see
entering, seeing, inheritance as a "reward" for faithful service)(e.g., Mark 10:2325; Matt 19:2324; Luke
18:2425; John 3:3,5); the spiritual nature of the kingdom (Rom 14:17; 1 Cor 4:20); and Christians as citizens of
the kingdom (e.g., Col 1:13; Rev 1:6; 5:10). A key passage is Christ's announcement that He will found His
church and give to Peter the keys of the kingdom (Matt 16:1819), which is analogous to saying, "I will build my
house and give you the keys to my residence." (Dispensational theology sees Peter as an apostle to the
circumcised (Israel), not to the Gentiles.) Progressive Dispensational claim "Israel", "God's people," and "the
church" are interchangeable based on Rom 9:6-8 states that "not all those who are descended from Israel are
Israel," going on to indicate that genetic hereditary links to Abraham do not constitute membership in the true
Israel, although faith in Christ does. (Dispensational theology - this could also mean those who are children by
lineage are not children of faith, however some in Israel are children of faith.)
Galatians 3 indicates that there is no "Jew or Greek" in Christ, but only those with faith in Christ, etc. At the end
of Galatians, Paul says, "Neither circumcision nor uncircumcision means anything; what counts is a new creation.
Peace and mercy to all who follow this rule, even to the Israel of God." If there is no circumcision or
uncircumcision (of the flesh), what is this "Israel of God"? Progressive Dispensational claims it must be the saved
believers of the "New Covenant", who have experienced the circumcision of the heart mentioned in Rom 1:2829
and Col 2:1113. (Dispensational theology recognizes 3 classes now, Jews, Gentiles, and the New Creation, not
abolishing the people of Israel, and not counting unbelieving Gentiles into New Creations.)
According to Progressives, Dispensational theology portrays a God with changing covenants and requirements
that may not be part of a single plan for salvation. They claim it is contrary to the orthodox understanding that
God is immutable. (Dispensational theology simply sees God working differently in different ways at different
times. God can still be immutable and work in different ways to different people in different times.)
Saved believers of the new covenant are God's children irrespective of their race; this is a major theme in the New
Testament: "Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called sons of God" (the Beatitudes - Matthew 5:9 and
37
Luke 3:8); see also Eph 2:1122; 1 Pet 2:910.
Progressive claim Dispensationalists de-emphasize human efforts to achieve peace because of the belief that an
increase of war and famine is prophesied and inevitable. Some dispensationalists have taught that international
peace institutions such as the United Nations may be paving the way for the reign of the Antichrist.
(Dispensational theology simply recognize Christ's prophesies, and believe Jesus words of what will happen. Paul
says that the removal of believers must happen (Rapture) for the Son of Perdition to come, so the claim that
dispensationalists are lazy, and de-emphasize human effort is error.)
In Matt 24:36, 42, 44 we find "No one knows about the day and hour, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son,
but only the Father [...] because the Son of Man will come at an hour when you do not expect him," and Acts 1:7
states, "It is not for you to know the dates or times which the Father has set by his own authority." Progressives
claim Dispensational violate these statements by claiming to predict roughly (or sometimes exactly) when
prophesied events will occur. (Dispensational theology simply looks forward to the Coming of Christ, and His
Kingdom.)
Some that have claimed dispensational theology draw up purported timetables for the fulfillment of prophecy.
For example, dispensationalist Hal Lindsey wrote a book with the title The 1980s: Countdown to Armageddon.
None of the prophecies made by Lindsey were fulfilled. Edgar Whisenant's 88 Reasons Why the Rapture will
be in 1988 has likewise been set aside by the passing of the years.
Progressives claim the old distinction between Jew and Gentile is permanently erased in Christ: "Remember that
at the time you were separated from Christ, excluded from citizenship in Israel and foreigners to the covenants of
the promise, without hope and without God in the world. But now in Christ Jesus you who once were far away
have been brought near through the blood of Christ. For he himself is our peace, who has made the two one and
has destroyed the barrier, the dividing wall of hostility" (Eph 2:1214). (Dispensational theology say there is still
two groups of people, only the hostility between the two has been destroyed, not the specific people groups.
Gentile believers are "brought near" through Christ.)
The Apostle Paul describes one plan of salvation open to Gentile and Jew alike (Rom 1:1617; Gal 3:2629).
(Dispensational theology include two separate messages/gospels, one revealed by revelation to Paul - the Apostle
to the Gentiles, and one to Peter, the Apostle to the Jews. Paul's gospel is found in 1 Cor 15:1-4.)
Alternatives to dispensationalism
Prior to dispensationalism's 19-20th century inception and systemization, Covenant Theology was the prominent
Protestant view regarding redemptive history and is still the view of the Reformed churches. A relatively recent
view, which is seen as a third alternative, especially among Reformed Baptists, is called New Covenant Theology.
Latter Day Saint Beliefs

In the Latter Day Saint movement, a dispensation is a period of time in which God gave priesthood authority to men
on the Earth through prophetic callings. Between each dispensation is an apostasy where the priesthood is absent.[11]
The LDS Bible Dictionary says:
A dispensation of the gospel is a period of time in which the Lord has at least one authorized servant on the
earth who bears the holy priesthood and the keys, and who has a divine commission to dispense the gospel to
the inhabitants of the earth.[12]
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that there have been many dispensations, and use the Bible
and modern revelation to identify and clarify some of them.[12] They also make note of dispensations occurring
among the Lost Tribes of Israel as well as Book of Mormon peoples, namely the Nephites and the Jaradites.[12]
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Adamic Dispensation
According to Latter-day Saint scriptures an angel appeared to Adam and Eve soon after they were driven out of the
Garden of Eden, who taught them the gospel and gave him priesthood authority which he passed down to his
children. (see Moses 5:69, Moses 6:6465) Eventually they began from that time forth to be carnal, sensual, and
devilish (see Moses 5:1213) and the priesthood was lost thus ending the dispensation in apostasy.
Dispensation of Enoch
See (Moses 7:69; Doctrine and Covenants D&C 107:48, D&C 107:53.
After Enoch and the people of Zion were taken from the earth, the wicked people became very numerous.
Dispensation of Noah
See Moses 8:1920.
Dispensation of the meridian of time

This dispensation's authority was in Jesus Christ himself and then with the apostles after his death and resurrection.
Following their death, shortly after the record of the Bible, and before the Nicene creed, the Earth fell into the great
apostasy.
Dispensation of the fulness of times

The dispensation of the fulness of times is the last dispensation before the second coming of Jesus Christ. It was
begun with the restoration of the church in 1830 and continued with the restoration of all the priesthood keys of each
prior dispensation restored.
References
[1] C. I. Scofield. "Rightly Dividing the Word of Truth" (http:/ / www. biblebelievers. com/ scofield/ scofield_rightly06. html). p. 34, 36. .
[2] John Nelson Darby, The Law, and the Gospel of the Glory of Christ (http:/ / www. stempublishing. com/ authors/ darby/ MISCELLA/
34031_4E. html), pp. 431, 432.
[3] [Acts 28:28 ""Be it known therefore unto you, that the salvation of God is sent unto the Gentiles, and that they will hear it."]
[4] [Romans 11:13 "For I speak to you Gentiles, inasmuch as I am the apostle of the Gentiles, I magnify mine office."]
[5] [Romans 16:25 "Now to him that is of power to stablish you according to my gospel, and the preaching of Jesus Christ, according to the
revelation of the mystery, which was kept secret since the world began."]
[6] [Acts 20:24 "But none of these things move me, neither count I my life dear unto myself, so that I might finish my course with joy, and the
ministry, which I have received of the Lord Jesus, to testify the gospel of the grace of God."]
[7] [Romans 8:3 "For what the law could not do, in that it was weak through the flesh, God sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh,
and for sin, condemned sin in the flesh."]
[8] [Ephesians 1: 22-23 "And hath put all things under his feet, and gave him to be the head over all things to the church, Which is his body, the
fulness of him that filleth all in all"]
[9] [Ephesians 5:30 "For we are members of his body, of his flesh, and of his bones."]
[10] [Ephesians 2:16 "And that he might reconcile both unto God in one body by the cross, having slain the enmity thereby."]
[11] http:/ / library. lds. org/ nxt/ gateway. dll/ Curriculum/ mpandrs. htm/ duties%20and%20blessings%20a. htm/
history%20and%20organization%20of%20the%20priesthood. htm/
the%20priesthood%20from%20adam%20to%20the%20restoration%20lesson%202. htm
[12] Bible Dictionary: Dispensations (http:/ / scriptures. lds. org/ en/ bd/ d/ 45)
39
Dispensationalism
Dispensationalism
Dispensationalism is a nineteenth-century evangelical development based on a futurist biblical hermeneutic that
sees a series of chronologically successive "dispensations" or periods in history in which God relates to human
beings in different ways under different Biblical covenants. As a system, dispensationalism is rooted in the writings
of John Nelson Darby (18001882) and the Brethren Movement.[1] :10 The theology of dispensationalism consists of
a distinctive eschatological "end times" perspective, as all dispensationalists hold to premillennialism and most hold
to a pretribulation rapture. Dispensationalists believe that the nation of Israel (not necessarily the same as the state of
Israel) is distinct from the Christian Church,[2] :322 and that God has yet to fulfill His promises to national Israel.
These promises include the land promises, which in the future result in a millennial kingdom where Christ, upon His
return, will rule the world from Jerusalem[3] for a thousand years. In other areas of theology, dispensationalists hold
to a wide range of beliefs within the evangelical and fundamentalist spectrum.[1] :13
With the rise of dispensationalism, some conservative Protestants came to interpret the Book of Revelation as
predicting future events (futurism), rather than predicting events that have taken place throughout history
(historicism)[4] [5] [6] or predominantly associated to the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 (preterism).
Concepts
Progressive revelation
One of the most important underlying theological concepts for dispensationalistm is progressive revelation. While
some non-dispensationalists start with progressive revelation in the New Testament and refer this revelation back
into the Old Testament, dispensationalists begin with progressive revelation in the Old Testament and read forward
in a historical sense. Therefore there is an emphasis on a gradually developed unity as seen in the entirety of
Scripture. Biblical covenants are intricately tied to the dispensations. When these Biblical covenants are compared
and contrasted, the result is a historical ordering of different dispensations. Also with regard to the different Biblical
covenant promises, dispensationalism places emphasis on to whom these promises were written, the original
recipients. This has led to certain fundamental dispensational beliefs, such as a distinction between Israel and the
Church.
Historical-grammatical interpretation
Another important theological concept is the emphasis on what is referred to as the historical-grammatical method of
interpretation. This is often popularly referred to as the "literal" interpretation of Scripture. Just as Israel literally
experienced the curses spoken of in the Old Testament, dispensationalists believe that they will one day, literally,
receive the blessings spoken of in the Old Testament. Just as it is with progressive revelation, the
historical-grammatical method is not a concept or practice that is exclusive just to dispensationalists. However, a
dispensational distinctive is created when the historical-grammatical method of interpretation is closely coupled with
an emphasis on progressive revelation along with the historical development of the covenants in Scripture.
Distinction between Israel and the Church

All dispensationalists hold to a clear distinction between Israel and the Church. Israel is an ethnic nation[7] consisting
of Jews, beginning with Abraham and continuing in existence to the present. The church consists of all saved
individuals in this present dispensation - i.e., from the "birth of the Church" in Acts until the time of the Rapture.[8]
The distinction between Israel and the Church is not mutually exclusive, as there is a recognized overlap between the
two.[1] :295 The overlap consists of Jewish Christians (such as Peter and Paul) who are ethnically Jewish and also
have faith in Jesus Christ. Dispensationalists also believe that toward the end of the Tribulation, Israel as a nation
will turn and embrace Jesus as their Messiah right before His second coming during the Great Tribulation. The
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Dispensationalism
41
spectrum of teaching on Israel and the Church may be depicted as below:[9] :

Spectrum of Belief about Church - Israel Distinctions
Advocates
Dual
Covenant
Theology
Classical
Progressive
Dispensationalism Dispensationalism
New
Covenant
Theology
Covenant
Covenant Supersessionism
Premillenialism Theology
Classical dispensationalists refer to the present day Church as a "parenthesis" or temporary interlude in the progress
of Israel's prophesied history.[10] Progressive dispensationalism "softens" the Church/Israel distinction by seeing
some Old Testament promises as expanded by the New Testament to include the Church. However, progressives
never view this expansion as replacing promises to its original audience, Israel. [11]
New Covenant Theology is the middle-ground between dispensationalism and supersessionism. In Catholicism and
Covenantalism, the church is not a replacement for the nation of Israel but an expansion of it where Gentiles are
"grafted into" the existing covenant community.[12]
Dispensations
The label "dispensationalism" is derived from the idea that biblical history is best understood through division into a
series of chronologically successive dispensations. The number of dispensations held are typically three, four, seven
or eight. The three- and four-dispensation schemes are often referred to as minimalist, as they recognize the
commonly held major breaks within Biblical history. The seven- and eight-dispensation schemes are often closely
associated with the announcement or inauguration of certain Biblical covenants. Below is a table comparing the
various dispensational schemes:
Range of Bible Chapters
Schemes
7 or 8
Dispensational
Scheme
Genesis
1-3
Genesis 3-8
Genesis 9-11
Genesis 12
to Exodus
19
Exodus 20
until
Birth of the
Church
Church
Age
until
Rapture
Revelation
20:4-6
Revelation
20-22
Innocence
or Edenic
Conscience
or
Antediluvian
Civil
Government
Patriarchal
or Promise
Mosaic
or Law
Grace
or Church
Millennial
Kingdom
Eternal State
or Final
Mosaic
Ecclesial
Zionic
Grace
Kingdom
4 Dispensational
Scheme
3 Dispensational
Scheme
(minimalist)
Patriarchal
Law
Start of the Church Age

Mainstream dispensationalists such as Scofield [13] [14] and Ironside [15] identify Pentecost, in the second chapter of
Acts, with the start of the Church as distinct from Israel; this may be referred to as the 'Acts 2' position. So-called
hyperdispensationalists believe that the church started after Acts 2, focusing primarily on the ministry of Paul.
Advocates of the 'mid Acts' position, such as Darby [16] [17] identify the start of the church after the stoning of
Stephen in Acts 7, or with the salvation of Saul in Acts 9,[18] or with Paul's first missionary journey in Acts 13. The
'Acts 28' position, most notably expounded by E. W. Bullinger, begins the church after the 28th and concluding
chapter of Acts. Hyperdispensationalists are considered divisive[19] notably because they reject[20] the rite of water
baptism practiced by almost all Christian denominations.
Dispensationalism
Eschatology
Dispensationalists are premillenialists who affirm a future, literal 1,000 year reign of Jesus Christ which merges with
and continues on to the eternal state in the "new heavens and the new earth,"[21] and they hold that the millennial
kingdom will be theocratic in nature and not mainly soteriological, as it is viewed by George Ladd and others who
hold to a non-dispensational form of premillennialism. Dispensationalism is known for its views respecting the
nation of Israel during this millennial kingdom reign, in which Israel as a nation plays a major role and regains a
king, a land, and an everlasting kingdom.
The vast majority of dispensationalists hold to the pretribulation rapture, with small minorities holding to either a
mid-tribulation or post-tribulation rapture.[22]
42
Dispensationalism
History
The concept of arranging of divisions in Biblical
history dates back to Irenaeus in the second
century. Other Christian writers and leaders since
then, such as Augustine of Hippo and Joachim of
Fiore (11351202), have also offered their own
arrangements of history.[1] :116 Many Protestant
and Calvinist writers, including Herman Witsius,
Francis Turretin, and Isaac Watts also developed
theological schemes and divisions in history, in
particular after the Westminster Confession of
Faith noted "various dispensations." Other
concepts such as premillennialism and the rapture
also predated dispensationalism as a system.
Stemming from the Reformed tradition emerged
the Covenant Theology, which deals with biblical
history as different covenants between God and
mankind, but not dispensations.
As a system, dispensationalism is rooted in the
Plymouth Brethren movement in the 1830s of
Ireland and England, and in the teachings of John
Nelson Darby (18001882). Darby traveled
Comparison of Christian millennial interpretations
extensively to continental Europe, New Zealand,
Canada and the United States in an attempt to make converts to the Brethren movement. Over time, Darby's
eschatological views grew in popularity in the United States, especially among Baptists and Old School
Presbyterians.[2] :293
United States of America

John Nelson Darby is recognized as the father of dispensationalism,[1] :10,293 later made popular in the United States
by Cyrus Scofield's Scofield Reference Bible. Charles Henry Mackintosh, 18201896, with his popular style spread
Darby's teachings to humbler elements in society and may be regarded as the journalist of the Brethren Movement.
CHM popularised Darby more than any other Brethren author.
As there was no Christian teaching of a rapture before Darby began preaching about it in the 1830s, he is
sometimes credited with originating the "secret rapture" theory wherein Christ will suddenly remove His bride, the
Church, from this world before the judgments of the tribulation. Dispensationalist beliefs about the fate of the Jews
and the re-establishment of the Kingdom of Israel put dispensationalists at the forefront of Christian Zionism,
because "God is able to graft them in again," and they believe that in His grace he will do so according to their
understanding of Old Testament prophecy. They believe that, while the methodologies of God may change, His
purposes to bless Israel will never be forgotten, just as He has shown unmerited favour to the Church, He will do so
to a remnant of Israel to fulfill all the promises made to the genetic seed of Abraham.
Dispensationalism was first introduced to North America by James Inglis (18131872), through a monthly magazine
called Waymarks in the Wilderness (published intermittently between 1854 and 1872). In 1866, Inglis organized the
Believers' Meeting for Bible Study, which introduced dispensationalist ideas to a small but influential circle of
American evangelicals. After Inglis death, James H. Brookes (18301898), a pastor in St. Louis, organized the
43
Dispensationalism
Niagara Bible Conference to continue the dissemination of dispensationalist ideas. Dispensationalism was boosted
after Dwight L. Moody (18371899) learned of dispensational truth from an unidentified member of the Brethren
in 1872. Moody became close to Brookes and other dispensationalists, and encouraged the spread of
dispensationalism, but apparently never learned the nuances of the dispensationalist system.
Dispensationalism began to evolve during this time, most significantly when a significant body of dispensationalists
proposed the "pre-tribulation" Rapture. Dispensationalist leaders in Moody's circle include Reuben Archer Torrey
(18561928), James M. Gray (18511925), Cyrus I. Scofield (18431921), William J. Erdman (18331923), A. C.
Dixon (18541925), A. J. Gordon (18361895) and William Eugene Blackstone, author of the bestselling book of
the 1800s titled, "Jesus is Coming" (Endorsed by Torrey and Erdman). These men were activist evangelists who
promoted a host of Bible conferences and other missionary and evangelistic efforts. They also gave the
dispensationalist movement institutional permanence by assuming leadership of the new independent Bible institutes
such as the Moody Bible Institute (1886), the Bible Institute of Los Angelesnow Biola University (1908), and the
Philadelphia College of the Biblenow Philadelphia Biblical University (1913). The network of related institutes
that soon sprang up became the nucleus for the spread of American dispensationalism.
The efforts of C.I. Scofield and his associates introduced dispensationalism to a wider audience in America through
his Scofield Reference Bible. The publication of the Scofield Reference Bible in 1909 by the Oxford University
Press for the first time displayed overtly dispensationalist notes to the pages of the biblical text. The Scofield
Reference Bible became a popular Bible used by independent Evangelicals and Fundamentalists in the U.S.
Evangelist and Bible teacher Lewis Sperry Chafer (18711952), who was influenced by C.I. Scofield, founded
Dallas Theological Seminary in 1924, which has become the flagship of Dispensationalism in America. More
recently, the Baptist Bible Seminary in Clark Summit, Pennsylvania (USA), becme another dispensational school.
The Grace Movement, which began in the 1930s with the teaching ministries of J.C. OHair, Cornelius R. Stam,
Henry Hudson and Charles Baker has been labeled "ultra" or "hyper" dispensationalism. The term serves to
distinguish a theological system that departs from the tenets of dispensationalism.
The contrasts between law and grace, prophecy and mystery, Israel and the Church, the body of Christ were
promoted by Scofield, Barnhouse and Ironside, then studied and taught by O'Hair, Stam and other "grace" teachers.
It is however contended by dispensational teachers such as Charles C. Ryrie, J. Dwight Pentecost and Arnold
Fruchtenbaum that ultradispensationalism is removed enough from dispensationalism to not any longer be
dispensationalism at all.
Dispensationalism has become very popular with American evangelicalism, especially among nondenominational
Bible churches, Baptists, Pentecostal and Charismatic groups. Most mainline Protestants generally reject
dispensationalism.
Influence
44
Dispensationalism
Dispensationalism rejects the notion of

supersessionism, sees the Jewish people as
the true people of God, and sees the modern
State of Israel as identical to the Israel of the
Bible. John Nelson Darby taught, and most
subsequent
dispensationalists
have
consistently maintained, that God looks
upon the Jews as his chosen people even as
they remain in rejection of Jesus Christ, and
God continues to have a place for them in
Dispensationalist chart of the Jehovah's Witnesses
the dispensational, prophetic scheme of
things. Dispensationalists teach that a
remnant within the nation of Israel will be born again, called of God, and by grace brought to realize they crucified
their Messiah. Dispensationalism is unique in teaching that the Church is a provisional parenthesis, a "mystery"
period, meaning that it was not revealed in the Old Testament, directly, which period will end with the rapture of the
church and the Jewish remnant entering the Great Tribulation. Israel will finally recognize Jesus as their promised
Messiah during the trials that come upon them in this Tribulation. Darby's teachings envision Judaism as continuing
to enjoy God's protection literally to the End of Time, and teach that God has a separate 'program', to use J. Dwight
Pentecost's term, for each Israel and the Church. Dispensationalists teach that God has eternal covenants with Israel
which cannot be broken.
While stressing that God has not forsaken those physically descended from Abraham through Isaac,
dispensationalists do affirm the necessity for Jews to receive Jesus as Messiah. They hold that God made
unconditional covenants with Israel as a people and nation in the Abrahamic, Palestinian, Davidic and the New
Covenant. Dispensationalism has had a pronounced effect on Christians' attitude toward Israel; many thousands of
Christians are presently lovers of Israel, and Zionists, because they believe that God has not rejected Israel as His
people.
Judaism
Christian Dispensationalists sometimes embrace what some critics have pejoratively called Judeophiliaranging
from support of the state of Israel, to observing traditional Jewish holidays and practicing traditionally Jewish
religious rituals. (See also Christian Zionism, Jewish Christians, Judaizers, and Messianic Judaism (below)).
Dispensationalists typically support the modern state of Israel, recognize its existence as God revealing His Will for
the Last Days, and reject anti-Semitism.[23]
Messianic Judaism
Dispensationalists tend to have special interest in the Jews because the dispensationalist hermeneutic honors Biblical
passages that list Jews as amongst God's chosen people (the others would be the Gentiles in the church, and
proselytes to Judaism). Some Messianic Jews (Messianic Judaism), however, reject dispensationalism in favor of a
related but distinct hermeneutic, called Olive Tree Theology.[24] The name "Olive Tree Theology" refers to the
passages of Romans 11:17-18: "If some of the branches were broken off, and you, a wild olive, were grafted in
among them and have become equal sharers in the rich root of the olive tree, then don't boast as if you were better
than the branches!" Jews who accept dispensationalism are instead called Hebrew Christians. This view has some
resemblance to that held in Roman Catholicism, as described above.
45
Dispensationalism
Antichrist
Some dispensationalists, such as the late fundamentalist Jerry Falwell, have asserted that the Antichrist will be a Jew,
based on a belief that the Antichrist will falsely seem to some Jews to fulfill prophecies of the Messiah more
accurately than Jesus did.[25]
However, many dispensationalists do not accept this belief, and claim that a number of scriptures do not cite any
evidence, such as Daniel 9:27.
Such dispensationalists claim that this "prince" will be of the same people that destroyed the Jewish city in 70 AD,
i.e., of Roman origin and therefore will not be Jewish. However, other dispensationalists base the nationality of the
army that destroyed Jerusalem as compromising an Arab and Syrian ethnicity, and therefore the Antichrist, or the
"prince", shall not be of Roman origin, but middle eastern.[26] [27]
In turn, this "prince" will stand up "against the Prince of princes" and destroy many "by peace" (Dan 8:25); and will
be responsible for the false "peace and safety" that will precede the destructive day of the Lord (1 Thess 5:23).
Some believe this man will be a Jew, based in part on John 5:43, where the Lord stated that the unbelieving Jews
would receive another who "shall come in his own name" (as opposed to the Lord Himself, who came in the Father's
name). Further evidence is taken from Daniel 11:37, "Neither shall he regard the God of his fathers, nor the desire of
women, nor regard any god: for he shall magnify himself above all", although in a passage as late as Daniel, a better
translation is probably, "He will reject the gods (Eloha) of his fathers." The prophet Daniel refers to this man as "a
vile person", who will "obtain the kingdom by flatteries" (Dan 11:21). This belief is not essential to
dispensationalism.
Darby himself taught the Antichrist will be a Jew, and the Beast, a separate person, will be the political leader of the
revived Roman empire.[28]
World politics
Dispensationalism teaches that Christians should not rely on spiritual good from earthly governments (though they
are to pray for peace in the state or country which they are in, and believe that government is ordained by God (Rom
13:1-7)), or success in any endeavor to be prominent in the present world, or start a church kingdom, since the
Kingdom of God is seen as yet to come. Instead, people should expect social conditions to decline as the end times
draw nearer. Dispensationalist readings of prophecies (such as Daniel 9:27, And he [the Antichrist] will make a
covenant [a peace contract] with the many [the nation of Israel along with the nations that oppose it] . . . ) often
teach that the Antichrist will appear to the world as a peacemaker. Dispensationalists are usually not inclined to look
upon the actions of the United Nations with favor, because they view this entity as working toward ungodly goals,
such as contributing to the erection of the superstructure for the coming government of the Antichrist. Almost all
dispensationalists reject the idea that a lasting peace can be attained by human effort in the Middle East, and believe
instead that "wars and rumors of wars" (Matt. 24:6) will increase as the end times approach. Dispensationalist beliefs
often underlie the religious and political movement of Christian Zionism.
Dispensationalists teach that churches which do not insist on Biblical literalism set forth an inconsistent method of
interpretation with respect to the area of Bible prophecy, and view it as a step towards theological liberalism which
rejects Scripture being inerrant. They are averse to ecumenism and other attempts to create church organizations that
cross denominational boundaries such as the World Council of Churches.
46
Dispensationalism
United States politics

Political analyst Richard Allen Greene has argued that dispensationalism has had a major influence on the foreign
policy of the United States. This influence has included continued support for the state of Israel.[29]
Political commentator Kevin Phillips points out in his book American Theocracy (2006) how dispensationalists and
other fundamentalist Christians, together with the oil lobby, have provided political support for the invasion of Iraq
in 2003, without approval of the United Nations.
Fiction
Dispensationalist themes form the basis of the popular Left Behind series of books. However, not all
dispensationalists agree with the theology of authors Tim LaHaye and Jerry Jenkins.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Blaising, Craig A.; Darrell L. Bock (1993). Progressive Dispensationalism. Wheaton, IL: BridgePoint. ISBN156476138X.
Elwell, Walter A. (1984). Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. ISBN0801034132.
Ryrie, Charles Caldwell (1986). Basic Theology. Wheaton, Ill: Victor Books. ISBN089693814X. p. 508-509
Gerhard Hasel, 'Crossroads in Prophetic Interpretation: Historicism versus Futurism', paper presented to the 1990 World Ministers Council,
July 3, 1990, Indianapolis, Indiana
[5] Francis Nigel Lee, 'John's Revelation Unveiled', 2000

[6] David Pio Gullon, 'Two Hundred Years From Lacunza: The Impact Of His Eschatalogical Thought On Prophetic Studies And Modern
Futurism', The First International Jerusalem Bible Conference, June 1998
[7] Ryrie, Charles Caldwell (1965). Dispensationalism Today. Chicago: Moody Press. page 137
[8] Harry A. Ironside. "Not Wrath, but Rapture" (http:/ / www. gotothebible. com/ HTML/ notwrath. html). . "The prophetic clock stopped at
Calvary; it will not start again until "the fulness of the Gentiles be come in.'"
[9] Mike Stallard. "PROGRESSIVE DISPENSATIONALISM" (http:/ / faculty. bbc. edu/ mstallard/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2009/ 10/
PDChallenge. pdf). . "Ladd starts the eschatological kingdom in the Gospels. Progressives start the kingdom with the ascension of Christ. The
most significant difference, however, is that Ladd treats the Church as a kind of New Israel in his commentary on Revelation. Progressive
dispensationalism in no way advocates that the Church replaces Israel as in Ladd and in a more developed way in Covenant Theology
(including brands of covenant premillennialism)."
[10] Harry A. Ironside. "The Great Parenthesis" (http:/ / www. plymouthbrethren. org/ article/ 10425). . "It is the authors fervent conviction that
the failure to understand what is revealed in Scripture concerning the Great Parenthesis between Messiahs rejection, with the consequent
setting aside of Israel nationally, and the regathering of Gods earthly people and recognition by the Lord in the last days, is the fundamental
cause for many conflicting and unscriptural prophetic teachings. Once this parenthetical period is understood and the present work of God
during this age is apprehended, the whole prophetic program unfolds with amazing clearness."
[11] Mike Stallard. "PROGRESSIVE DISPENSATIONALISM" (http:/ / faculty. bbc. edu/ mstallard/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2009/ 10/
PDChallenge. pdf). . "some OT promises can be expanded by the NT. However, this expansion is never viewed as replacing or undoing the
implications of that OT promise to its original audience, Israel. For example, the Churchs participation in the New Covenant taught in the NT
can add the Church to the list of recipients of the New Covenant promises made in the OT. However, such participation does not rule out the
future fulfillment of the OT New Covenant promises to Israel at the beginning of the Millennium. Thus, the promise can have a coinciding or
overlapping fulfillment through NT expansions of the promise."
[12] Vern Poythress (1986). "Understanding Dispensationalists" (http:/ / www. frame-poythress. org/ Poythress_books/ bdisp/ bd4. html#12). pp.
section 12. . Retrieved 2011-03-01. "Now some Jews have been cut off from their place in the olive tree, so that Gentiles might be grafted in.
But Jews in their cutting off remain cultivated olive branches, and they can be grafted in again. This is quite consistent with the fact that there
is only one holy (cultivated) olive tree, hence one people of God, and one root."
[13] Charles Caldwell Ryrie (1995), Dispensationalism, "(p.53) ...the Scofield Reference Bible... is Watts's [dispensational] outline, not Darby's!"
[14] Isaac Watts (1812). The Harmony of all the Religions which God ever Prescribed to Men and all his Dispensations towards them (http:/ /
books. google. com/ ?id=xsUOAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA327& dq=isaac+ watts+ + Harmony+ of+ all+ the+ Religions#v=onepage&
q=pentecost& f=false). . "The kingdom of Christ, therefore, or the christian dispensation was not properly set up in all its forms, doctrines and
duties, till the following day of Pentecost, and the pouring down of the Spirit upon the Apostles"
[15] Harry A. Ironside. "Wrongly Dividing The Word of Truth. Chapter 3: The Transitional Period. Is the Church of The Acts the Body of
Christ?" (http:/ / www. plymouthbrethren. org/ article/ 181). . "Here we are distinctly informed as to the way in which the Body has been
brought into existence, and this is exactly what took place at Pentecost."
47
Dispensationalism
[17] John Nelson Darby. "The Collected Writings Of J. N. Darby, Ecclesiastical No. 1, Volume 1: The Character Of Office In The Present
Dispensation" (http:/ / www. plymouthbrethren. org/ article/ 10884). . "Stephen formed the link between Jewish rejection and the position and
state of the church which followed...Stephen was the closing of the Jewish possibility of the dispensation.' But a new scene now opensthe
regular Gentile form and order of the dispensation in the hands of the apostle Paul, the apostle of the uncircumcision, the apostle of the
Gentiles. Did he then derive it from the apostles? or was he indeed a successor to our Lord by earthly appointment and derivation? No; in no
wise."
[18] Robert C. Brock. "The Teachings of Christ" (http:/ / www. bereanbiblesociety. org/ articles/ 1017958318. html). . "The ministry of Christ
did not stop with His ascension in the first chapter of the book of Acts. Christians have failed to realize that when Saul is saved in Acts 9, a
NEW ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ is begun by God, and this NEW ministry ushers in this present age of grace. Saul's name is changed to
Paul, and he is designated as the Apostle of the Gentiles (Romans 11:13). He is given revelations from the risen Christ, and these are the
revelations embracing Christianity."
[19] Sarah Pulliam (2007-10-10). "Christianity Today magazine, "Dispensational Dustup: Student dismissed from leadership for 'potentially
divisive' beliefs."". "Northwestern College in St. Paul, Minnesota removed a senior [Josh Strelecki] as student ministries director because of
theological views that some at the college called "hyper-dispensational [and] potentially divisive"...Strelecki holds to three controversial
beliefs: that the book of James was written for Israel and not for the church; that the church started with Paul and not at Pentecost; and that
Israel was saved by faith and works, not by faith alone... Northwestern upholds a broadly evangelical doctrinal statement..."
[20] John Nelson Darby. "The Collected Writings of J. N. Darby, Ecclesiastical Writings " The Collected Writings Of J. N. Darby, Ecclesiastical
No. 4, Volume 20: A Reply To Defence Of The Doctrine Of Baptismal Regeneration" (http:/ / www. plymouthbrethren. org/ article/ 10884). .
"if Christianity were the new covenant, which it is not, the Holy Ghost is the seal of faith now as circumcision was then. Matthew 28 was
never carried out. The mission to the Gentiles was given up to Paul explicitly (Gal. 2) who was not sent to baptize..."
[21] Rev.21
[22] Walvoord, John F (1990). Blessed hope and the tribulation.. [S.l.]: Contemporary Evangelical. ISBN0310340411 9780310340416.
[23] http:/ / www. foigm. org/
[24] David H. Stern, Messianic Jewish Manifesto, The Complete Jewish Bible, and The Jewish New Testament Commentary .
[25] "Weeks ago, Falwell said he was at peace with death" (http:/ / www. pressofatlanticcity. com/ news/ story/ 7479490p-7374395c. html). .
[26] http:/ / www. joelstrumpet. com/ ?p=2440
[27] http:/ / www. lastdaysmystery. info/ from_where_the_antichrist_comes. htm
[28] "The Hopes of the Church of God, John Nelson Darby" (http:/ / rarebooks. dts. edu/ viewbook. aspx?bookid=1271). .
[29] Greene, Richard Allen (2006-07-19). "Evangelical Christians plead for Israel" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ americas/ 5193092. stm).
BBC News. . Retrieved 2007-03-20.
Further reading
Allis, Oswald T. Prophecy and the Church (Presbyterian & Reformed, 1945; reprint: Wipf & Stock, 2001). ISBN
1-57910-709-5
Bass, Clarence B. Backgrounds to Dispensationalism (Baker Books, 1960) ISBN 0-8010-0535-3
Boyer, Paul. When Time Shall Be No More: Prophecy Belief in Modern American Culture (Belknap, 1994) ISBN
0-674-95129-8
Clouse, Robert G., ed. The Millennium: Four Views (InterVarsity, 1977) ISBN 0-87784-794-0
Enns, Paul. The Moody Handbook of Theology (Moody, 1989) ISBN 0-8024-3428-2
Grenz, Stanley. The Millennial Maze (InterVarsity, 1992) ISBN 0-8308-1757-3
LaHaye, Tim, and Jerry B. Jenkins. Are We Living in the End Times? (Tyndale House, 1999) ISBN
0-8423-0098-8
Mangum, R. Todd, The Dispensational-Covenantal Rift (Wipf & Stock, 2007) ISBN 1556354827
McDonald, Marci The Armageddon Factor:The Rise of Christian Nationalism in Canada (Random House
Canada, 2010) ISBN 0307356469
Phillips, Kevin American Theocracy: The Peril and Politics of Radical Religion, Oil, and Borrowed Money in the
21st Century (Viking Adult, 2006) ISBN 067003486X
Poythress, Vern. Understanding Dispensationalists (http://www.frame-poythress.org/Poythress_books/bdisp/
bd0.html) (P & R Publishing 2nd ed., 1993) ISBN 978-0875523743
Ryrie, Charles C. Dispensationalism (Moody, 1995) ISBN 0-8024-2187-3
48
Dispensationalism
Ryrie, Charles C. Basic Theology (Moody, 1999) ISBN 0-8024-2734-0
Showers, Renald (1990). "There Really Is a Difference: A Comparison of Covenant and Dispensational
Theology." Friends of Israel Gospel Ministry. ISBN 0-915540-50-9
Walvoord, John. The Millennial Kingdom (Zondervan, 1983) ISBN 0-310-34091-8
Walvoord, John F. Prophecy In The New Millennium (Kregel Publications, 2001) ISBN 0-8254-3967-1
O'Hair, J. C. The Unsearchable Riches of Christ (http://www.bereanbiblesociety.org)
External links
The Dispensational Berean (http://dispensationalberean.com/new)
Dispensationalism articles (http://www.monergism.com/directory/link_category/Dispensationalism/)
49
50

Founder(s)
Location
New Knoxville, Ohio, U.S.
Origins
[1]
October 3, 1942
[2]
Vesper Chimes radio program
Key people
Rosalie F. Rivenbark, Chairman of the

Board
Jean-Yves De Lisle, Director
Robert McCulloch, Director
John Rupp, Director
Greg Shaffer, Director
Area served Worldwide

Focus
Biblical Research, Teaching, and Fellowship
Website
http:/ / www. theway. org
The Way International is a non denominational Christian ministry based in New Knoxville, Ohio, with home
fellowships located in the United States and in over 30 other countries.[3] It was founded by Victor Paul Wierwille in
1942 as a radio program, and became The Chimes Hour Youth Caravan in 1947,[4] and The Way, Inc., in 1955. The
ministry distributes works such as The Way Magazine through its publishing company, the American Christian Press,
and has developed classes and other programs in several languages. It formed The Way Corps in 1970, a leadership
training program, which continues today. The Way actively offers classes in biblical studies to its followers,
highlighting The Way of Abundance and Power class series.
The Way promotes itself as a Biblical research, teaching, and fellowship ministry, providing service and direction on
how to understand the bible so people can apply it and manifest the more abundant life.[5] http:/ / www. theway. org/
topic.php?page=about&lang=en
The Way has received criticism for some of its internal policies, including a practice known as "Mark and Avoid"
which instructs followers to avoid individuals whose practices cause division and offences to the doctrine (Romans
16:17), and for its belief and promotion of living debt-free. Due to these and other practices, the ministry came under
scrutiny as an alleged cult.
In 2000, the president of The Way, Craig Martindale, resigned following allegations of sexual misconduct.[6] Rosalie
F. Rivenbark now heads the organization along with 4 other members on the board of directors.
History
Radio ministry
On October 3, 1942, Victor Paul Wierwille began a live radio program dubbed "Vesper Chimes." Wierwille
assembled a group of youth to help him from local churches. The program was broadcast from WLOK in Lima,
Ohio, where the youth would sing and perform alongside Wierwille's sermons that included incidents and "principles
of the abundant life." Vesper Chimes began broadcasting directly from St. Jacob's in 1943 as a supplement to their
church. Soon afterwards, the program was renamed "The Chimes Hour Youth Caravan." Wierwille's published his
first book, Victory Through Christ in 1945, compiling his radio sermons addressed to young people. In 1947, The
Chimes Hour Youth Caravan incorporated and Wierwille was named President alongside a board of directors. That

year, The Way: The Chimes Hour Young People's Publication began publishing writings by young people associated
with the radio program each month. Starting in 1948, Wierwille began broadcasting every morning in addition to the
regular program. Nearly ten years following the first broadcast, "The Van Wert Gospel Gift Shop and Multigraph
Printing and Publishing Co." opened for business and released the first issue of The Way Magazine.[7] The Chimes
Hour Youth Caravan continued to have radio and public performances until April 1953, at which time the Nielson
ratings showed that 70,000 homes were tuned in on Sundays, broadcasting over radio station WLW, Cincinnati.[8]
Wierwille continued to broadcast his meditations over WIMA (formerly WLOK), Lima, WONW, Defiance, and
WRFD, Worthington until 1955.[9]
Power For Abundant Living

In October 1953, Wierwille began teaching his first class, called "Receiving the Holy Spirit Today", which he based
on a series he attended earlier that year in Calgary, Alberta. He received some criticism for drawing heavily on B. G.
Leonard's "Gifts of the Spirit" class, and soon changed the name to "Power for Abundant Living". The class was
initially taught live, with Wierwille traveling to each location personally. In 1967, the Foundational and Intermediate
classes were filmed, and classes began to be run without Wierwille's presence. Weirwille continued teaching an
advanced class in New Knoxville until filmed versions were put together in the late 1970s.
Beginnings of The Way

Wierwille incorporated under the name "The Way" in 1955, and resigned employment in the Evangelical and
Reformed Church in 1957. He initially held meetings in his own home, and later constructed the Ecumenical Biblical
Research Center on his family's farm in 1961, establishing it as his ministry's headquarters. Wierwille continued to
teach Power for Abundant Living, and held additional seminars each summer for specialized classes. Wierwille
recruited a board of directors from his former graduates, but disbanded it in the late 1950s. Wierwille explained his
decision to disband the board in a later book, saying that the board was not supporting him in his decisions and it was
not their purpose to argue with him, but to support his decisions. From then on, The Way was run by a board of
Trustees headed by Wierwille as President, Ermal Owens as Vice President, and Wierwille's brother Harry Ernst
Wierwille as secretary-treasurer.
Membership growth
The Way's membership grew in the late 1960s and early 1970s. In January 1968, Wierwille's visited San Francisco to
meet with another ministry to promote his classes. Some of the groups he met with later incorporated, becoming The
Way East (based in Rye, New York) and The Way West (based in San Francisco, CA). Wierwille also recruited a
number of new members on his trip, marking a period of large growth for his ministry.[10]
In 1970, Wierwille began an outreach program entitled "Word Over the World" to draw renewed interest in his
ministry. WOW ambassadors volunteered for one year to preach and recruit new students. These ambassadors were
required to find part-time work and spend time witnessing for a set number of hours each week. Ambassadors were
organized into "families" of four, and were typically sent out in "branches" of two to seven families. In some years,
cities designated as "Outreach Cities" were sent hundreds of ambassadors at a time. Growth continued into the late
1980s, particularly in the United States, Europe, South America and Africa. WOW festivals modeled after the Rock
of Ages, and were held in Great Britain, several South American countries and in Zaire. The program was
discontinued in 1995 and replaced a year later by a six-month "Way Disciples Outreach Program."
51
"Passing the mantle"

In 1982 Wierwille installed L. Craig Martindale as President and accepted the title President Emeritus. Martindale
had joined The Way in 1971 while a student at the University of Kansas. He served as head of the Way Corps
Director from 1977 to 2000 (retaining that position while President). An elaborate ceremony accompanied
Martindale's installation as President, including a passing of a literal mantle representing Wierwille's authority
passing to Martindale.
After Wierwille died on May 20, 1985 of hepatocellular carcinoma and melanoma, a period of disagreement
developed between Martindale and some of the organization's other leaders and followers, lasting until the early
1990s, along with a general decline in numbers. (See section below on "Splinter Groups")
In 2000, Martindale's term as president was ended following allegations of sexual misconduct[6] and Rev. Rosalie F.
Rivenbark replaced him. The Board is now called the Board of Directors, consisting of five directors, with
Rivenbark as Chairman of the Board.
Structure
Organization
The Way International headquarters is
located in New Knoxville, Ohio, and
presently they also own and operate
Camp GunnisonThe Way Household
Ranch in Gunnison, Colorado.[12] The
Way is organized into branches located
in the United States and in over 30
other countries,[3] generally consisting
of several household fellowships. The
Way focuses on these fellowships as a
basic organizational unit. Meetings are
run in each home by fellowship
coordinators who have completed The
Way of Abundance and Power class
series. The Way International claims
Main entrance to the Prevailing Word Auditorium, a 1,400-seat Teaching Center which
[11]
no official membership other than the
holds Sunday teaching services, conferences and performances.
Board of Directors; individuals who
participate in fellowships are referred to as "followers of the way," or "believers."
Classes
The Way offers three sequential classes covering the beliefs of the organization. The Foundational and Intermediate
classes are required prior to taking any other classes. To qualify for the Advanced class, which is held specially in
Ohio each summer, a student must first complete the Foundational and Intermediate classes twice, in addition to
"Defeating the Adversary".
The Foundational Class on The Way of Abundance and Power
The Intermediate Class on The Way of Abundance and Power
The Advanced Class on The Way of Abundance and Power
Defeating the Adversary
Living God's Word as a Family
52

Practical Keys to Biblical Research
Witnessing and Undersheperding
The Renewed Mind: The Key to Power
For many years, The Way offered a three-part "Power for Abundant Living" class, taught live by Wierwille
beginning in 1953. This class was offered in video and audio tape form from 1968 until it was replaced in 1995 by
Martindale's class "The Way of Abundance and Power," which was restructured and refilmed in 2006.[13]
Leadership
As founder of The Way, Victor Paul Wierwille served as the organization's principal leader from 1942 to 1982. In
1947, The Chimes Hour Youth Caravan incorporated as a nonprofit religious organization with Wierwille serving as
president aside a Board of Directors. The name of the corporation officially changed from The Chimes Hour Youth
Caravan to The Way in 1955. The Board of Directors was discontinued in the 1970s, and in 1982, during The Way's
fortieth anniversary celebration, Wierwille installed L. Craig Martindale as his succeeding president. Until his death
in 1985, Wierwille held the title President Emeritus. Martindale served as The Way's President between 1982 and
2000, and was replaced by the former Vice President, Rosalie F. Rivenbark, following allegations of sexual
misconduct.
Board of Trustees
From 1956 to 2001, The Way operated with a Board of Trustees, namely the offices of president, vice president, and
secretary-treasurer. The original Board of Trustees was, Victor Wierwille, president, Ermal Owens, vice president,
and Harry Wierville (Wierville's brother), secretary-treasurer. In 1977, the vice president and secretary-treasurer
positions were filled by Wierwille's son, Donald Wierwille, and Howard Allen respectively. Victor Wierwille
continued to hold his position until Martindale became President in 1982. In 1996, Rivenbark was appointed vice
president and in 2000 she succeeded Martindale as president. Other served as Trustees for shorter terms.
Board of Directors and Officers

In 2001, to conform with Ohio state law, the Board of Trustees became known as the Board of Directors. Since that
time, others have served on the Board of Directors fulfilling shorter terms than the original Trustees. Currently, The
Way also functions with Senior Officers and Junior Officers.
Programs
The Way Corps
In 1970 Wierwille formalized his selection and training of ministry leaders by starting "The Way Corps". The
inspiration for the term "Way Corps" came from his admiration for the United States Marine Corps. The Way Corp's
motto is "It Is Written," and the The Way's website currently describes the program as "Leadership training for
Advanced Class graduates who have a hearts desire and passion to function as ministers of the Lord Jesus Christ."
[14]
Prior to the First Corps, which began training in 1970, Wierwille invited a group of Way followers to New Knoxville
for training and teaching. He disbanded the group for reasons which were never made public, other than a statement
in The Way: Living in Love that they "couldn't get it together among themselves," and that Wierwille "gave them the
privilege to leave" [15] In later years, this group was referred to as "The Zero Corps." (Groups who trained and
graduated from the program together were at one time referred to "First Corps," "Second Corps," etc., referring to the
order in which they graduated.)
53

Originally, the Way Corps was a 2-year program, with both years of training in-residence, participants living and
working at Way International Headquarters in New Knoxville, Ohio. After a few years, a third year of training,
called an "interim" year, was inserted between the 2 years, in which The Way Corps student was given a one year
assignment before completing training (the Family Corps, a Way Corps program for families that included children,
usually had this year tacked onto the end and was called a "practicum" year). Eventually, a fourth year of training,
called an apprentice year, was added before the on-campus training during which a prospect was expected to meet
certain requirements, including raising tuition and sponsorship.
As currently constituted, The Way Corps training consists of a preparatory year called the "Candidacy Year,"
followed by an "Apprentice Year," when the prospect leads a group of Way Disciples, and then two years of
in-residency training at The Way International's headquarters in New Knoxville, Ohio, and at Camp GunnisonThe
Way Household Ranch in Gunnison, Colorado.
Requirements
After completing the Advanced class, a follower may apply for enrollment. Before one can enter the program,
however, the local leadership approves the applicant's entrance. Sponsorship requirements, as well as class
prerequisites, change from time to time.
Graduation
Upon completion of the four-year curriculum, graduates receive an non-accredited degree in theology. The
graduating Way Corps can be sent out to different states or countries to coordinate Branches or fulfill other assigned
responsibilities, or remain at Headquarters or Gunnison as staff. Way Corps duties include providing spiritual
leadership at all levels and carrying out decisions made by the Board of Directors. Way Corps promotional materials
mention "A Lifetime of Christian Service."
Ordination and clergy
The Way has ordained Way Corps graduates over the years, and both men and women serve as clergy. Neither
graduation from the Way Corps nor accepting a high leadership position guarantee ordination. At times state or
region coordinators, and even members of the Board of Trustees have been laymen, while clergymen and women
have served as fellowship coordinators, or without official responsibility whatsoever.
Dismissal from Way Corps
A member may be dropped from being Way Corps at any time without prior notice, although in recent years this
practice has become uncommon. A policy titled Mark and Avoid was a major contributor to Way Corps discharge.
The College Division

The College Division program housed students in Emporia, KS, alongside Way Corps, for one year and two year
programs. First-year classes included Beginning Greek, Harmony of the Gospels, and Old Testament History, while
second-year classes included Aramaic, Hebrew, Advanced Greek, and Biblical research project. Classes were held
during the day in addition to required fellowships. The College Division was sometimes invited to collaborate with
the Way Corps in events such as the LEAD camping program or lessons in public speaking. The College Division
had fewer participants than Way Corps or WOWs (varying in number from a handful to several dozen), but the
College Division was considered more prestigious than other groups.
54
Rock of Ages
A yearly gathering of Way followers in New Knoxville, Ohio, known as "The Rock of Ages Festival," was a popular
Way event from 1970 until 1995, when it was discontinued. One of the purposes of the festival was to welcome
home returning WOW Ambassadors and to send out a new group on their yearly assignment. Some regional groups
(states are known as "Limbs") now hold annual meetings instead. According to Way Corps conferences, one reason
for the termination of the festival was the suspected teenage sexual relations on campus grounds.[16] The Rock of
Ages typically had between 5,000 and 20,000 in attendance, with an international representation of Way followers.
Whitby Mansion
At one time, The Way maintained a historical archive at Sidney, located in the building now known as the "Whitby
Mansion." As well as historic documents, the mansion also housed a collection of artworks.[17]
Publications
The Way published a three-volume interlinear version of the Syriac New Testament Bible in 1988, after a 15-year
effort by The Way International Biblical Research Team.[18] The Way Biblical Research team cataloged 600
Aramaic manuscripts to compile their New Testament text and lexical aids.[19] This was the first printed edition of
the Estrangelo script Aramaic New Testament.
Victor Paul Wierwille became associated in 1957 with Aramaic Bible scholar George M. Lamsa,[20] and Lamsa
finished his translating the Lamsa Bible in Wierwille's home.[21] Lamsa and Wierwille produced the first American
Aramaic New Testament in 1960.[21]
Aramaic Publications:
Aramaic-English Interlinear New Testament 1988
Volume 1 Matthew John
Volume 2 Acts Philemon
Volume 3 Hebrews Revelation
The Concordance to the Peshitta Version of the Aramaic New Testament 1985
The English Dictionary Supplement to the Concordance to the Peshitta Version of the Aramaic New Testament
1985
The Aramaic New Testament Estangelo Script 1983
Beliefs and doctrines

Students are encouraged to follow a list of biblical research principles, instructing that the Bible should be taken
literally wherever possible, and where this is not possible, it should be assumed that the language is figurative. The
Way encourages its followers to study their publications before beginning any personal research on a subject. In his
book Order My Steps in Thy Word, Wierwille asserts that God designed the universe to support the Earth and the
Earth to support his children who could love God in return.
The Way rejects the Trinity, and teaches that, unlike God, Jesus is not omniscient, omnipotent, or omnipresent.
According to their ministry, Jesus did not exist before his birth except in the foreknowledge of God. The Way
teaches that at his birth, God created the sperm to fertilize Mary's ovum, and is the literal father of Jesus. Wierwille
writes in his book, "Receiving the Holy Spirit Today", that the Holy Spirit is a reference to God, rather than a
separate entity or person. He contrasts this term with the "holy spirit" (lower case), which he believes is a reference
to a divine gift from God.[22] Wierwille claims that English translators of the Bible missed this distinction, and that
Greek manuscripts were written in uncial script, which further confused the subject. The Way teaches that there are
nine manifestations of the holy spirit and every born again Christian can inherently operate all nine. The list is
55

derived from I Corinthians 12:710 (King James Version). Speaking in tongues, he claims, energizes the "effectual
operation" of the other eight manifestations. According to Wierwille, speaking in tongues has numerous benefits for
a believer.
The Way claims that there were four people crucified with Jesus, rejecting the standard interpretation which holds
that there were two. Wierwille writes that different Greek words were used for those crucified with Jesus in the
different Gospel accounts, as well as discrepancies in timing, statements, and actions of the characters in the
narrative. Two malefactors (kakourgoi) were initially led and crucified with Jesus in Luke23:32, then two robbers
(lestai) were later crucified after his accusation was fastened in Matthew27:38. Accordingly, two others were
crucified on both sides of Jesus for a total of four. Additionally, they hold that the cross upon which Jesus was
crucified was not the traditional t-shaped cross, but rather a stake or the trunk of a tree.[23] [24] The Way maintains
that Jesus did not carry his cross for any distance. Rather, after leaving the judgment hall, the soldiers immediately
compelled Simon of Cyrene to bear the cross all the way to Calvary per the three Gospel accounts in Matthew27:32,
Mark15:21 and Luke23:26. The one account in John19:17 which states "And he bearing his cross...", Wierwille
believes refers to Jesus's spiritual bearing of sin.[25] Wierwille also preaches that the "thorn in the flesh" in 2
Corinthians 12:7 is individuals sent by Satan to disrupt the apostle Paul's ministry, not an illness as it is commonly
interpreted.
The Way teaches that the dead do not immediately go to heaven or hell, rather death is a continuing state which will
end at the tribulation.[26] [27] Wierwille also writes that the unsaved simply "die a second and final death." Way
followers reject baptism, holding that it wasn't intended as a continuing practice after Pentecost, and that it applied
only to Israel.[28] Wierwille further teaches that once a person is born again, they receive holy spirit and cannot lose
it through any sinful acts.[29]
The Way teaches that tithing 10% of one's net income to the church is a minimum requirement. Additional giving is
called "abundant sharing", and "plurality giving" refers to giving away all money which isn't essential to live.
Wierwille included his booklet on abundant sharing, Christians Should Be Prosperous, in his Foundational Class
materials. Martindale frequently promoted increasing one's proportion of giving in Sunday teachings.
In his class Christian Family and Sex, Wierwille teaches that the original sin was masturbation. He compares the tree
of life to verses where people were figuratively referred to as trees, and the fruit of the tree of knowledge with the
human genitalia. In the Foundational Class on The Way of Abundance and Power, Martindale expands on this
doctrine, concluding that virtually every word in Genesis3:6 has a sexual connotation. Influenced by his belief that
homosexuality was the lowest degradation of sexuality, he teaches that the original sin of mankind was Eve having
lesbian sex with the Devil, who had "come into concretion" in the form of a beautiful woman.
Controversial practices
Mark and avoid
"Mark and Avoid" is a term for a form of shunning involving the separation of certain people from the main body of
followers in the Way. The term is derived from the Biblical passage Romans 16:17 (King James Version)
(17) Now I beseech you, brethren, mark them which cause divisions and offenses contrary to the doctrine
which ye have learned; and avoid them.
This practice is reportedly used when, according to the judgment of the Board of Directors of The Way International,
a person has met the criteria which would warrant separation from the other followers of The Way. In recent years,
usage of the Mark and Avoid system has declined. "Spiritual Probation" was an intermediate step introduced by
Martindale in which a follower was prohibited from contact with active followers for a set period of time, usually six
months. When certain criteria were met, the follower was allowed back into full participation in Way activities.
Generally, a letter to a high level coordinator was required, outlining the steps to be taken by the follower to ensure
the "error" was corrected and they were back "in fellowship". Abundant sharing was also required during this period.
56
Debt
In the mid-nineties The Way began to teach extensively on debt, taking a position that God's Will was for a believer
to have no debt, including car loans and mortgages citing Proverbs22:7: "The borrower is servant to the lender" and
Romans13:8: "Owe no man any thing". Eventually it became a requirement for all active Way Corps to be debt-free.
A prerequisite for enrollment in the Advanced Class on the Way of Abundance and Power and various "Advanced
Class Specials" was that the student be debt-free. Participants in fellowships were encouraged to get or stay out of
debt, sometimes selling homes to meet this standard.
Splinter groups
By the early 1990s, following the 1982 retirement of Wierwille and his death in 1985, a number of splinter groups
had formed from the main body of The Way.
Christian Family Fellowships

The American Fellowship Services
Christian Biblical Counsel (renamed Living Hope in 2005)
Great Lakes Fellowship
Pacific West Fellowship
Spirit & Truth Fellowship International (also Christian Educational Services, 2005)
The Foundation of Life (2008)
Living Truth Fellowship (2009)
The formation of splinter groups took place in the wake of actions by L. Craig Martindale after his appointment to
replace Wierwille, including the implementation of new rules and beliefs, and the dissension among its leadership
when Rev. Chris Geer initially read the authored 40,000 word document titled "The Passing of the Patriarch" [30] to
the Trustee leadership and Way headquarters staff. In it, Geer claimed that Wierwille, during his final weeks,
revealed observations, concerns and recommendations regarding the unbiblical direction of the Way and the lack of
Biblical leadership by Martindale. The document was later read to the Way Corps who disseminated the information
throughout The Way.
The splinter groups' presence as organizations became significant in 1989, when L. Craig Martindale fired all Way
staff-including local "branch", "territory", "limb" and "region" leaders who did not sign an "oath of allegiance"
document to him. Martindale demanded that Way leaders declare openly whether they were supporting him or Geer
as titular leader of The Way. Many leaders, as well as followers, saw this demand as unbiblical and withdrew
voluntarily from association from The Way. Others, including those who did not choose sides, were dismissed.
Shortly afterwards, Martindale sent a letter to all members announcing the firings. In the aftermath, according to
figures cited by Martindale at The 1994 Word in Business and Profession Conference in Dallas, Texas,
approximately 80% of the membership at the time had left The Way either by their own decision or by being
dismissed. Large numbers of ex-Way followers formed the foundation of the splinter groups.
In recent years, since Martindale stepped down from president and left The Way, administrative authority and
decision making has been spread across a larger base of leaders, checks and balances.
Criticism and cult allegations

Some groups have considered The Way's beliefs, viewed as heretical by a number of denominations, to be evidence
of cult status.[31] [32] There have also been some accusations during The Way's history of sexual abuse,[33] excessive
control over members' lives, and brainwashing [34] The anti-cult movement (ACM) attempts to raise public
consciousness of what they feel are the dangers of cult membership. They view a cult as a religious or other group
that uses deceptive recruitment techniques to lure new members into the organization, and then subjects them to
sophisticated mind-control techniques to reduce their ability to think and act individually (brainwashing).
57

Given The Way's high-intensity nature, in the 1970s, there were some instances of family members, who weren't a
part of The Way, hiring deprogrammers to illegally abduct their loved one because they believed exposure to these
doctrines or the followers was harmful. According to the Counter Cult Movement's (CCM) definition of a cult, the
Way International would qualify. Note that this organization identifies a cult as being "basically Christian, but one
which also holds some heretical beliefs." They define Heresy as "any deviation from the tenets of the historical
Protestant Christian faith." According to CCM's diagnosis, Mormons, Roman Catholics, the Unification Church,
United Churches, and hundreds of other new religious groups would also fall within the CCM's definition of being a
"cult".
According to Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance (OCRT) "It appears that The Way operates like most
high-intensity religious groups: their followers enter the organization because they perceive it to offer positive value
to their life. If and when it becomes negative, they drift away."
Plagiarism charges
Side-by-side comparisons of some of Wierwille's earlier books (Power For Abundant Living, Receiving the Holy
Spirit Today and the Studies in Abundant Living Series) with previously-published works by other authors, including
J.E. Stiles and E.W. Bullinger, show instances of verbatim copying, indicating plagiarism.[35] J.E. Stiles and B.G.
Leonard, other authors whom Wierwille was said to have borrowed from, are mentioned by Wierwille at various
times, but not credited as sources in any of Wierwille's publications.
External links
The Way International [36] Official website
Greasespot Cafe [37] Website maintained by ex-followers. Copies of primary source documents available.
The Family Tables [38] Website maintained by a current follower.
The Cult That Snapped - A Journey Into The Way International [39] - Contains excerpts and photos from the book
"The Cult That Snapped" by Karl Kahler.
Eternally Blessed [40] Supportive profile of founder Victor Paul Wierwille.
About The Way International [41]- Documents, history, critique and criticisms cataloged by Dr. John Juedes on
behalf of Messiah Lutheran Church.
That You May Know [42] Audio CDs of founder Victor Paul Wierwille.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
"Encyclopedia of American Religions" (Seventh edition) by J. Gordon Melton. (2003) p608.

"The A to Z of new religious movements" by George D. Chryssides. (2006) p347.
"The Way International - About Us" (http:/ / www. theway. org/ topic. php?page=about). . Retrieved March 21, 2011.
"Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism" by Randall Herbert Balmer. (2004) p622.
"The Way International - About Us." www.theway.org
William, Laney (2000-11-07). "The Way International reaches settlement with couple" (http:/ / www. rickross. com/ reference/ general/
general312. html). Wapakoneta Daily News. . Retrieved 2006-06-02.
[7] Born Again to Serve, by Dorothea Wierwille. American Christian Press. 1996. ISBN 0-910068-79-8, pp. 85,86
[8] Born Again to Serve, p. 89
[9] The Way Magazine, February 1955. American Christian Press.
[10] "Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism" by Randall Herbert Balmer. (2004) "The Way International" page 623."
[11] Prevailing Word Auditorium flyer, 2011.
[12] "The Way International - What's Available."www.theway.org
[13] 1953: Born Again to Serve, p.99; 1968: The Teacher, p.13; 1995: The Way Magazine, March/April 1996, p.22
[14] TWI Way Corps. (http:/ / www. theway. org/ available. php?page=waycorps& lang=en)
[15] "The Way: Living in Love by Elena Whiteside p235",
[16] GreaseSpot Cafe Way Corps Notes (http:/ / www. greasespotcafe. com/ main2/ waydale/ waydale-corps-notes/ corps-notes-from-09-14-94.
html)
[17] ISBN 040309982X Owen, Lorrie K., ed. Dictionary of Ohio Historic Places. Vol. 2. St. Clair Shores: Somerset, 1999, 1276.
58

[18] The State of Assyria Atour.com lexicon help page Credits. (http:/ / www. atour. com/ ~lexicon/ help. html)
[19] "The Aramaic New Testament Estrangelo Script. American Christian Press. 1983. p9"
[21] "The Aramaic-English New Testament. American Christian Press. 1988. p7"
[22] W.R.I. (World Religions Index): The Way International "Holy Spirit" (http:/ / wri. leaderu. com/ wri-table1/ way. html)
[23] "Jesus Christ Our Passover by Victor Paul Wierwille p272"
[24] Fundamentals of Greek Research. Cummins, Walter. American Christian Press
[25] "Studies in Abundant Living: The Word's Way by Victor Paul Wierwille p251"
[26] "ISBN 0-910068-40-2 Are the Dead alive Now? by Victor Paul Wierwille p5"
[27] W.R.I. (World Religions Index): The Way International "Retribution" (http:/ / wri. leaderu. com/ wri-table1/ way. html)
[28] "ISBN 0-910068-49-6 Receiving the Holy Spirit Today. American Christian Press. p121"
[29] W.R.I. (World Religions Index): The Way International "Redemption & Salvation" (http:/ / wri. leaderu. com/ wri-table1/ way. html)
[30] http:/ / www. greasespotcafe. com/ main2/ waydale/ waydale-miscellaneous/ passing-of-the-patriarch. html
[31] Melton, J. Gordon (1996). The Encyclopedia of American Religions (5th edition ed.). Detroit: Michigan: Gale Research.
ISBN0-8103-7714-4., as cited at http:/ / religiousmovements. lib. virginia. edu/ nrms/ wayintl. html.
[32] Mary, Hargrove (1995-10-15). "The Way: After a family breaks up, questions arise about the group" (http:/ / www. ardemgaz. com/ prev/
way/ 11. asp). Arkansas Democrat-Gazette. . Retrieved 2006-07-02.
[33] Novel Guide The Way International (http:/ / www. novelguide. com/ a/ discover/ ear_01/ ear_01_00104. html)
[34] GreaseSpot Cafe Home (http:/ / www. greasespotcafe. com/ main2/ )
[35] "Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism" by Randall Herbert Balmer. (2004) "The Way International" page 742."
[36] http:/ / www. theway. org
[37] http:/ / www. greasespotcafe. com
[38]
[39]
[40]
[41]
[42]
http:/ / www. familytables. org

http:/ / www. ex-way. com/
http:/ / www. eternallyblessed. com/ drwierwille. html
http:/ / www. precastconcrete. org/ ~messiah7/ cultsthe. htm
http:/ / www. 3dentourage. com/ word/ vpw-cd. htm

American Christian Press serves as the publishing arm of The Way International Biblical research, teaching and
fellowship ministry, operating out of New Knoxville, Ohio.
Ongoing publications
The Way Magazine, published bi-monthly. Editor: Keith W. Jackson.
Published works
Wierwille, Victor Paul.
(1971) Power for Abundant Living (1st Ed). ISBN 0-910068-01-1
(1971) Christians Should Be Prosperous (1st Ed). ISBN 0-910068-65-8
(1972) Receiving the Holy Spirit Today (7th Ed). ISBN 0-910068-49-6
(1975) Jesus Christ is Not God (2nd Ed). ISBN 0-910068-33-X
(1980) Jesus Christ Our Passover (2nd Ed). ISBN 0-910068-30-5
(1982) Jesus Christ Our Promised Seed (1st Ed). ISBN 0-910068-42-9
(1982) Are the Dead Alive Now? (2nd Ed). ISBN 0-910068-40-2
(1971) Studies in Abundant Living Series Vol I - The Bible Tells Me So (1st Ed). ISBN 0-910068-10-0
(1971) Studies in Abundant Living Series Vol II - The New Dynamic Church (1st Ed). ISBN 0-910068-11-9
(1971) Studies in Abundant Living Series Vol III - The Words Way (1st Ed). ISBN 0-910068-12-7
59

(1977) Studies in Abundant Living Series Vol IV - God's Magnified Word (1st Ed). ISBN 0-910068-13-5
(1985) Studies in Abundant Living Series Vol V - Order My Steps in Thy Word (1st Ed). ISBN 0-910068-59-3
Martindale, Loy Craig.

(1990) Teaching God's Word to Children. ISBN 0-910068-71-2
(1993) The Rise and Expansion of the Christian Church in the First Century. ISBN 0-910068-78-X
Other Authors
(1972) The Way: Living in Love by Elena S. Whiteside ISBN 0-910068-04-6
(1978) Just The Way It Was by Dorothy Owens. ISBN 0-910068-15-1
(1978) Uncle Harry An Autobiography by Karen Martin Wierwille. ISBN 0-910068-15-1
(1980) Will The Real You Please Stand Up by John A. Lynn. ISBN 0-910068-28-3
(1981) Will The Real You Please Remain Standing by John A. Lynn. ISBN 0-910068-38-0
(1981) The Living Word Speaks Studies in Biblical Research, Teaching, and Fellowship by Walter J. Cummins
ISBN 0-910068-39-9
(1983) Living in the Eye of the Storm by John A. Lynn. ISBN 0-910068-50-X
(1983) God's Word in Culture by Elena S. Whiteside. ISBN 0-910068-51-8
(1984) Outreach Strategies of Jesus Christ. (2nd Ed) ISBN 1-933283-01-7
(1985) Studies in Biblical Accuracy Vol I - Demonstrating God's Power by Walter J. Cummins. ISBN
0-910068-60-7
(1985) Life Lines Quotations of Victor Paul Wierwille. ISBN 0-910068-64-X
(1996) Born Again to Serve by Dorothea Kipp Wierwille. ISBN 0-910068-79-8
(1997) The Way International: Where God's Word Prevails. ISBN 0-910068-80-1
(2000) Sing Along The Way. ISBN 1-933283-00-9
(2005) What God's Word Says about Angels. ISBN 0-910068-96-8
(2009) On the Trail of Manners and Customs of the Bible by Bernita Jess. ISBN 1-933283-04-1
Aramaic New Testament Publications

(1983) The Aramaic New Testament ISBN 0-910068-47-X
(1985) The Concordance to the Peshitta Version of the Aramaic New Testament ISBN 0-910068-61-5
(1985) The English Dictionary Supplement to the Concordance to the Peshitta Version of the Aramaic New
Testament ISBN 0-910068-67-4
(1988) Aramaic-English Interlinear New Testament
Volume 1 (Matthew-John) ISBN 0-910068-73-9
Volume 2 (Acts-Philemon) ISBN 0-910068-74-7
Volume 3 (Hebrews-Revelation) ISBN 0-910068-75-5
60
Reprints by The Way International

K.C. Pillai
(1984) Orientalisms of the Bible. ISBN 0-910068-70-4
(1987) Light Through an Eastern Window. ISBN 0-910068-63-1
E.W. Bullinger
(1983) How to Enjoy the Bible. ISBN 0-910068-48-8
Other Authors
(1994) Lexicon to the Syriac New Testament by William Jennings. ISBN 0-910068-69-0
Studies in Abundant Living Series
Studies in Abundant Living, Vols I - V are each a compilation of previously published pamphlets, Way Magazine
articles or transcriptions of teachings. Some chapters are repeated, sometimes in expanded form in other books. At
times these books, as well as Power for Abundant Living, Receiving the Holy Spirit Today and Christians Should Be
Prosperous were included as part of the package with The Way's foundational class.
European Christian Press

European Christian Press was the publishing arm of The Way in Great Britain Ltd., which was at one time associated
with The Way International. They published several books of collected teachings of Way founder VP Wierwille,
edited by Christopher Geer.
(1987) Living Victoriously. ISBN 1-870676-00-9
(1987) Take God At His Word. ISBN 1-870676-05-X
Take A Stand For God. ISBN 1-870676-40-8
We are His - He is Ours: The Honesty of Leadership. ISBN 1-870676-25-4
Turn Your Eyes Upon Jesus. ISBN 1-870676-35-1
Our Times (Collection of paid editorials previously printed in New Knoxville, Ohio area newspapers)
61
62

V.P. Wierwille (1916-1985)

Born
31 December 1916New Knoxville, Ohio, U.S.
Died
20 May 1985 (aged68)
Education Mission House College

Princeton Theological Seminary
Knownfor The Way International
Victor Paul Wierwille (December 31, 1916 - May 20, 1985) was the founder of The Way International (TWI).
Biography
He was raised in and later ordained by the Evangelical and Reformed Church (a predecessor of the United Church of
Christ) in 1941, and he officially left that church in 1957. Wierwille graduated from Mission House College with
Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Theology degrees.[1] He then studied at The University of Chicago Divinity School
and received a Master of Theology in practical theology from Princeton Theological Seminary.[2] Wierwille later
studied at Pikes Peak Bible Seminary and Burton College, a non-accredited institution, and received a doctorate in
theology.
In 1942 he started the precursor to The Way International, Vesper Chimes, which was a radio show broadcast from
Lima, Ohio, incorporating in 1947 as The Chimes Hour Youth Caravan. He incorporated as The Way Incorporated in
1955, maintaining that this was the name that early Christians used for themselves basing his assertion on several
uses of "the way" or "this way" in Acts of the Apostles. Later the official name became The Way International.
Wierwille authored several books which are printed by The Way International's American Christian Press publishing
organization. One book was Jesus Christ is Not God, in which he addressed his belief that Jesus Christ is the only
begotten Son of God and Messiah but not a persona of the Christian God or a pre-existent being.[3] Wierwille wrote
three other works which focused on Jesus Christ and the concept of the Holy Spirit: Jesus Christ Our Passover,
Jesus Christ Our Promised Seed, and Receiving the Holy Spirit Today. Other major works include Power for
Abundant Living, Christians Should Be Prosperous, Are the Dead Alive Now? and his Studies in Abundant Living
five-volume series.
Wierwille, became associated in 1957[4] with Aramaic Bible scholar George M. Lamsa who finished his translation
work for the The Holy Bible from Ancient Eastern Manuscripts (Lamsa Bible) in Wierwille's home.[5] Lamsa and
Wierwille together produced the first American Aramaic grammar in 1960 for the study of Biblical manuscripts with
the ancient Estrangelo letters.[6] Believing the original New Testament was written in Aramaic, he was a supporter of
George Lamsa's translation of the Bible, and used it frequently.

After graduating from B.G. Leonard's Gifts of the Spirit class in Calgary, Alberta, Wierwille began teaching a similar
class that he initially called Receiving the Holy Spirit Today but soon changed to Power for Abundant Living
(PFAL). Eventually he expanded it into a teaching series, including a foundational, intermediate and advanced class.
Wierwille was the President of The Way International from its incorporation until he retired from leadership in
October, 1982; passing the presidency to L. Craig Martindale. He died on May 20, 1985 of hepatocellular carcinoma
and melanoma.
External links
The Way International [36] - Official Website

Victor Paul Wierwille - Profile [40]
Victor Paul Wierwille - Biography [7]
Wierwille CD's [42]
Teachings and Quotes

Audio Recordings:
Audio Recording : Religion [8]
Audio Recording : The Believer's Peace [9]
Quotes:
Motivated By the Goodness of God [10]

7 Characteristics of a Faithful Minister [11]
8 Victor Paul Wierwille Quotes [12]
7 Victor Paul Wierwille Quotes [13]
References
[1] "Power For Abundant Living. American Christian Press. 1971. p379"
[2] "Studies in Abundant Living: Order My Steps In Thy Word. American Christian Press. 1985. pg303"
[3] "Jesus Christ is Not God. American Christian Press. 1975"
[7] http:/ / www. biblicalresearchjournal. org/ brj-pages_html/ 001mm04_teachings_vpw. html
[8] http:/ / www. 3dentourage. com/ word/ vpw02. mp3
[9] http:/ / www. 3dentourage. com/ word/ vpw03. mp3
[10] http:/ / www. 3dentourage. com/ word/ goodness. htm
[11] http:/ / www. 3dentourage. com/ word/ seven. htm
[12] http:/ / www. 3dentourage. com/ word/ vpwq1. htm
[13] http:/ / www. 3dentourage. com/ word/ vpwq2. htm
63
Way Productions
Way Productions
Way Productions is an overall name given for different groups of musicians affiliated with The Way International.
Their lyrics are based on the beliefs and practices of The Way International. They perform every Sunday afternoon at
The Way's headquarters in New Knoxville, Ohio for the Way's Sunday teaching services. They also perform at
special events put on at various times throughout the year.
Musical styles
Gospel
Rock and Roll
Soul
Country/Western
Musical Groups
Official
Singing Ladies of the Way
The Present Truth.
Unofficial or former
Good Seed
High Country Trio
Hope
Joyful Noise
Pressed Down, Shaken Together and Running Over
Sing it Dave
Selah (from the 1970s)
The Victors
Agape (UK)
Take it
Acts 29
CORE
Ted Ferrell
Age of Grace
Branded
New Horizons
Breakthrough
64
Way Productions
External links
The Way homepage [1] - Way Productions concerts linked here at times.
Pressed Down MySpace: http://www.myspace.com/presseddownshakentogetherrunningover
Joe Fair @ IAC:
http://iacmusic.com/Artist.aspx?ID=61900
CORE
http://www.iacmusic.com/artist.aspx?ID=65788
References
[1] http:/ / www. theway. com/ news. htm
65
The Way College of Biblical Research Indiana Campus
66
The Way College of Biblical Research Indiana

Campus
The Way College of Biblical
Research Indiana
Active
19771997
Religious affiliation Christian, Non-denominational

Location
Rome City, Indiana, United States
The Way College of Biblical Research Indiana was used by The Way International for its leadership training
program and biblical research seminars located in Rome City, Indiana for 20 years. Purchased in 1976, the 197-acre
(0.80km2) site located on the north side of Rome City previously housed the historic Kneipp Springs health spa
which was developed between 1897 and 1910 by Dr. W.G. Geiermann, and operated by the Catholic Order of the
Sisters of the Most Precious Blood convent.[1]
The campus housed nearly 6,000 students and staff between 1977 and 1997, and the campus held accelerated biblical
research seminars and classes from 1979-1996.[2] The campus operation was moved to Gunnison, Colorado in spring
of 1998, and Sylvan Springs, Inc., a non-profit group, purchased the facility for use as a family centre serving
northeast Indiana.[3]
References
[1] Historic Kneipp Springs. 7 Jan 2007. (http:/ / www. oltiv. org/ 2007/ 01/ historic-kneipp-springs. html)
[2] The Way College of Biblical Research by Joe Potter - The News-Sun (http:/ / www. kpcnews. net/ special-sections/ reflections2/
reflections36. html)
[3] "The Way Campus Bought by Non-Profit by Rachel E. Blakeman. The Journal Gazette. Fort Wayne, IN. 16 Dec 1999."
Pauline Christianity is a term used to refer to the Christianity
associated with the beliefs and doctrines espoused by Paul of
Tarsus through his writings. Most of orthodox Christianity relies
heavily on these teachings and considers them to be amplifications
and explanations of the teachings of Jesus. Others perceive in
Paul's writings, teachings that are radically different from the
original teachings of Jesus documented in the canonical gospels,
early Acts and the rest of the New Testament, such as the Epistle
of James. Proponents of the perceived Pauline distinctive form of
this religion include Marcion of Sinope, the 2nd century
Artist depiction of Saint Paul Writing His Epistles,
theologian, an excommunicated heretic who asserted that Paul was
16th century (Blaffer Foundation Collection, Houston,
the only apostle who had rightly understood the new message of
Texas). Most scholars think Paul actually dictated his
[1]
letters to a secretary.
salvation as delivered by Christ. Opponents of the same era
include the Ebionites and Nazarenes, Jewish Christians who
rejected Paul for straying from "normative" Judaism; see also List of events in early Christianity. Pauline
Christianity, as an expression, first came into use in the 20th century among those scholars who proposed different
strands of thought within Early Christianity, wherein Paul was a powerful influence.[2] It has come into widespread
use among non-Christian scholars and depends on the claim, advanced in different ages, that the form of the faith
found in the writings of Paul is radically different from that found elsewhere in the New Testament, but also that his
influence came to predominate. Reference is also made to the large number of non-canonical texts,[3] some of which
have been discovered during the last hundred years, and which show the many movements and strands of thought
emanating from Jesus's life and teaching or which may be contemporary with them, some of which can be contrasted
with Paul's thought. Of the more significant are Ebionism and Gnosticism (see below). However, there is no
universal agreement as to Gnosticism's relationship either to Christianity in general or the writings of Paul in
particular, see Paul and Gnosticism.
The expression is also used by modern Christian scholars, such as Ziesler[4] and Mount, whose interest is in the
recovery of Christian origins and the contribution made by Paul to Christian doctrine; see also Paleo-orthodoxy,
Christian Reconstructionism, and Restorationism (Christian primitivism).
Characteristics of 'Pauline Christianity'

The characteristics of the critical use of the term take a number of forms. They are partly political and partly
theological.
Political
From a political perspective, Robert Eisenman sees Pauline Christianity as a method of taming a dangerous sect
among radical Jews and making it palatable to Roman authorities. Pauline Christianity was essentially based on
Rome and made use of the administrative skills which Rome had honed. Its system of organization with a single
bishop for each town was, on this view, the means by which it obtained its hegemony.[5]
67
68
Theological
The theological aspect is the claim that Paul transmuted Jesus the Jewish Messiah into the universal (in a wider
meaning "catholic") Saviour. Pauline theology is also a term referring to the teaching and doctrines especially
espoused by the apostle Paul through his writings. Mainstream Christianity relies on Pauls writings as integral to the
biblical theology of the New Testament and regards them as amplifications and explanations consistent with the
teachings of Jesus and other New Testament writings. Christian scholars generally use the term expressing interest in
the recovery of Christian origins and the contribution made by Paul to Christian doctrine. Others, especially
non-Christian scholars, claim to see a Pauline distinctive different from that found elsewhere in the New Testament,
a distinctive that unduly influenced later Christianity.
Other views
The use of the term by Christian scholars, such as John Ziesler,[6] is altogether different. Pauline Christianity is the
development of thinking about Jesus in a gentile missionary context; Christopher Rowlands concludes that Paul did
not materially alter the teachings of Jesus. Much of this view turns on the significance of the Council of Jerusalem.
According to this view, James decreed that Christianity was for the Gentiles and not just for the Jews, and quoted the
prophet Amos in support of this position (the Apostolic Decree is found in Acts15:19-21). He entrusted Paul among
others with bringing their decision to Antioch (15:22-31).
Christians themselves disagree as to how far there was tension between Paul and the Jerusalem Church. (See Paul of
Tarsus). One difficulty is the tension between Acts and Paul's letters; another is the disparity between his views in
different letters. Galatians is reserved about the teaching of the Jerusalem church and is hostile toward Jews (whom
he calls "Judaizers") who would impose Jewish distinctives, codified in the Mosaic Law, on Gentile converts; in
Romans Paul is deeply concerned about the spiritual condition and ultimate destiny of the Jewish people.
Paul's view of the subject

That people saw different disciples of Christ as representing different teachings was addressed by Paul himself, in
the 1st letter to the Corinthians: (1 Cor 1:1018)
I appeal to you, brothers, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, that all of you agree with one another so that there may be no divisions among
you and that you may be perfectly united in mind and thought. My brothers, some from Chloe's household have informed me that there are
quarrels among you. What I mean is this: One of you says, "I follow Paul"; another, "I follow Apollos"; another, "I follow Cephas(Peter)";
still another, "I follow Christ."
Is Christ divided? Was Paul crucified for you? Were you baptized into the name of Paul? I am thankful that I did not baptize any of you
except Crispus and Gaius, so no one can say that you were baptized into my name. (Yes, I also baptized the household of Stephanas; beyond
that, I don't remember if I baptized anyone else.) For Christ did not send me to baptize, but to preach the gospel not with words of human
wisdom, lest the cross of Christ be emptied of its power
As a pejorative term
The pejorative use of the expression "Pauline Christianity" relies in part upon a thesis that Paul's supporters, as a
distinct group, had an undue influence on the formation of the canon of scripture, and also that certain bishops,
especially the Bishop of Rome, influenced the debates by which the dogmatic formulations known as the Creeds
came to be produced, thus ensuring a Pauline interpretation of the gospel. The thesis is founded on differences
between the views of Paul and the apostles in Jerusalem, and also between the picture of Paul in the Acts of the
Apostles and his own writings, such that it is claimed that the essential Jewish or Old Testament character of the
faith was lost.
The argument made that Christian doctrine (that is, the teachings of Jesus) was subsequently distorted by Paul and
the Church of Rome depends, first of all, on a view as to how the canon of Scripture came to be compiled, about
which little is known (for details, see Biblical canon). The earliest references to Paul's writing are fragmentary:
Clement of Rome, writing about AD 95, quotes from Romans; Ignatius of Antioch (d. AD 115) quotes from 1
Corinthians, Romans, and from 1 Timothy and Titus as if authoritative, not merely as the opinion of one writer. On
the other hand, not everyone agreed with the process of reception: according to Irenaeus, bishop of Lyon, writing in
the latter half of the 2nd century, the Ebionite Christians rejected Paul as an apostate from the law, using only a
version of the Gospel according to St. Matthew, known as the Gospel of the Ebionites.
As to his influence, there are considerable differences of scholarly opinion concerning how far Paul did in fact
influence Christian doctrine. Among the most radical is G.A. Wells, a professor of German rather than of theology,
whose view is that Jesus was a mythical figure and that Christianity was in good part invented by Paul. More widely
influential is the view of the 19th century German theologian F.C. Baur,[7] founder of the Tbingen school, that Paul
was utterly opposed to the disciples, based upon his view that Acts was late and unreliable and who contended that
Catholic Christianity was a synthesis of the views of Paul and the Judaising church in Jerusalem. Since Harnack, the
Tbingen position has been generally abandoned,[8] though the view that Paul took over the faith and transformed
the Jewish teacher to the Son of God is still widely canvassed.[9] It depends on a comparison between the books of
the New Testament which cannot be made here, but see Paul of Tarsus, and the claims of Ultradispensationalists
such as E. W. Bullinger who view the distinction abhorred by the Ebionites as positive and essential doctrine.[10]
On the other side, the idea that Paul invented Christianity is disputed by numerous Christian writers.[11] [12] [13] [14]
[15]
Christopher Rowlands contends that, "the extent of his influence on Christian thought has been
overestimated".[16] Thus, though thirteen letters under his name appear in the New Testament, the great
controversies of the 3rd and 4th centuries were about the Person of Christ and the nature of God - the so-called
Christological and Trinitarian debates -in which St. Paul does not greatly feature; likewise, the Nicene Creed
contains no doctrine of atonement. Moreover, while the influence of the Church of Rome was very important in the
credal debates, Greek theologians such as Athanasius, the Cappadocian Fathers, Basil the Great, Gregory of
Nazianzus and Gregory of Nyssa were formidable figures. The resolution of these controversies at the Council of
Chalcedon was not dictated by the Bishop of Rome or Latin Christendom, but was made more difficult by the
necessary task of translating technical terms between the two languages of Greek and Latin, and not by arguments
over Pauline theology.
As for the New Testament itself, there are evident tensions between the Judaizing party and Paul's views, which are
made plain by a comparison between Acts and Paul's letters. How far Paul is to be taken as anti-Jewish
(pro-Hellenization or Romanization) is a matter of disagreement, but there has been widespread acknowledgement of
the view of W. D. Davies that the essential Jewishness of Paul's Christian perspective has been underplayed.[17] In
Davies' view, Paul replaced the Torah, the Jewish Law or Mosaic Law, with Christ.[18] In any case, "the problems
with which he wrestles in his letters were probably typical of many which were facing the Christian sect during this
period".[19]
Further, by contrast one of the common features of Protestant churches, certainly in English-speaking countries and
those influenced by the reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin, is their use of formulations other than the ancient
Creeds, such as the Westminster Confession of Faith, in which Pauline formulations play a much greater part. Ideas
such as justification by faith, which, though not absent from Catholic formulations, play a much more central role in
Protestant thinking, where they are considered fundamental Christian truths and essential for defining the Gospel.[20]
As to the conclusion that Paul distorted rather than developed the faith, this depends upon a judgment as to wherein
lies the right path. Henry Chadwick, former Oxford don, commented about a later controversy: "It was not that the
heretics departed from the road; it was that they took a path along which the road was not subsequently built."
Roman Catholics, Eastern and Oriental Orthodox, conservative Protestants, and most Messianic Jews contend that
Paul's writings were a legitimate interpretation of the Gospel. Those who disagree with them either argue that Paul
distorted the original and true faith or claim that Christianity is, largely, his invention. The former include such
secular commentators [21] as the philosophers Friedrich Nietzsche and Bertrand Russell, whose criticisms are based
69
upon their moral objections to Paul's thought; others thinkers, such as Slavoj iek and Alain Badiou, also agree
with this interpretation, but hold much more positive opinions about Paul's theological influence.
Christians anarchists, such as Leo Tolstoy and Ammon Hennacy, believe Paul corrupted Jesus' teachings. Tolstoy
believed Paul was instrumental in the church's "deviation" from Jesus' teaching and practices, whilst Hennacy
believed "Paul spoiled the message of Christ."[22] [23]
Notes
[1] Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. p. 316-320. Harris cites Galatians6:11, Romans16:22,
Colossians4:18, Thessalonians23:17, Philemon19. Joseph Barber Lightfoot in his Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians writes: "At
this point [Galatians6:11] the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From
the time when letters began to be forged in his name (Thessalonians22:2; Thessalonians23:17) it seems to have been his practice to close
with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries... In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing
up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. pelikois grammasin), that
his handwriting may reflect the energy and determination of his soul."
[2] Lietzmann, Hans History of the Early Church Vol 1 p.206
[3] M.R. James The Apocryphal New Testament (1924) See also the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Nag Hammadi documents
[4] Ziesler John, Pauline Christianity (OUP 2001) Zielsler comments "Pauline Christianity is the earliest for which we have direct documentary
evidence..."
[5] Ehrmann,Bart: Lost Christianities (OUP) p 175
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
Ziesler, John Pauline Christianity

Paulus, der Apostel Jesu Christi (Eng trans.1873-5)
The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church ed. F.L. Cross
cf James Tabor The Jesus Dynasty (Simon & Schuster 2006): Tabor contends that Paul led the church in its decisive break with the Ebionites,
whose teaching contained the authentic teachings of Jesus.
[10] The Pauline Epistles. - Appendix to the Companion Bible (http:/ / levendwater. org/ companion/ append192. html)
[11] David Wenham, "Paul: Follower of Jesus or Founder of Christianity?"
[12] L. Michael White, "From Jesus to Christianity"
[13] F. F. Bruce, "Paul & Jesus"
[14] Did Paul Invent Christianity? (http:/ / www. godandscience. org/ apologetics/ paul_invented_christianity. html)
[15] Machen, J. Gresham. "The Origin of Paul's Religion"
[16] Rowlands Christopher, Christian Origins (SPCK 1985) p. 194
[17] See also New Perspective on Paul and Ed. Sanders Paul and Palestinian Judaism
[18] see also Supersessionism
[19] [Rowlands, Christopher, ibid. p.196
[20] but see also Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification
[21] Articles - People who have understood Paul is Anti-Christ - Oneness - True Faith (http:/ / www. wizanda. com/ modules/ article/ view.
article. php/ article=52)
[22] Tolstoy, Leo (1882). Church and State. "This deviation begins from the times of the Apostles and especially from that hankerer after
mastership Paul"
[23] Hennacy, Ammon (1970). The Book of Ammon. Hennacy. p.475. "Paul and the Churches"
Further reading
Adams, Edward and Horrell, David G. Christianity at Corinth: The Quest for the Pauline Church 2004
Bockmuehl, Markus N.A. Revelation and Mystery in Ancient Judaism and Pauline Christianity
Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament 1997 ISBN 0-385-24767-2
Brown, Raymond E. Does the NT call Jesus God? Theological Studies #26, 1965
Dunn, James D.G. The Theology of Paul the Apostle Eerdmans 1997 ISBN 0-8028-3844-8
Ehrman, Bart D. Lost Christianities: The Battle for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew 2003
Eisenman, Robert. James the Brother of Jesus : The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the
Dead Sea Scrolls 1997 ISBN 0-670-86932-5
Elsner, Jas. Imperial Rome and Christian Triumph: Oxford History of Early Non-Pauline Christianity 1998 ISBN
0-19-284201-3
Griffith-Jones, Robin. The Gospel According to Paul 2004.
70
Holland, Tom. Contours of Pauline Theology: A Radical New Survey on the Influences of Paul's Biblical Writings
2004 ISBN 1-85792-469-X
Maccoby, Hyam. The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity 1986 ISBN 0-06-015582-5
Kim, Yung Suk. Christ's Body in Corinth: The Politics of a Metaphor 2008 ISBN 0-80-066285-7
Kim, Yung Suk. A Theological Introduction to Paul's Letters. 2011 ISBN 978-1608997930
MacDonald, Dennis Ronald. The Legend and the Apostle : The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon Philadelphia:
Westminster Press 1983
Mount, Christopher N. Pauline Christianity: Luke-Acts and the Legacy of Paul 2001
Pietersen, Lloyd K. Polemic of the Pastorals: A Sociological Examination of the Development of Pauline
Christianity 2004
Rowlands, Christopher, Christian Origins SPCK 1985
Sanders, E.P. Jesus and Judaism 1987 ISBN 0-8006-2061-5
Sanders, E.P. Paul the Law and the Jewish People 1983
Sanders, E.P. Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion 1977 ISBN 0-8006-1899-8
Theissen, Gerd. The Social Setting of Pauline Christianity: Essays on Corinth 2004
Westerholm, Stephen. Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The "Lutheran" Paul and His Critics 2003 ISBN
0-8028-4809-5
Wright, N.T. What Saint Paul Really Said: Was Paul of Tarsus the Real Founder of Christianity? 1997 ISBN
0-8028-4445-6
Wilson, A.N Paul: The Mind of the Apostle 1997
Ziesler, John A. Pauline Christianity, Revised 1990 ISBN 0-19-826459-3
External links
New Perspective on Paul (http://www.thepaulpage.com)
The History of the Origins of Christianity. Saint Paul. (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/renan/saintpaul.txt)
71
Marcion of Sinope
72
Marcion of Sinope
Marcion of Sinope (Greek: [1] , ca. 85-160) was a
well known bishop in early Christianity.[2] His theology, which rejected
the deity described in the Jewish scriptures as inferior or subjugated to
the God proclaimed in the christian gospel, was denounced by the
Church Fathers and he was excommunicated. His rejection of many
books contemporarily considered scripture in the catholic part of the
church prompted this church to develop a catholic canon of scriptures.
Life
Hippolytus records that Marcion was the son of the bishop of Sinope, in
Pontus. His near-contemporaries Rhodon and Tertullian described him as
a ship owner.[3] Marcion probably was consecrated a bishop, likely an
assistant or suffragan of his father at Sinope.[3]
Marcion of Sinope
Epiphanius states that after beginnings as an ascetic, he seduced a virgin

and was accordingly excommunicated by his father, prompting him to leave his home town.[4] This account has been
doubted by many scholars, who consider it "malicious gossip". More recently, Bart D. Ehrman suggests that this
"seduction of a virgin" was a metaphor for his corruption of the Christian Church, with the Church portrayed as the
undefiled virgin.[5]
Bishop Marcion had travelled to Rome about 142/143.[6] . But since the Marcionite church was already widespread
at the time of his excommunication, it is more likely that his founding of Marcionite style churches had started much
earlier. Bishop Marcion made a notable donation of 200,000 sesterces to the church.
Conflicts with the bishops of Rome arose and he was eventually excommunicated by the Church of Rome, his
donation being returned to him. After his excommunication, he returned to Asia Minor where he continued to lead
his many church congregations and teach the christian gospel in its Marcionite or Pauline version.
Teachings
Study of the Jewish Scriptures, along with received writings circulating in the nascent Church (the majority of which
were eventually incorporated into the New Testament canon) led Marcion to conclude that many of the teachings of
Jesus were incompatible with the actions of the god of the Old Testament, Yahweh. Marcion responded by
developing a dualist system of belief around the year 144.[7] This dual-god notion allowed Marcion to reconcile
supposed contradictions between Old Covenant theology and the Gospel message proclaimed by Jesus.
Marcion affirmed Jesus to be the saviour sent by the Heavenly Father, and Paul as His chief apostle. In contrast to
the nascent Christian church, Marcion declared that Christianity was distinct from and in opposition to Judaism.
Marcion did not claim that the Jewish Scriptures were false. Instead, Marcion asserted that they were to be read in an
absolutely literal manner, thereby developing an understanding that YHVH was not the same god spoken of by
Jesus, e.g. in the Genesis account of YHVH walking through the Garden of Eden asking where Adam was, Marcion
read this to mean that YHVH physically walked through the Garden without foreknowledge of Adam's whereabouts.
Marcion argued that this proved YHVH inhabited a physical body (unlike the Heavenly Father) and that YHVH was
ignorant and without universal foreknowledge, attributes wholly incompatible with the Heavenly Father professed by
Jesus.
According to bishop Marcion, the god of the Old Testament, whom he called the Demiurge, the creator of the
material universe, is a jealous tribal deity of the Jews, whose law represents legalistic reciprocal justice and who
Marcion of Sinope
punishes mankind for its sins through suffering and death. Contrastingly, the god that Jesus professed is an altogether
different being, a universal god of compassion and love who looks upon humanity with benevolence and mercy.
Marcion held Jesus to be the son of the Heavenly Father but understood the incarnation in a docetic manner, i.e. that
Jesus' body was only an imitation of a material body. Marcion held that Jesus paid the debt of sin that humanity
owed via his crucifixion, thus absolving humanity and allowing it to inherit eternal life.[8]
Marcion was the first to propose a New Testament canon. His canon consisted of only eleven books grouped into
two sections: the Evangelikon, being a version of the Gospel of Luke,[9] and the Apostolikon, a selection of ten letters
of Paul the Apostle who Marcion considered the correct interpreter and transmitter of Jesus' teachings. Both sections
were purged of elements relating to Jesus' childhood, Judaism, and material challenging Marcion's dualism. Marcion
also produced his Antitheses contrasting the Demiurge of the Old Testament with the Heavenly Father of the New
Testament.
Marcion and Gnosticism

Marcion is sometimes described as a Gnostic philosopher. In some essential respects, Marcion proposed ideas which
would have aligned well with Gnostic thought. Like the Gnostics, he argued that Jesus was essentially a divine spirit
appearing to men in the shape of a human form, and not someone in a true physical body.[8]
However, Marcionism conceptualizes God in a way which cannot be reconciled with broader Gnostic thought. For
Gnostics, every human being is born with a small piece of God's soul lodged within his/her spirit (akin to the notion
of a 'Divine Spark').[8] God is thus intimately connected to and part of His creation.[8] Salvation lies in turning away
from the physical world (which Gnostics regard as an illusion) and embracing the God-like qualities within
yourself.[8] Marcion, by contrast, held that the Heavenly Father (the father of Jesus Christ) was an utterly alien god;
he had no part in making the world, nor any connection with it. Out of mercy, he intervened in the world to save
humanity.[8]
Legacy
Bishop Marcion was among the first to be declared a heresiarch in the year 144 for his deviations from the more
conservative theological viewpoints of the main body of bishops. His purely Pauline or Marcionite interpretation of
the gospel of Jesus Christ furthered the notion in the early catholic church centred on Rome that certain gospel
interpretations should be designated as orthodox, while others should be rejected, condemned and labelled as
heretical. Reacting to the popularity of the churches led by bishop Marcion east of Rome, the Catholic Church set out
to systematise, fixate and impose a set of beliefs that would demarcate more clearly the outlines of their
interpretation of orthodox Christianity. The suppression of the Marcionist form of Christianity is thus viewed[10] as a
catalyst for the development of the catholic canon, the establishment of a centralised church law, and the structuring
of the Catholic Church with its orthodox dogmas in general, which remained a relatively unchallenged mainstay in
Christendom until the Protestant Reformation.
The church that Marcion founded had expanded throughout the known world within his lifetime, and was a serious
rival to the Catholic Church. Its adherents were strong enough in their convictions to have the church retain its
expansive power for more than a century. It survived Christian controversy, and imperial disapproval, for several
centuries more.[11]
Marcion was the first Christian leader to propose and delineate a canon (a list of officially sanctioned religious
works). In so doing, he established a particular way of viewing religious texts that persists in Christian thought
today. After Marcion, Christians began to divide texts into those that aligned well with the "measuring stick" (Greek
kann literally means measuring stick) of accepted theological thought, and those that should be rejected. This
essential bifurcation played a major role in finalising the structure and contents of the collection of works now called
the Bible. An initial impetus for finalising the catholic version of the christian canon stemmed from opposition to
73
Marcion of Sinope
Marcion's first christian canon.
Some ideas similar to those of Marcion's reappeared among the Bulgarian Bogomils of the 10th century and the
Cathars of southern France in the 13th century.
Notes
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
http:/ / khazarzar. skeptik. net/ books/ justinus/ apolog1g. htm

Tertullian, "Adversus Marcionem" book 1.
Catholic Encyclopedia, " Marcionites (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 09645c. htm)" (1911).
Haeresies, XLII, ii.
Bart D. Ehrman,Lost Christianities
Tertullian dates the beginning of Marcion's teachings 115 years after the crucifixion of Jesus, which he placed in AD 26/27 (Adversus
Marcionem, xix).
[7] 115 years and 6 months from the Crucifixion, according to Tertullian's reckoning in Adversus Marcionem, xv.
[8] Adolph Harnack, Marcion: The Gospel of the Alien God (1924).
[9] Joseph B. Tyson (Marcion and Luke-Acts: A Defining Struggle) contradicts the mainstream view of Marcion's gospel being based on Luke,
opining instead that canonical Luke may be a response to Marcion's gospel.
[10] "The Canon of Scripture" by F.F. Bruce 1988, page 151
[11] Evans 1972 p. ix
References
Blackman, E.C. Marcion and His Influence 2004 ISBN 1-59244-73
Clabeaux, John James. The Lost Edition of the Letters of Paul: A Reassessment of the Text of Pauline Corpus
Attested by Marcion (Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series No. 21) 1989 ISBN 0-915170-20-5
Dahl, Nils Alstrup. "The Origin of the Earliest Prologues to the Pauline Letters", Semeia 12 (1978), 233-277
Epiphanius of Salamis. The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Book 1 (Sects 1-46) Frank Williams translator,
1987 ISBN 90-04-07926-2
Evans, Ernest (comments and translation): Tertullian, Against Marcion (Oxford University Press, 1972). E-text of
Adversus Marcionem and Evan's introduction "Marcion : His Doctrine and Influence" (http://www.tertullian.
org/articles/evans_marc/evans_marc_00index.htm)
Grant, Robert M. Marcion and the Critical Method Peter Richardson & John Collidge Hurd, eds., From Jesus to
Paul. Studies in Honour of Francis Wright Beare. Waterloo, ON, 1984. p.207215.
Harnack, Adolf von 1961. History of Dogma (Neil Buchanan, translating Harnack's Dogmengeschichte 1900), vol
I, pp 267 313, vol II, pp 1 19
Harnack, Adolf von. Marcion: The Gospel of the Alien God translation 1990 ISBN 0-939464-16-0
R. Joseph Hoffmann. Marcion, on the Restitution of Christianity: An Essay on the Development of Radical
Paulist Theology in the Second Century 1984 ISBN 0-89130-638-2
Knox, John. Marcion and the New Testament 1942 ISBN 0-404-16183-9
Francis Legge, Forerunners and Rivals of Christianity, From 330 B.C. to 330 A.D. (1914), reprinted in two
volumes bound as one, University Books New York, 1964. LC Catalog 64-24125.
Livingstone, E.A. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3rd ed.), pp.103334, 1997 ISBN
0-19-211655-X
Riparelli, Enrico, Il volto del Cristo dualista. Da Marcione ai catari, Peter Lang, Bern - Berlin - Bruxelles Frankfurt am Main - New York - Oxford - Wien 2008, 368 pp.ISBN 9783039114900
Williams, David Salter. "Reconsidering Marcion's Gospel", Journal of Biblical Literature 108 (1989), p.477-96
Wilson, R. S. Marcion: A Study of a Second-Century Heretic (London:Clarke) 1933
74
Marcion of Sinope
External links
Marcion's Writings (at the Gnosis Archive): (http://www.gnosis.org/library/marcionsection.htm) Marcion:
Gospel of the Lord and Other Writings
Catholic Encyclopedia: (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09645c.htm) Marcionites
Marcionite Research Library (http://library.marcionite-scripture.info/)
Tertullian, De Carne Christi (Latin and English), 1956 (http://www.tertullian.org/articles/evans_carn/
evans_carn_00index.htm)
Wace on Marcion (http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/info/marcion-wace.html)
EarlyChurch.org.uk on Marcion (http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/marcion.php)
Marcion: Portrait of a Heretic by Rob Bradshaw (http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/article_marcion.html)
The Marcionite Prologues to the Pauline Epistles (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/origin_nt.v.i.html)
Marcion (http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/MAL_MAR/MARCION.html) in the 1911 Encyclopdia Britannica
Marcionite version of Galatians (reconstructed) (http://www.gnosis.org/library/marcion/Galatian.htm)
Joseph B. Tyson, Anti-Judaism in Marcion and his Opponents (http://escholarship.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.
cgi?article=1016&context=scjr)
Marcionism
Marcionism was an Early Christian dualist belief system that originated
in the teachings of Marcion of Sinope at Rome around the year 144;[1]
see also Christianity in the 2nd century.
Marcion believed Jesus Christ was the savior sent by God and Paul of
Tarsus was his chief apostle, but he rejected the Hebrew Bible and the
God of Israel (YHWHElohim). Marcionists believed that the wrathful
Hebrew God was a separate and lower entity than the all-forgiving God
of the New Testament. This belief was in some ways similar to Gnostic
Christian theology; notably, both are dualistic.
Marcionism, similar to Gnosticism, depicted the Hebrew God of the Old
Testament as a tyrant or demiurge (see also God as the Devil). Marcion
was labeled as gnostic by Eusebius.[2] Marcion's canon consisted of
eleven books: A gospel consisting of ten chapters from the Gospel of
Marcion of Sinope
Luke edited by Marcion (the current canonical Gospel of Luke has 24
chapters); and ten of Paul's epistles. All other epistles and gospels of the
27 book New Testament canon were rejected.[3] Paul's epistles enjoy a prominent position in the Marcionite canon,
since Paul is credited with correctly transmitting the universality of Jesus' message. Other authors' epistles were
rejected since they seemed to suggest that Jesus had simply come to found a new sect within broader Judaism.
Religious tribalism of this sort seemed to echo Yahwism, and was thus regarded as a corruption of the "Heavenly
Father"'s teaching.
Marcionism was denounced by its opponents as heresy, and written against, notably by Tertullian, in a five-book
treatise Adversus Marcionem, written about 208. Marcion's writings are lost, though they were widely read and
numerous manuscripts must have existed. Even so, many scholars (including Henry Wace) claim it is possible to
reconstruct and deduce a large part of ancient Marcionism through what later critics, especially Tertullian, said
concerning Marcion.
75
Marcionism
76
History
According to Tertullian and other writers of the mainstream Church (which scholars refer to as Proto-orthodox
Christianity), the movement known as Marcionism began with the teachings and excommunication of Marcion from
the Early centers of Christianity Catholic Church around 144. Marcion was reportedly a wealthy shipowner, the son
of a bishop of Sinope of Pontus, Asia Minor. He arrived in Rome c. 140, soon after Bar Kokhba's revolt. That
revolution, along with other Jewish-Roman wars (the Great Jewish Revolt and the Kitos War), provides some of the
historical context of the founding of Marcionism; see also Anti-Judaism in the Roman Empire. Marcion was
excommunicated from the Catholic Church because he was threatening to make schisms in the church.[4]
Marcion used his personal wealth, (particularly a donation returned to him by the Catholic Church after he was
excommunicated), to fund an ecclesiastical organization. Marcionism continued in the West for 300 years, although
Marcionistic ideas persisted much longer.[5]
The organization continued in the East for some centuries later, particularly outside the Byzantine Empire in areas
which later would be dominated by Manichaeism.
Schism within Marcionism

By the reign of emperor Commodus Marcionism was divided into various opinions with various leaders; among
whom was Apelles, whom Rhodo describes as: "...priding himself on his manner of life and his age, acknowledges
one principle, but says that the prophecies are from an opposing principle, being led to this view by the responses of
a maiden by name Philumene, who was possessed by a demon".
But others, among whom were Potitus and Basilicus, held to two principles, as did Marcion himself. Others consider
that there are not only two, but three natures. Of these, Syneros was the leader and chief.[6]
Teachings
Marcion declared that Christianity was distinct from and in opposition to Judaism, see also Anti-Judaism. He
rejected the entire Hebrew Bible, and declared that the God of the Hebrew Bible was a lesser demiurge, who had
created the earth, but was (de facto) the source of evil.
The premise of Marcionism is that many of the teachings of Christ are incompatible with the actions of the God of
the Old Testament. Focusing on the Pauline traditions of the Gospel, Marcion felt that all other conceptions of the
Gospel, and especially any association with the Old Testament religion, was opposed to, and a backsliding from, the
truth. He further regarded the arguments of Paul regarding law and gospel, wrath and grace, works and faith, flesh
and spirit, sin and righteousness, death and life, as the essence of religious truth. He ascribed these aspects and
characteristics as two principles, the righteous and wrathful God of the Old Testament, who is at the same time
identical with the creator of the world, and a second God of the Gospel, quite unknown before Christ, who is only
love and mercy.[7]
Marcionites held maltheistic views of the God of the Hebrew Bible (known to some Gnostics as Yaltabaoth), that he
was inconsistent, jealous, wrathful and genocidal, and that the material world he created was defective, a place of
suffering; the God who made such a world is a bungling or malicious demiurge.
In the God of the [Old Testament] he saw a being whose character was stern justice, and therefore anger, contentiousness and unmercifulness.
The law which rules nature and man appeared to him to accord with the characteristics of this God and the kind of law revealed by him, and
therefore it seemed credible to him that this God is the creator and lord of the world ( [English transliteration:
kosmokrator/cosmocrator]). As the law which governs the world is inflexible and yet, on the other hand, full of contradictions, just and again
brutal, and as the law of the Old Testament exhibits the same features, so the God of creation was to Marcion a being who united in himself
[8]
the whole gradations of attributes from justice to malevolence, from obstinacy to inconsistency."
Marcionism
77
In Marcionite belief, Christ was not a Jewish Messiah, but a spiritual entity that was sent by the Monad to reveal the
truth about existence, and thus allowing humanity to escape the earthly trap of the demiurge. Marcion called God,
the Stranger God, or the Alien God, in some translations, as this deity had not had any previous interactions with the
world, and was wholly unknown. See also the Unknown God of Hellenism.
In various popular sources, Marcion is often reckoned among the Gnostics, but as the Oxford Dictionary of the
Christian Church (3rd ed.) puts it, "it is clear that he would have had little sympathy with their mythological
speculations" (p.1034). In 1911 Henry Wace stated:
A modern divine would turn away from the dreams of Valentinianism in silent contempt; but he could not refuse to discuss the question raised
by Marcion, whether there is such opposition between different parts of what he regards as the word of God, that all cannot come from the
same author.
A primary difference between Marcionites and Gnostics was that the Gnostics based their theology on secret wisdom
(as, for example, Valentinius who claimed to receive the secret wisdom from Theudas who received it direct from
Paul) of which they claimed to be in possession, whereas Marcion based his theology on the contents of the Letters
of Paul and the recorded sayings of Jesus in other words, an argument from scripture, with Marcion defining what
was and was not scripture. Also, the Christology of the Marcionites is thought to have been primarily Docetic,
denying the human nature of Christ. This may have been due to the unwillingness of Marcionites to believe that
Jesus was the son of both God the Father and the demiurge. Classical Gnosticism, by contrast, held that Jesus was
the son of both, even having a natural human father; that he was both the Messiah of Judaism and the world Savior.
Scholars of Early Christianity disagree on whether to classify Marcion as a Gnostic: Adolf Von Harnack does not
classify Marcion as a Gnostic,[9] whereas G. R. S. Mead does.[10] Von Harnack argued that Marcion was not a
Gnostic in the strict sense because Marcion rejected elaborate creation myths, and did not claim to have special
revelation or secret knowledge. Mead claimed Marcionism makes certain points of contact with Gnosticism in its
view that the creator of the material world is not the true deity, rejection of materialism and affirmation of a
transcendent, purely good spiritual realm in opposition to the evil physical realm, the belief Jesus was sent by the
"True" God to save humanity, the central role of Jesus in revealing the requirements of salvation, the belief Paul had
a special place in the transmission of this "wisdom", and its docetism. According to the 1911 Encyclopdia
Britannica article on Marcion [11]:
It was no mere school for the learned, disclosed no mysteries for the privileged, but sought to lay the foundation of the Christian community
on the pure gospel, the authentic institutes of Christ. The pure gospel, however, Marcion found to be everywhere more or less corrupted and
mutilated in the Christian circles of his time. His undertaking thus resolved itself into a reformation of Christendom. This reformation was to
deliver Christendom from false Jewish doctrines by restoring the Pauline conception of the gospel, Paul being, according to Marcion, the only
apostle who had rightly understood the new message of salvation as delivered by Christ. In Marcion's own view, therefore, the founding of his
churchto which he was first driven by oppositionamounts to a reformation of Christendom through a return to the gospel of Christ and to
Paul; nothing was to be accepted beyond that. This of itself shows that it is a mistake to reckon Marcion among the Gnostics. A dualist he
certainly was, but he was not a Gnostic.
Marcionism shows the influence of Hellenistic philosophy on Christianity, and presents a moral critique of the Old
Testament from the standpoint of Platonism. According to Harnack, the sect may have led other Christians to
introduce a formal statement of beliefs into their liturgy (see Creed) and to formulate a canon of authoritative
Scripture of their own, thus eventually producing the current canon of the New Testament.
As for the main question, however, whether he knew of, or assumes the existence of, a written New Testament of the Church in any sense
whatever, in this case an affirmatory answer is most improbable, because if this were so he would have been compelled to make a direct attack
upon the New Testament of the Church, and if such an attack had been made we should have heard of it from Tertullian. Marcion, on the
contrary, treats the Catholic Church as one that 'follows the Testament of the Creator-God,' and directs the full force of his attack against this
Testament and against the falsification of the Gospel and of the Pauline Epistles. His polemic would necessarily have been much less simple if
he had been opposed to a Church which, by possessing a New Testament side by side with the Old Testament, had ipso facto placed the latter
under the shelter of the former. In fact Marcions position towards the Catholic Church is intelligible, in the full force of its simplicity, only
[12]
under the supposition that the Church had not yet in her hand any 'litera scripta Novi Testamenti.'
Marcionism
78
Marcion is believed to have imposed a severe morality on his followers, some of whom suffered in the persecutions.
In particular, he refused to re-admit those who recanted their faith under Roman persecution; see also Lapsi
(Christian).
Marcionite canon
Tertullian claimed Marcion was the first to separate the New Testament from the Old Testament.[13] Marcion is said
to have gathered scriptures from Jewish tradition, and juxtaposed these against the sayings and teachings of Jesus in
a work entitled the Antithesis.[14] Besides the Antithesis, the Testament of the Marcionites was also composed of a
Gospel of Christ which was Marcion's version of Luke, and that the Marcionites attributed to Paul, that was different
in a number of ways from the version that is now regarded as canonical.[15] It seems to have lacked all prophecies of
Christ's coming, as well as the Infancy account, the baptism, and the verses were more terse in general. It also
included ten of the Pauline Epistles (but not the Pastoral Epistles or the Epistle to the Hebrews, and, according to the
Muratonian canon, included a Marcionite Paul's epistle to the Alexandrians and an epistle to the Laodiceans)[16] In
bringing together these texts, Marcion redacted what is perhaps the first New Testament canon on record, which he
called the Gospel and the Apostolikon, which reflects his belief the writings reflect the apostle Paul and Jesus.
The Prologues to the Pauline Epistles (which are not a part of the text, but short introductory sentences as one might
find in modern study Bibles [17]), found in several older Latin codices, are now widely believed to have been written
by Marcion or one of his followers. Harnack notes [18]:
We have indeed long known that Marcionite readings found their way into the ecclesiastical text of the Pauline Epistles, but now for seven
years we have known that Churches actually accepted the Marcionite prefaces to the Pauline Epistles! De Bruyne has made one of the finest
discoveries of later days in proving that those prefaces, which we read first in Codex Fuldensis and then in numbers of later manuscripts, are
Marcionite, and that the Churches had not noticed the cloven hoof.
Conversely, several early Latin codices contain Anti-Marcionite prologues to the Gospels.
Reaction to Marcion by early Christians

According to a remark by Origen (Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew 15.3), Marcion "prohibited allegorical
interpretations of the scripture". Tertullian disputed this in his treatise against Marcion, as did Henry Wace:
The story proceeds to say that he asked the Roman presbyters to explain the texts, "A good tree cannot bring forth evil fruit," and "No man
putteth a piece of new cloth unto an old garment," texts from which he himself deduced that works in which evil is to be found could not
proceed from the good God, and that the Christian dispensation could have nothing in common with the Jewish. Rejecting the explanation
[19]
offered him by the presbyters, he broke off the interview with a threat to make a schism in their church.
Tertullian, along with Epiphanius of Salamis, also charged that Marcion set aside the gospels of Matthew, Mark and
John, and used Luke alone.[20] Tertullian cited Luke 6:43-45 (a good tree does not produce bad fruit)[21] and Luke
5:36-38 (nobody tears a piece from a new garment to patch an old garment or puts new wine in old wineskins),[22] in
theorizing that Marcion set about to recover the authentic teachings of Jesus. Irenaeus claimed,
[Marcion's] salvation will be the attainment only of those souls which had learned his doctrine; while the body, as having been taken from the
[23]
earth, is incapable of sharing in salvation.
Tertullian also attacked this view in De Carne Christi.

Hippolytus reported that Marcion's phantasmal (and Docetist) Christ was "revealed as a man, though not a man", and
did not really die on the cross.[24] However, Ernest Evans, in editing this work, observes:
Marcionism
79
This may not have been Marcion's own belief. It was certainly that of Hermogenes (cf. Tertullian, Adversus Hermogenem) and probably other
gnostics and Marcionites, who held that the intractability of this matter explains the world's many imperfections.
Recent scholarship
In Lost Christianities, Bart Ehrman contrasts the Marcionites with the Ebionites as polar ends of a spectrum with
regard to the Old Testament.[25] Ehrman acknowledges many of Marcion's ideas are very close to what is known
today as "Gnosticism", especially its rejection of the Jewish God, the Old Testament, and the material world, and his
elevation of Paul as the primary apostle. In the PBS documentary, From Jesus to Christ [26], narrated by Elaine
Pagels, Ehrman, Karen King, and other secular New Testament scholars, Marcion's role in the formation of the New
Testament canon is discussed as pivotal, and the first to explicitly state it. There were early Christian groups, such as
the Ebionites, that did not accept Paul as part of their canon.
Robert M. Price, a New Testament scholar at Johnnie Colemon Theological Seminary, considers the Pauline canon
problem[27] : how, when, and who collected Paul's epistles to the various churches as a single collection of epistles.
The evidence that the early church fathers, such as Clement, knew of the Pauline epistles is unclear. Price
investigates several historical scenarios and comes to the conclusion and identifies Marcion as the first person known
in recorded history to collect Paul's writings to various churches together as a canon, the Pauline epistles. Robert
Price summarizes,
But the first collector of the Pauline Epistles had been Marcion. No one else we know of would be a good candidate, certainly not the
[28]
essentially fictive Luke, Timothy, and Onesimus. And Marcion, as Burkitt and Bauer show, fills the bill perfectly.
If this is correct, then Marcion's role in the formation and development of Christianity is pivotal.
Marcionism in Modern history

Historic Marcionism, and the church Marcion himself established, appeared to die out around the 5th century,
although similarities between Marcionism and Paulicianism, a later heresy in the same geographical area, indicate
that Marcionist ideas may have survived and even contributed to heresies in Bulgaria and France. Whether or not
that is the case, Marcion's influence and criticism of the Old Testament are discussed to this very day. Marcionism is
discussed in recent textbooks on early Christianity, such as Lost Christianities by Bart Ehrman. Marcion claimed to
find problems in the Old Testament; problems which many modern thinkers cite today (see Criticism of the Bible
and Biblical law in Christianity), especially its alleged approval of atrocities and genocide.
Many atheists, agnostics, and secular humanists agree with Marcion's examples of Bible atrocities, and cite the same
passages of the Old Testament to discredit Christianity and Judaism.[29] Most Christians agree with Marcion that the
Old Testament's alleged approval of genocide and murder are inappropriate models to follow today. Some Christian
scholars, such as Gleason Archer and Norman Geisler, have dedicated much of their time to the attempt to resolve
these perceived difficulties, while others have argued that just punishments (divine or human), even capital
punishments, are not genocide or murder because murder and genocide are unjustified by definition (see Christian
Reconstructionism).
On the other hand, because of the rejection of the Old Testament which originates in the Jewish Bible, the
Marcionites have been believed by some Christians to be anti-Jewish. Indeed, the word Marcionism has sometimes
been used in modern times to refer to anti-Jewish tendencies in Christian churches, especially when such tendencies
have been thought to be surviving residues of ancient Marcionism.
For some, the postulated problems of the Old Testament, and the appeal of Jesus are such that they identify
themselves as modern day Marcionites, and follow his solution in keeping the New Testament as sacred scripture,
and rejecting the Old Testament canon and practices. A term sometimes used for these groups is "New Testament
Marcionism
Only Christians". Carroll R. Bierbower is a pastor of a church he says is Marcionite in theology and practice.[30] The
Cathar movement, historically and in modern times, reject the Old Testament for the reasons Marcion enunciated. It
remains unclear whether the 11th century Cathar movement is in continuation of earlier Gnostic and Marcion
streams, or represents an independent re-invention. John Lindell, a former Methodist and Unitarian Universalist
pastor, advocates Christian deism, which does not include the Old Testament as part of its theology.[31]
Notes
[1] (115 years and 6 months from the Crucifixion, according to Tertullian's reckoning in Adversus Marcionem, xv)
[2] "Marcion was the most earnest, the most practical, and the most dangerous among the Gnostics, full of energy and zeal for reforming, but
restless rough and eccentric. He has a remote connection with modern questions of biblical criticism and the canon. He anticipated a
rationalistic opposition to the Old Testament and to the Pastoral Epistles, but in a very arbitrary and unscrupulous way. He could see only
superficial differences in the Bible, not the deeper harmony. He rejected the heathen mythology of the other Gnostics, and adhered to
Christianity as the only true religion; he was less speculative, and gave a higher place to faith. But he was utterly destitute of historical sense,
and put Christianity into a radical conflict with all previous revelations of God; as if God had neglected the world for thousands of years until
he suddenly appeared in Christ. He represents an extreme anti-Jewish and pseudo-Pauline tendency, and a magical supranaturalism, which, in
fanatical zeal for a pure primitive Christianity, nullifies all history, and turns the gospel into an abrupt, unnatural, phantomlike appearance.
Marcion was the son of a bishop of Sinope in Pontus, and gave in his first fervor his property to the church, but was excommunicated by his
own father, probably on account of his heretical opinions and contempt of authority..86 He betook himself, about the middle of the second
century, to Rome (140155), which originated none of the Gnostic systems, but attracted them all. There he joined the Syrian Gnostic, Cerdo."
History of the Christian Church, Volume II: Ante-Nicene Christianity. A.D. 100-325. Marcion and his School by PHILIP SCHAFF (http:/ /
www. ccel. org/ ccel/ schaff/ hcc2. v. xiii. xvi. html)
[3] Eusebius' Church History (http:/ / www. ccel. org/ ccel/ schaff/ hcc2. v. xiii. xvi. html)
[4] Mead 1931, pp.241-249 (http:/ / www. gnosis. org/ library/ marcion/ Mead. htm)
[5] Berdyaev Online Library (http:/ / www. berdyaev. com/ berdiaev/ berd_lib/ 1928_336. html)
[6] Eusebius of Caesarea, Ecclesiastical History, Book v. Chapter xiii.
[7] Adolf von Harnack, History of Dogma, vol. 1, ch. 5, p. 269 (http:/ / www. ccel. org/ ccel/ harnack/ dogma1. ii. iii. v. html#ii. iii. v-Page_269)
[8] Harnack, idem., p.271 (http:/ / www. ccel. org/ ccel/ harnack/ dogma1. ii. iii. v. html#ii. iii. v-Page_271)
[9] Article on Adolf Von Harnack (http:/ / www. webcom. com/ gnosis/ library/ marcion/ Harnack. html)
[10] G. R. S. Mead, Fragments of a Faith Forgotten: Some Short Sketches among the Gnostics of the First Two Centuries (London, 1906), p.
246. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TgRv8m2WGy8C& pg=PA246& dq="it+ is+ evident+ that+ the+ Marcionite+ tradition"&
hl=en& ei=Tu09TYKOMsOclgexprH-Bg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=3& ved=0CDIQ6AEwAg#v=onepage& q="it is
evident that the Marcionite tradition"& f=false)
[11] http:/ / encyclopedia. jrank. org/ MAL_MAR/ MARCION. html
[12] Harnack, Origin of the New Testament, appendix 6, pp. 222-23 (http:/ / www. ccel. org/ ccel/ harnack/ origin_nt. v. vi. html#v. vi-Page_222)
[13] McDonald & Sanders, editors, The Canon Debate, 2002, chapter 18 by Everett Ferguson, page 310, quoting Tertullian's De praescriptione
haereticorum 30: "Since Marcion separated the New Testament from the Old, he is necessarily subsequent to that which he separated,
inasmuch as it was only in his power to separate what was previously united. Having been united previous to its separation, the fact of its
subsequent separation proves the subsequence also of the man who effected the separation." Page 308, note 61 adds: "[Wolfram] Kinzig
suggests that it was Marcion who usually called his Bible testamentum [Latin for testament]."
[14] Gnostic Society Library (http:/ / www. gnosis. org/ library/ marcion/ antithes. htm) presentation of Marcion's Antithesis
[15] Marcionite Research Library (http:/ / www. marcionite-scripture. info/ Marcionite_Bible. htm) presentation of The Gospel of Marcion
[16] Mead 1931.
[17] http:/ / www. ccel. org/ ccel/ harnack/ origin_nt. v. i. html
[18] http:/ / www. ccel. org/ ccel/ harnack/ origin_nt. iii. ii. html
[19] Wace's article on Marcion (http:/ / www. earlychristianwritings. com/ info/ marcion-wace. html)
[20] From the perspectives of Tertullian and Epiphanius (when the four gospels had largely canonical status, perhaps in reaction to the challenge
created by Marcion), it appeared that Marcion rejected the non-Lukan gospels, however, in Marcion's time, it may be that the only gospel he
was familiar with from Pontus was the gospel that would later be called Luke. It is also possible that Marcion's gospel was actually modified
by his critics to became the gospel we know today as Luke, rather than the story from his critics that he changed a canonical gospel to get his
version. For example, compare Luke 5:39 to 5:36-38, did Marcion delete 5:39 from his Gospel or was it added later to counteract a Marcionist
interpretation of 5:36-38? One must keep in mind that we only know of Marcion through his critics and they considered him a major threat to
the form of Christianity that they knew. John Knox (the modern writer, not to be confused with John Knox the Protestant Reformer) in
Marcion and the New Testament: An Essay in the Early History of the Canon (ISBN 0-404-16183-9) proposed that Marcion's Gospel may
have preceded Luke's Gospel and Acts. (http:/ / ontruth. com/ marcion. html)
[21] Tertullian "Against Marcion" 1.2 (http:/ / www. tertullian. org/ articles/ evans_marc/ evans_marc_04book1_eng. htm)
[22] Tertullian "Against Marcion" 4.11.9 (http:/ / www. tertullian. org/ articles/ evans_marc/ evans_marc_10book4_eng. htm)
[23] Against Heresies, 1.27.3 (http:/ / ccel. org/ fathers2/ ANF-01/ anf01-58. htm#P6650_1591742)
80
Marcionism
[24] Tertullian Adversus Marcionem ("Against Marcion") (http:/ / www. tertullian. org/ articles/ evans_marc/ evans_marc_02intro. htm),
translated and edited by Ernest Evans
[25] Interview with Bart Ehrman about Lost Christianities (http:/ / www. beliefnet. com/ story/ 150/ story_15091_1. html)
[26] http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ pages/ frontline/ shows/ religion/
[27] The Evolution of the Pauline Canon by Robert Price (http:/ / depts. drew. edu/ jhc/ Rpcanon. html)
[28] Price
[29] Biblical Atrocities (http:/ / www. infidels. org/ library/ modern/ donald_morgan/ atrocity. html), compiled by Donald Morgan
[30] The Antithesis (http:/ / www. marcionite-scripture. info/ Carroll_Bierbower. htm), by Dr. Carroll R. Bierbower.
[31] The Human Jesus and Christian Deism (http:/ / www. onr. com/ user/ bejo/ )
References
Baker, David L., Two Testaments, One Bible (second edn; Leicester: Inter-Varsity, 1991): pp.35, 48-52.
Legge, Francis, Forerunners and Rivals of Christianity, From 330 B.C. to 330 A.D. (1914), reprinted in two
volumes bound as one, University Books New York, 1964. LC Catalog 64-24125.
McGowan, Andrew, Associate Professor of Early Christian History at the Episcopal Divinity School, Cambridge,
Massachusetts Journal of Early Christian Studies, Vol. 9 (http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/
journal_of_early_christian_studies/v009/9.3mcgowan.html)
Mead, G.R.S., Gospel of Marcion Fragments of a Faith Forgotten (http://www.gnosis.org/library/marcion/
Mead.htm), London and Benares, 1900; 3rd Edition 1931.
Price, Robert M. The Evolution of the Pauline Canon (http://depts.drew.edu/jhc/Rpcanon.html).
Riparelli, Enrico, Il volto del Cristo dualista. Da Marcione ai catari, Peter Lang, Bern - Berlin - Bruxelles Frankfurt am Main - New York - Oxford - Wien 2008, 368 pp.ISBN 9783039114900
External links
The Marcionite Research Library (http://www.marcionite-scripture.info/)
"Marcionites". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
81

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Apostle Paul

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Apostle Paul

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The Apostle Paul

John Nelson Darby

The Way International

American Christian Press

Victor Paul Wierwille

The Way College of Biblical Research Indiana Campus

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Paul the Apostle

Paul the Apostle

Ananias of Damascus restores the sight of Saint Paul.

in Tarsus, present-day Turkey [Acts22:3]

Major shrine Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls

January 25 (The Conversion of Paul)

Missions; Theologians; Gentile Christians;

Paul the Apostle

Conversion of Saint Paul, a fresco by

Paul the Apostle

Conversion and mission

Geography relevant to Paul's life, stretching from

In the opening verses of Romans1, Paul provides a litany of his own

Paul the Apostle

The house believed to be of Ananias of Damascus

Bab Kisan, believed to be where Paul escaped

First missionary journey

Paul the Apostle

Second missionary journey

Third missionary journey

Saint Paul delivering the Areopagus sermon in Athens, by

Paul and his companions went on to Rome, which was

Paul the Apostle

Despite the agreement achieved at the Council of Jerusalem, as

Visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles

Paul the Apostle

First visit to Jerusalem[Acts9:26-27]

14 years later (after Damascus conversion?)

to "greet the church"

Fifth visit to Jerusalem[Acts21:17ff]

three years after Damascus conversion[Gal.1:17-18]

Fourth visit to Jerusalem[Acts18:21-22]

First visit to Jerusalem[Gal.1:18-20]

for famine relief

Third visit to Jerusalem[Acts15:1-19]

"after many days" of Damascus

after an absence of several

to deliver the collection for the poor

Paul the Apostle

Arrest and death

Saint Paul arrested, early 1900s Bible illustration.

Acts recounts that on the way to Rome Paul was shipwrecked on

Paul the Apostle

Paul the Apostle

Russian Orthodox icon of the Apostle Paul,

Relationship with Judaism

Paul the Apostle

Let the woman learn in silence with all subjection.

For Adam was first formed, then Eve.

1Timothy 2:11-14, KJV

Paul the Apostle

In the East, church fathers reduced the element of election in Romans 9

Paul the Apostle

Paul the Apostle

A statue of Paul holding a scroll (symbolising the

Paul the Apostle

Paul the Apostle