CNS Self Study

Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002
CNS/ATM COURSE
PRE-COURSE
SELF-STUDY MATERIAL
Prepared by: Airways Engineering
Foreword
The Communications, Navigation, Surveillance / Air Traffic Management (CNS/ATM)

course is an introductory course that will benefit all Airways Engineering personnel. In order
to accomplish this task trainees must go from the known to the unknown. The problem is
knowing where we should start and how much material can be taught. Even if we knew the
background of all the trainees on a particular course it would take too many resources to
tailor a specific course to the specific knowledge level determined to exist.
So this self-study material provides an overview of what the CNS/ATM system concept is,
and an insight into on how computers work and communicate. It is important that you
know the material well before attending the CNS/ATM course. The terms and concepts are
used throughout the CNS/ATM course and you will have difficulty following the certain
systems description without a basic understanding of the principles and definitions included
in this pre-course study package.
A pre-course threshold knowledge test will be administered to ensure an understanding of
this self-study material. You must pass this test with an average of 50% to attend the course.
SECTION - 1
1.
AIR TRAFFIC DEMAND
1.1 Air traffic demand is increasing in all parts of the world. Although rates of growth may differ between
regions, significant increases in air traffic demand are expected to continue. The current demands have
already increased the pressure on air traffic service providers and users, straining airspace and airport
resources. Without change, the result will be further congestion and delays due to the capacity
limitations of todays system, which together with environmental considerations, could have significant
economic consequences.
1.2 The average annual growth rate for the period 2000-2005 was expected to be 5.2%. For the period 2005
-2010 it was projected at 4.8%. These rates of growth have fallen off and it still remains to be confirmed
if the rate of growth in Air Traffic will return to the levels that existed prior to the events of September
11th, 2001.
2.
SYSTEM PROBLEMS
2.1
2.2
System shortcomings in the early 1980s amounted to essentially three factors:
Propagation limitations of existing line of sight systems;
The difficulty, caused by a variety of reasons, to implement current Communications,

Navigation and Surveillance systems and operate them in a consistent manner in
large parts of the world; and,
The limitations of voice communications and the lack of digital air-ground data
interchange systems to support automated systems un the air and on the ground.
These shortcomings were reflected in problems, such as:
Schedule delays due to insufficient Air Traffic Control (ATC) capacity to meet the
traffic demand in particular during peak hours.
Differences in operating concepts and procedures and the lack of co- ordination
between regions and Flight Information Regions (FIRs) causing increased workloads
for both ATC and flight crew.
Air Traffic Flow Management (ATFM) which prevented matching available capacity
with demand over the entire route, causing the need for flying holding patterns in the
sectors with the highest capacity constraints.
The inflexibility of fixed route structure systems preventing the most efficient use of
airspace and most economical conduct of flight operations.
The inability to expand to meet future traffic growth, in an evolutionary fashion.
The inability to fully exploit the capabilities of advanced airborne equipment such as
flight management systems.
The increasing operating costs of the present Air Traffic Services (ATS) system
3
associated with the need to increase capacity. Without advanced automation, increases
in capacity can only be achieved by decreasing the size of existing control areas and
increasing the number of controllers.
2.3
Unless there were improvements to the old system, international aviation would experience a
continuing increase in airport and airspace congestion, which would become progressively worse as air
traffic increased. This would result in higher operating costs and a stifling of the market for the aviation
industry.
3
FUTURE AIR NAVIGATION SYSTEM (FANS) COMMITTEE - FANS Phase I
3.1
In the early 1980s, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) recognized the
increasing limitations of the existing air navigation systems and the need for improvements to take civil
aviation into the 21st century. In 1983, ICAO established the Special Committee on Future Air Navigation
Systems (FANS) with the following terms of reference:
3.2
"To study technical, operational, institutional and economic questions, including cost/benefit
effects, relating to future potential air navigation systems; to identify and assess new concepts and
technology, including satellite technology, which may have future benefits for the development of
international civil aviation including the likely implications they would have for users and providers of such
systems; and to make recommendations thereon for an over-all long term projection for the co-ordinated
evolutionary development of air navigation for international civil aviation over a period of the order of
twenty five years"
3.3
The committee presented to the ICAO Council and the international aviation community, a
consolidated proposal for a future global air navigation system.
3.4
The Committee concluded that the application of satellite, communications and computer
technology was the only solution that would enable international civil aviation to overcome the
shortcomings of the present CNS system and fulfill the needs and requirements of the foreseeable future
4
on a global basis. In arriving at this concept of FANS the Committee was guided by the Objectives that a
new CNS system should provide for:
Global communications, navigation and surveillance coverage from (very) low to (very) high
altitudes, also embracing remote, off-shore and oceanic
Digital data interchange between the air-ground systems to fully exploit the automated capabilities of
both.
Navigation/approach service for runways and other landing areas which need not be equipped with
precision landing aids.
3.5 The FANS I Committee completed its work in May 1988 and recommended that the ICAO Council
urgently establish a new committee to advise on the overall monitoring, co-ordination of development and
transition planning to ensure that implementation of the future CNS system takes place on a global basis in
a cost effective manner, and in a balanced way between air navigation systems and geographical areas.
4
FANS PHASE II
4.1
In July 1989, the ICAO council, acting on the recommendation of the FANS Phase I Committee,
established the Special Committee for the Monitoring and Co-ordination of Development and Transition
Planning for the Future Air Navigation System (FANS Phase II).
4.2
In October 1993, the FANS Phase II Committee completed its work. It recognized that
implementation of related technologies would not arrive overnight, but would rather evolve over a period of
time, depending on the existing infrastructure in the various States and Regions, and the over-all
requirements and needs of the aviation community.
4.3
The Tenth Air Navigation Conference - September 1991
4.3.1
The Tenth Air Navigation Conference held in Montreal in September 1991, endorsed the FANS
concept which then became known as the Communications, Navigation, Surveillance / Air Traffic
Management system (CNS/ATM). CNS/ATM involves a complex and interrelated set of technologies
depending largely on Satellites and including new communications and computer technologies. CNS/ATM is
a vision developed by ICAO with the full co-operation of all sectors of the aviation community to
accommodate future needs of international air transport. The results of the conference encapsulated a set of
agreed recommendations covering the full spectrum of CNS/ATM activities that continue to offer guidance
and direction to the international civil aviation community.
4.4
Global Planning
4.4.1
The FANS PHASE II Committee was tasked to develop a plan of action which was included in
their report as an appendix (FANS Phase II - Doc 9623). In 1996 the ICAO Council directed the ICAO
Secretariat to revise the Global Plan as a living document comprising technical, operational, economic,
financial, legal and institutional elements. The intention was to offer guidance and advice to regional
planning groups and States on implementation strategies, which include technical cooperation aspects.
4.4.2
The Secretariat on the first page of the revised Global Plan included the following information
on CNS/ATM:
4.2
Definition
4.2.1
Communications, navigation and surveillance systems, employing digital technologies,

including satellite systems together with various levels of automation, applied in support of
a global air traffic management system.
4.3
Strategic Vision
4.3.1
To foster implementation of a global air traffic management system that will enable
aircraft operators to meet their planned times of departure and arrival and adhere to their preferred
flight profiles with minimum constraints and without compromising agreed levels of safety.
4.4
Mission
4.4.1
To develop a seamless, globally co-ordinated system of air navigation services that will
cope with world-wide growth in air traffic demand while:
Improving upon the present levels of safety;

Improving upon the present level of regularity;
Improving upon the over-all efficiency of airspace and airport operations, leading
to increased capacity;
Increasing the availability of user-preferred flight schedules and profiles; and
minimizing differing equipment carriage requirements between regions.
OVERALL DESCRIPTION OF THE NEW CNS/ATM SYSTEMS
5.1
Communications - Navigation - Surveillance
5.1.1
The main features of the global concept of the CNS systems could be summarized as follows:
5.1.2
EXISTING COMMUNICATIONS
- Existing
Figure 1
6
5.1.3
The present communications environment is based on the use of Very High Frequency (VHF)
and High Frequency (HF) voice transmissions with all the problems of language, slow rate of information
transfer, high workload, possibility of errors etc. Due to its propagation characteristics the use of VHF is
limited to line-of-sight communication and world-wide coverage is clearly not possible. Mobile HF
communications were the only ones available for over-the horizon communications. Such communications
have reliability limitations as a result of the variability of propagation characteristics. Though data-link can
and will solve the majority of these problems it has been recognized that there is a need to compensate for
the "situational awareness" that the pilot has in a voice based environment. Some of the problems with
communications included:
5.1.4
VHF spectrum saturation in many areas of the world.

The lack of digital air-ground data interchange systems to support automated
systems in the air and on the ground.
Voice communication has slow rate of information transfer.
Voice communication problems arise due to language skill or accent of
controllers and pilots.
Possibility of errors of transmission or comprehension.
High workload of a controller.
FUTURE COMMUNICATIONS
Future Communication Environment

Satellite
Data and
voice
Data
Data and
voice
VHF data and
voice
HF data and
voice
Air Traffic
Service
Satellite dish
DATA
VHF Radio
AERONAUTICAL
TELECOMMUNICATION
NETWORK
HF Radio
SSR Mode S
Neighboring Center
Figure 2
5.1.5
Data and voice communications are made available through direct satellite/aircraft/ground
links. Initially, high frequency (HF) voice may have to be maintained in the transition period and over
polar regions until such time as satellite communication is available. HF data is considered for data link
7
coverage in the polar regions and remote continental areas as a backup or possible alternative to mobile
satellite communication.
5.1.6
Very high frequency (VHF) will remain in use for voice and data communication in many
continental and terminal areas.
5.1.7
The secondary surveillance radar (SSR) Mode S data link will be used for air traffic services
(ATS) purposes in high density airspace.
5.1.8
The aeronautical telecommunication network (ATN) will provide the interchange of digital
packet data between end-users over various air-ground and ground-ground communication sub-networks.
5.1.9
5.1.10
Data communication using ARINC 622 standard is available as an interim system

BENEFITS
Table 1
BENEFITS OF NEW
COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM
N
Current limitations
Benefits
The propagation limitations of current lineof-sight VHF voice communication systems

(curvature of the earth; attenuation along the
propagation line; other geographical
features).
A single aviation network

connecting all users
No full coverage of VHF voice

communication especially for oceanic
airspace.
Global coverage
including polar and
oceanic regions
HF communication is not restricted to lineof-sight because the radio waves are

reflected off the ionosphere. However HF
voice communication is a subject to severe
fading and interference.
Improved air - ground

linkage, reduced errors
more reliable
communication due to
data links
VHF spectrum saturation in many areas of

the world.
Reduced channel
congestion, safety
enhanced
The lack of digital air-ground data

interchange systems to support automated
systems in the air and on the ground.
Interoperability
guaranteed, safety
enhanced
Voice communication has slow rate of

information transfer.
More fast data

transmission, more
reliable, more accurate,
safety enhanced
Voice communication has the problems

concerning to language skill or accent of
controller
Problems eliminated due

to print messages
transmission and standard
forms of the messages,
safety enhanced.
Possibility of errors of transmission or

comprehension.
Errors are detected and

corrected. More accurate
data, safety enhanced.
High workload of a controller.
Reduced workload
5.2 NAVIGATION
Current Air Navigation Environment

Omega/Loran-C
INS,IRS
Barometric
Altitude
En-route
ILS
Landing
VOR/DME, NDB
FIGURE 3
5.2.1
LIMITATIONS
5.2.1.1 Very High Frequency Omni-Directional Radio Range (VOR)

Limited coverage;
Decreasing accuracy at increasing distance from beacon;
Extensive flight inspection measurements required to reassure and maintain required
accuracy.
5.2.1.2 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
Limited coverage;
Decreasing accuracy at increasing distance from beacon;
Limited number of users (at reaching maximum, coverage decreases);
Sometimes coverage adjustment required to prevent interference;
In order to meet Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 1 requirements with multi
DME, the geometry of the location of DMEs is a constraint.
5.2.1.3
Non Directional Radio Beacon (NDB)

Limited range;
Limited accuracy.
5.2.1.4
Inertial Navigation System (INS) / Inertial Reference System (IRS)

Navigation information derived from INS decreases in accuracy with time (in general
less than 2 NM/hr).
5.2.2
FUTURE NAVIGATION
10
Figure 4
5.2.3
Progressive introduction of area navigation (RNAV) capability in compliance with the

required navigation performance (RNP) criteria.
5.2.4
Global Navigation Satellite System(s) (GNSS) will provide world-wide coverage and will be used
for aircraft navigation and for non-precision-type approaches and, with appropriate augmentation,
Category I approaches. With adequate augmentation systems Category II and Category III
approaches may be available in the future.
5.2.5
The global strategy for the introduction and application of non-visual aids to approach and
landing is as follows:
i) continue Instrument Landing Systems (ILS) operations to the highest level of service as long as
operationally acceptable and economically beneficial;
ii) implement Microwave Landing System (MLS) where operationally required and economically
beneficial;
iii) promote the use of multi-mode receiver (MMR) or equivalent airborne capability to maintain
aircraft interoperability;
iv)GNSS, with such augmentations as required, to support approach and departure operations,
including at least Category I operations, and implement GNSS for such operations as appropriate;
v) Category II and III operations, based on GNSS technology, with such augmentations as required
[e.g. Differential GNSS (DGNSS), Space Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS) such as the Wide
11
Area Augmentation System (WAAS), Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS) such as Local
Area Augmentation Systems (LAAS)], where operationally acceptable and economically
beneficial; and
vi)enable each region to develop an implementation strategy for future systems in line with the
global strategy.
vii) Non-directional radio beacon (NDB) and VHF omnidirectional radio range/distance
measuring equipment (VOR/DME) will be progressively withdrawn.
5.3
BENEFITS
5.3.1
"The global navigation satellite system will provide a high-integrity, highaccuracy, world-wide navigation service for the en-route, terminal, and non-precision approach
phases of flight, and possibly for Category I precision approach and landing operations as well as
making it possible to achieve capacity improvements at limited cost throughout the world.
5.3.2
Three- and four-dimensional navigation accuracy will be improved.
5.3.3
Aircraft will be able to navigate in all airspace in any part of the world using a
single set of navigation avionics.
5.3.4
Provider States will realise cost savings as existing ground-based navigation aids
are no longer needed One of the attractions of GNSS is that it may lead to the removal of some or
all ground-based radio navigation aids, such as NDB, VOR, DME etc. If Local Area Augmentation
System (LAAS) meets CAT III requirements then GNSS could eventually replace ILS and MLS as
a landing aid. However, this is not going to happen overnight and GNSS must prove itself before
anything will happen. Nevertheless, the removal of "classical" navigation aids was recognised by
FANS as one of the drivers behind the move to satellite technology..
5.3.5
The new system can be used in conjunction with other systems, such as inertial
navigation systems, to support operations through all phases of flight.
N
1
Limitations
The propagation limitations of
current line-of-sight ground-based
VHF navigation systems.
Benefits
Global coverage, world-wide navigation service is
available. Single set of navigation avionics will
allow to navigate in any part of the world.
No full coverage of VOR/DME

beacons and others as well in many
regions of the world.
Global coverage, world-wide navigation service is

available. Single set of navigation avionics will
allow to navigate in any part of the world.
Accuracy limitations, that does not

allow to use flexible routes and area
navigation (RNAV).
High-accuracy navigation for all phases of flight.
12
Table 2
5.4
SURVEILLANCE
Figure 5
5.4.1
In areas of high traffic density, Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) Modes A and C currently
provide the main method for surveillance and control of air movements backed up by primary radar and
voice reports on VHF. As these are "line of sight" systems, for oceanic operations, remote land areas, and
areas where primary and secondary radar cannot be justified economically, voice reports on HF are used
for a procedural service which demands wide separation standards to ensure adequate safety.
13
Figure 6
5.4.2
The key feature of the FANS surveillance concept is Automatic Dependent Surveillance
(ADS), a means of extending surveillance service to oceanic airspace, remote land areas, and other areas
where radar coverage is not available. Instead of having to rely on voice position reports, an aircraft
operating in these non-radar areas will automatically transmit its position (and other relevant data, such as
aircraft intent, speed and weather) to the air traffic centre via satellite or other communication links. The
aircraft position can then be displayed in a manner similar to that of present radar displays. Used in
conjunction with complementary two-way pilot-controller communications, ADS will serve as the basis
for the provision of tactical air traffic services.
5.4.3
SSR will continue to be used for surveillance in terminal areas and high-density continental
airspace. Enhancing SSR with Mode S will provide selective address and data link capabilities to extend
further the benefits of SSR for surveillance purposes. The resulting system will be characterised by
reduced interference and high accuracy
5.4.4
BENEFITS
5.4.4.1
Automatic dependent surveillance (ADS) services will be the basis for potentially significant
enhancements to flight safety by reducing position report errors.
5.4.4.2
ADS will provide significant early benefits in oceanic and other non-radar areas.
5.4.4.3
employ of ADS, supported by direct pilot-controller communications, ill allow these non-radar
areas to evolve to the point where air traffic services are provided in the same manner as in todays radar
airspace.
5.4.4.4
ADS will support reductions in separation minima in non-radar airspace. These reductions will
alleviate delays, minimise necessary diversions from preferred flight paths, and reduce flight operating
costs.
14
5.4.4.5
ADS will support increased air traffic control (ATC) flexibility, enabling controllers to be more
responsive to aircraft flight preferences. With or without reductions in separation minima, this flexibility
will contribute to cost savings for flight operations.
5.4.4.6
Mode S in combination with ADS will facilitate uniform surveillance services world-wide. It
will provide high-accuracy, interference-protected surveillance in high-density airspace.
5.4.4.7
Cost savings to provider States will be realised through the gradual elimination of various
ground systems.
5.4.4.8
5.5
Mode S provides the ability to selectively address aircraft through the 24 bit Mode S code.
Air Traffic Management (ATM)
5.5.1
The main beneficiary of the new CNS systems will be the ATM system. The new CNS systems
will enable the direct transfer of digital information between the ground and the air during all phases of
flight. The deployment of the new CNS infrastructure will additionally facilitate the exchange of
information between the main ATM functions, i.e. Airspace Management (ASM ), Air Traffic Flow
Management (ATFM ) and Air Traffic Control (ATC ), resulting in an integrated ATM service to users
from gate-to-gate.
Figure 7
5.5.2
Increased Use of Automation
The future ATM system will make increasing use of automation to reduce or eliminate constraints imposed
on operations by current systems, and to derive the benefits made possible by implementation of the new
CNS systems. The flexibility afforded by the new CNS systems will allow for the introduction of
automation capabilities from the simplest to the most advanced as required by individual States, but in a
globally consistent yet evolutionary manner. For this reason, it is expected that the use of ATM automation
will be most visible in the areas of:
flow management
tactical control
oceanic operations
en-route/terminal operations and

15
5.5.3
airport operations
Improved Flow Management
Flow Management will in future be based on sophisticated models and databases describing the current
and projected levels of demand and resources. This new level of automation will make it possible to
predict the possible sources of congestion and delay and formulate real-time flow management strategies
to cope with demand.
5.5.4
Tactical Control
Automation will allow rapid negotiation between the service provider and aircraft to enhance tactical
control. Improved tactical control will permit the accommodation of changes in a users preferred
trajectory in three or four dimensions while satisfying any ATM constraints, resolving conflicts and
scheduling the use of scarce resources, such as runways.
5.5.5
Oceanic Operations
International air traffic is growing much more rapidly than domestic operations. This area of ATM stands
to benefit significantly from the new technologies and will experience significant improvements through
the next decade. Extensive use will be made of ADS, Satellite Communications, GNSS, weather system
improvements etc. to integrate ground-based ATM and airborne Flight Management Systems. The goal is
to develop flexible oceanic operations which accommodate the users preferred trajectories to the
maximum extent.
5.5.6
En-route and Terminal Operations
The automated flow management will monitor available capacity and demand at airports throughout the
en-route and terminal airspace, and will implement strategies to prevent the development of congestion.
The ATM functions will be integrated to provide smooth traffic flow into and out of terminal areas.
5.5.7
Airport Operations:
Traffic flows at airports will be structured to ensure maximum utilisation of approach and departure
capacities. Curved approaches will eliminate some of the current constraints on approach capacity, and the
use of new aids will permit independent Instrument Flight Rules on parallel runways spaced as closely as
2,500ft thus reducing the estate required for enlarging airports. Improved surface guidance systems at
congested airports will increase capacity still further.
5.5.8
The new ATM capabilities and more accurate data will make it possible to enhance safety,
reduce delays, and increase airspace and airport capacity.
5.5.9
Oceanic ATM operations will become much more flexible, resulting in a greater capability to
accommodate user-preferred trajectories.
5.5.10
Improved flow management will prevent excessive levels of congestion.
5.5.11
Data link will transmit a variety of information from appropriately equipped aircraft to the
ground, and provide enhanced information to the cockpit. It will dramatically reduce the communicators
workload, and reduce the channel congestion and communications errors that characterise the current
voice environment
16
5.5.12
New capabilities will make it possible to permit flexible routing, as well as dynamic
modifications to aircraft routes in response to changes in weather and traffic conditions.
5.5.13
Terminal and en-route ATM functions will be integrated to provide smooth traffic flows into
and out of terminal areas.
5.5.14
Air traffic controllers will be able to establish efficient approach streams for parallel and
converging runway configurations.
5.5.15
Single-runway capacities in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) will increase to a level
approaching current single-runway capacities in visual meteorological conditions (VMC).
5.5.16
Independent instrument flight rules (IFR) operations on triple and quadruple parallel runways
will become routine in high density environments.
5.5.17
Conflicts among departure and approach operations involving adjacent airports will be reduced.
5.5.18
Flexibility in controlling the noise footprint of airport traffic operations will be increased.
5.5.19
The over-all benefits of the new ATM system will derive from the combined benefits of the new
communications, navigation, and surveillance systems, together with increasing use of automation.
5.5.20
CONCLUSION
5.5.20.1
This section of the CNS/ATM self-study material has given the trainee a broad overview of what
CNS/ATM is and defined some of the terms they will encounter on the course. To provide a realistic view of
the systems now under consideration or being actively implemented a look at one of the CNS/ATM Charts
from the Middle East Regional Plan is appropriate.
17
5.5.20.2
The future CNS systems from the Middle East ICAO CNS/ATM Plan are presented in a
condensed form in the CNS evolution table below. Included is the function they perform and the
conventional systems they will eventually replace:
Oceanic continental
en-route airspace
with low density
traffic
FUNCTION
Conventional
System
Elements
Communications
VHF voice
HF Voice
Navigation
Surveillance
Communications
Continental
Airspace with highdensity traffic
Navigation
Surveillance
Communications
LORAN-C
NDB
VOR/DME
Barometric altimetry
INS/IRS
Primary radar/SSR
Voice
Position
Reports
VHF voice
LORAN-C
NDB
VOR/DME
INS/IRS
Primary
radar
(Note1)
SSR Mode A/C
HF voice
Oceanic areas with

high-density traffic
Navigation
Surveillance
Communications
Navigation
Terminal
Areas
with high-density
traffic
Surveillance
MNPS
LORAN-C
INS/IRS
Voice
position
reports
VHF voice
NDB
VOR/DME
ILS/MLS
INS/IRS
Primary
radar
(Note1)
SSR Mode A/C
18
New CNS System Elements

1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
VHF voice/data (notes 3&4)

AMSS data/voice (Note 4)
HF data/voice (note 4)
ATN router/end system
GNSS
GNSS Altitude
INS/IRS
ADS
ADS-B
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.

HF data/voice (note 4)
GNSS
GNSS Altitude (Note 2)
INS/IRS
SSR Mode A/C or S

ADS / ADS-B
HF data/voice (Note 4)
1. GNSS
2. Barometric altimetry
3. GNSS Altitude (Note 2)
4. INS/IRS
ADS
SSR Mode S data link
GNSS
ILS/MLS/DGNSS (Note 5)
Barometric Altimetry
INS/IRS
SSR Mode A/C or S
ADS / ADS-B
Terminal
Areas
with
low-density
traffic
Communications
VHF voice
Navigation
NDB
VOR/DME
ILS/MLS
INS/IRS
Primary
radar
(Note1)
SSR Mode A/C
Surveillance
19

GNSS
ILS/MLS/DGNSS (Note 5)
Barometric Altimetry
INS/IRS
ADS / ADS-B
End of Section - SECTION I - Review Exercise

Answers found at page 24
Q1
What does the abbreviation CNS/ATM stand for?

a)
A term agreed on at the ICAO 10th Air Navigation Conference?
b)
Central Navigation System / Air Traffic Movements
c)
Communications, Navigation, Surveillance / Air Traffic Management
d)
Communications, Navigation, Surveillance / Air Traffic Movements
Q2
One of the System shortcomings identified in the early 1980s was?

a) The propagation limitations of existing line of sight systems.
b) The ease with which new Communications, Navigation and Surveillance systems could be
implemented in large parts of the world.
c) The capability of voice communications and the availability of digital air-ground data
interchange systems to support automated systems in the air and on the ground.
d) There were none.
Q3
The shortcomings identified in the early 1980s were reflected in problems, such as?
a) Air Traffic Control (ATC) needed more air traffic demand.
b) Air Traffic Flow Management (ATFM) which had the available capacity over the entire route,
causing no need to fly holding patterns in the sectors with the highest constraints.
c) The flexibility of fixed route structure systems which allow the most efficient use of airspace and
most economical conduct of flight operations.
d) The inability to fully exploit the capabilities of advanced airborne equipment such as flight
management systems.
Q4
What does FANS mean?

a)
It includes all Committees of ICAO dealing with FANS
b)
It relates to the Future Aeroportable Nexus System (FANS)
c)
Future Air Navigation System
d)
Nothing it is just a term coined by ICAO Staff
Q5
In arriving at the concept of FANS the ICAO Committee was guided by the Objectives that a
new CNS system should provide for?
a) VHF communications, navigation and surveillance
b) Digital data interchange between the air-ground systems to fully exploit the automated
capabilities of both.
c) aircraft to maintain their own separation
d) satellite tracking and ephemeris
Q6
Due to its propagation characteristics the use of Very High Frequency (VHF) radios is limited
to?
a) world-wide coverage
b) line-of-sight communication and world-wide coverage is clearly not possible
c) line-of-sight communication and world-wide coverage is possible
d) line-of-sight communication and oceanic areas
Q7
Mobile HF communications have reliability limitations as a result of the variability of

propagation characteristics and: ..?
a) over the horizon communications are not available
b) were the only ones available for over-the horizon communications
c) the system has the ability to communicate far out into space
d) a High Fence (HF) must be broken down and rebuilt to make it more reliable
20
Q8
Some of the problems with communications identified by the ICAO FANS Committee were:
a) VHF spectrum saturation in many areas of the world.
b) no automated systems in the air and on the ground.
c) Voice communication has rapid rate of information transfer.
d) No possibility of errors of transmission or comprehension.
e) Low workload of a controller.
Q9Data and voice communications are made available through direct satellite/aircraft/ground links.
HF data is considered for data link coverage in the polar regions and remote continental areas
as a backup or possible alternative to mobile satellite communication. Name another planned
data link service?
a) Very high frequency (VHF) data communication will be used in many Oceanic and Remote
Areas
b) (SSR) Mode S data link may be used for air traffic flow management purposes
c) The aeronautical telecommunication network (ATN) will only be the airborne data service
d) Data communication using ARINC 622 standard is available as an interim system
Q10
What are some of the limitations of VORs?

a) Broken coverage above Flight Level (FL) 400
b) Decreasing accuracy at increasing distance from beacon
c) Few flight inspection measurements required
d) Increasing accuracy at increasing distance from beacon
Q11
Which statement is NOT true about Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

a) Limited coverage
b) Decreasing accuracy at increasing distance from beacon
c) Unlimited number of users (at reaching maximum altitude, coverage decreases)
d) Sometimes coverage adjustment required to prevent interference
e) In order to meet Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 1 requirements with multi DME, the
geometry of the location of DMEs is a constraint.
Q12
The accuracy of INS/IRS degrades at how many nautical miles per hour?
A) 1 NM
B) 3.5NM
C) 2 NM
D) .5NM
Q13
What do the letters RNP stand for?

a) Rollex Navigation Precision
b) Rollover Nightime Point
c) Required Navigation Precision
d) Required Navigation Performance
Q14
The FANS Committee strategy for Navigation included the following sentence?
a) Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), without augmentations
b) Only Category II and III operations
c) Enable each region to develop an implementation strategy for future systems in line with the
global strategy
d) INS/IRS will be progressively withdrawn
e) All of the above
Q15
One of the advantages of GNSS is that it may lead to:

21
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
the removal of some or all ground-based radio navigation aids, such as NDB, VOR, DME etc.
the installation of ILS and MLS as a landing aid
less accurate navigation resulting in less accidents
the installation of more classical navigation aids such as NDB,VOR,DME etc.
All of the above
Q16
In areas of high traffic density the main method for surveillance and control of air movements
is?
a) Primary & Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)
b) primary radar alone
c) voice reports on VHF
d) HF Voice Reports
e) All of the above
Q17
The key feature of the FANS surveillance concept is Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS),
a means of extending surveillance service to oceanic airspace, remote land areas, and other
areas where radar coverage is not available. Instead of having to rely on voice position reports,
an aircraft operating in these non-radar areas will:
a) automatically transmit its position (and other relevant data, such as aircraft intent, speed and
weather) to the air traffic centre via satellite or other communication links
b) Not be displayed in a manner similar to that of present radar displays
c) Not use controller-pilot-data-link-communications (CPDLC)
d) never use ADS as the basis for the provision of tactical air traffic services.
e) All of the above
Q18
SSR with Mode S will provide?

a) selective address and data link capabilities to extend further the benefits of SSR for surveillance
purposes. ADS will support increased air traffic control (ATC) flexibility, enabling controllers to
be more responsive to aircraft flight preferences. This flexibility will contribute to cost savings
for flight operations. The resulting system will be characterised by reduced interference and high
accuracy
b) Automatic dependent surveillance (ADS) services will be the basis for potentially significant
enhancements to flight safety by reducing position report errors. ADS will provide significant
early benefits in oceanic and other non-radar areas. Implementation of ADS, supported by direct
pilot-controller communications, will allow these non-radar areas to evolve to the point where air
traffic services are provided in the same manner as in todays radar airspace.
c) ADS will support reductions in separation minima in non-radar airspace. These reductions will
alleviate delays, minimise necessary diversions from preferred flight paths, and reduce flight
operating costs. Mode S in combination with ADS will facilitate uniform surveillance services
world-wide.
d) Cost to provider States will be realised through the gradual elimination of various ground
systems. Mode S provides the ability to selectively address aircraft through the 24 bit Mode S
code. It will provide high-accuracy, interference-protected surveillance in high-density airspace.
e) All of the above
22
Q19
The main beneficiary of the new CNS systems will be the ATM system. The new CNS systems
will enable the direct transfer of digital information between the ground and the air during all
phases of flight. The deployment of the new CNS infrastructure will additionally facilitate the
exchange of information between the main ATM functions, which are:
a) Airspace Management (ASM ) and Air Traffic Services (ATS)
b) Surveillance, Automation, Airways and Approach
c) Airspace Management (ASM ), Air Traffic Flow Management (ATFM ), and Air Traffic Control
(ATC )
d) None of the above
Q20
The future ATM system will make increasing use of automation to reduce or eliminate
constraints imposed on operations by current systems, and to derive the benefits made possible
by implementation of the new CNS systems. The flexibility afforded by the new CNS systems
will allow for the introduction of automation capabilities from the simplest to the most
advanced as required by individual States, but in a globally consistent yet evolutionary
manner. For this reason, it is expected that the use of ATM automation will be most visible in
the areas of:
a) Airspace management, Air Traffic Flow Management, Maintenance, Statistical Analysis
b) Personnel Management, Pay Services, Tower Operations, ACC Operations
c) Flow Management, Tactical Control, Oceanic Operations, En-route/Terminal Operations and
Airport Operations
d) All of the above.
Q21
Flow Management will in future be based on sophisticated models and databases describing
the current and projected levels of demand and resources. This new level of automation will
make it possible to predict:
a) The number of aircraft that will cross a point in space which divided by two results in the mean
average air traffic flow
b) The number of near miss incidents that will occur over the total possible flow of air traffic
c) The possible sources of congestion and delay and formulate real-time flow management
strategies to cope with demand.
d) How many computers the civil aviation authority will need to make automation possible.
e) All of the above
Q22
Automation will allow rapid negotiation between the service provider and aircraft to enhance
tactical control. Improved tactical control will permit the accommodation of changes in a
users preferred trajectory in three or four dimensions while satisfying:
a) potential safety violations of aircraft and aircraft algorithms
b) required separation minima and preferred profiles of ATC
c) resolving conflicts and giving the aircrew a happy flying feeling
d) any ATM constraints, resolving conflicts and scheduling the use of scarce resources, such as
runways.
e) All of the above
23
Q23
International air traffic is growing much more rapidly than domestic operations. This area of
ATM stands to benefit significantly from the new technologies and will experience significant
improvements. Extensive use is made of ADS, Satellite Communications, GNSS, weather
system improvements etc. to integrate ground-based ATM and airborne Flight Management
Systems. The goal is to:
a) transition to satellite and OMEGA systems as quickly as possible
b) develop flexible oceanic operations which accommodate the users preferred trajectories to the
maximum extent
c) terminate the use of INS/IRS operations
d) use data communications exclusively
e) All of the above
Q24
The automated flow management will monitor available capacity and demand at airports
throughout the en-route and terminal airspace, and will implement strategies to prevent the
development of congestion. The ATM functions will be integrated
a) to assist the air traffic controller approach supervisor
b) to allow smoother landings
c) to provide smooth traffic flow into and out of terminal areas
d) to enhance straight in approaches and landings
e) all of the above
Please indicate whether the following statements are true or false?
The new ATM capabilities and more accurate data will make it possible to enhance safety, reduce
delays, and increase airspace and airport capacity. Oceanic ATM operations will become much more
flexible, resulting in a greater capability to accommodate user-preferred trajectories. Improved flow
management will prevent excessive levels of congestion.
Q25
True
False
Data link will transmit a variety of information from appropriately equipped aircraft to the ground,
and provide enhanced information to the cockpit. It will dramatically reduce the communicators
workload, and reduce the channel congestion and communications errors that characterise the current
voice environment. New capabilities will make it possible to permit flexible routing, as well as
dynamic modifications to aircraft routes in response to changes in weather and traffic conditions.
True
False
Terminal and en-route ATM functions will be integrated to provide smooth traffic flows into and out
of terminal areas. Air traffic controllers will be able to establish efficient approach streams for
parallel and converging runway configurations. Single-runway capacities in instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC) will increase to a level approaching current single-runway
capacities in visual meteorological conditions (VMC).
True
False
Independent instrument flight rules (IFR) operations on triple and quadruple parallel runways will
become routine in high density environments. Conflicts among departure and approach operations
involving adjacent airports will be reduced. Flexibility in controlling the noise footprint of airport
traffic operations will be increased. The over-all benefits of the new ATM system will derive from
the combined benefits of the new communications, navigation, and surveillance systems, together
with increasing use of automation.
True
False
24
ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS - SECTION I

A1
A2
A3
c) Communications, Navigation, Surveillance / Air Traffic Management

a) The propagation limitations of existing line of sight systems.
d) The inability to fully exploit the capabilities of advanced airborne equipment such as flight
management systems.
A4
c) Future Air Navigation Systems (FANS)
A5
b) Digital data interchange between the air-ground systems to fully exploit the automated
capabilities of both.
A6
b) line-of-sight communication and world-wide coverage is clearly not possible
A7
b) were the only ones available for over-the horizon communications
A8
a) VHF spectrum saturation in many areas of the world.
A9
d) Data communication using ARINC 622 standard is available as an interim system
A10 b) Decreasing accuracy at increasing distance from beacon
A11 c) Unlimited number of users (at reaching maximum altitude, coverage decreases)
A-12 c) 2 NM
A13 d) Required Navigation Performance
A14 c) Enable each region to develop an implementation strategy for future systems in line with the
global strategy
A15 a) the removal of some or all ground-based radio navigation aids, such as NDB, VOR, DME etc.
A16 a) Primary & Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)
A17 a) automatically transmit its position (and other relevant data, such as aircraft intent, speed and
weather) to the air traffic centre via satellite or other communication links
A18 e) All of the above
A19 c) Airspace Management (ASM ), Air Traffic Flow Management (ATFM ), and Air Traffic
Control (ATC )
A20 c) Flow Management, Tactical Control, Oceanic Operations, En-route/Terminal Operations and
Airport Operations
A21 c) The possible sources of congestion and delay and formulate real-time flow management
strategies to cope with demand.
A22 d) any ATM constraints, resolving conflicts and scheduling the use of scarce resources, such as
runways.
A23 b) develop flexible oceanic operations which accommodate the users preferred trajectories to the
maximum extent.
A24 c) to provide smooth traffic flow into and out of terminal areas
A25
True, True, True, True,
25
SECTION - II
6.0
6.1
BITS & BYTES AND COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS

DATA LINK
6.1.1
In oceanic areas and remote land airspace with limited ground-based air navigation facilities,
surveillance of air traffic is envisioned to be provided by ADS position reporting through satellite
communications. Surveillance of low-altitude traffic operations, including helicopters, will be conducted
in a similar manner. In continental airspace, surveillance of air traffic may be achieved by ADS/ADS-B
reports integrated with ground-based radar systems. Controller Pilot Data Link Communication (CPDLC)
and the interchange of ATS messages will be carried out by satellite, Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)
Mode S, Very High Frequency (VHF), High Frequency (HF) or other suitable data links available. There
will also be DATIS, DFIS, DPDC .
6.1.2
Whoa! Far too much for some of us and not enough for others. Well let us back up a bit
and bring all of us along to the same starting point shall we. First if we know nothing about data
communications we need to know some of the very basic stuff like how bits and bytes work and how
computers can talk with each other. We need to know enough of this to be able to conceptualize more
advanced information. We need to bring all of you from the known (what you already know from school
or other learning experiences) to the unknown (what we are trying to make you aware of.) So let us start at
the beginning by going to the very basics. If you find that this is too elementary for you then you can skip
the reading and go to the practice test at the end of the self study package to see just how much you do
know.
6.2
How Bits and Bytes Work
6.2.1
If you have used a computer for more than five minutes, then you have heard the words bits
and bytes. Both RAM and hard disk capacities are measured in bytes, as are file sizes when you examine
them in a file viewer.
6.2.2
You might hear an advertisement that says, "This computer has a 32-bit Pentium processor
with 64 megabytes of RAM and 2.1 gigabytes of hard disk space." And many articles talk about bytes. In
this material we will discuss bits and bytes so that later on you can understand some of the issues in
CNS/ATM.
6.3
Decimal Numbers
6.3.1
The easiest way to understand bits is to compare them to something you know: digits. A digit
is a single place that can hold numerical values between 0 and 9. Digits are normally combined together in
groups to create larger numbers. For example, 6,357 has four digits. It is understood that in the number
6,357, the 7 is filling the "1s place," while the 5 is filling the 10s place, the 3 is filling the 100s place and
the 6 is filling the 1,000s place. So you could express things this way if you wanted to be explicit:
(6 * 1000) + (3 * 100) + (5 * 10) + (7 * 1) = 6000 + 300 + 50 + 7 = 6357
6.3.2
Another way to express it would be to use powers of 10. Assuming that we are going to
represent the concept of "raised to the power of" with the "^" symbol (so "10 squared" is written as
"10^2"), another way to express it is like this:
(6 * 10^3) + (3 * 10^2) + (5 * 10^1) + (7 * 10^0) = 6000 + 300 + 50 + 7 = 6357
26
6.3.3
What you can see from this expression is that each digit is a placeholder for the next higher
power of 10, starting in the first digit with 10 raised to the power of zero.
6.3.4
That should all feel pretty comfortable -- we work with decimal digits every day. The neat
thing about number systems is that there is nothing that forces you to have 10 different values in a digit.
Our base-10 number system likely grew up because we have 10 fingers, but if we happened to evolve to
have eight fingers instead, we would probably have a base-8 number system. You can have base-anything
number systems. In fact, there are lots of good reasons to use different bases in different situations.
6.4
Bits
6.4.1
Computers happen to operate using the base-2 number system, also known as the binary
number system (just like the base-10 number system is known as the decimal number system). The reason
computers use the base-2 system is because it makes it a lot easier to implement them with current
electronic technology. You could wire up and build computers that operate in base-10, but they would be
fiendishly expensive right now. On the other hand, base-2 computers are relatively cheap.
6.4.2
So computers use binary numbers, and therefore use binary digits in place of decimal digits.
The word bit is a shortening of the words "Binary digit." Whereas decimal digits have 10 possible values
ranging from 0 to 9, bits have only two possible values: 0 and 1. Therefore, a binary number is composed
of only 0s and 1s, like this: 1011. How do you figure out what the value of the binary number 1011 is? You
do it in the same way we did it above for 6357, but you use a base of 2 instead of a base of 10. So:
1
(1 * 2^3) +
(1*2*2*2) +
8
+
0
(0 * 2^2) +
(0*2*2) +
0
+
1
(1 * 2^1) +
(1*2*1) +
2
+
1
(1 * 2^0) =
(1)
=
1
= 11
6.4.3
You can see that in binary numbers, each bit holds the value of increasing powers of 2. That
makes counting in binary pretty easy. Starting at zero and going through 20, counting in decimal and
binary looks like this:
0= 0
1= 1
2 = 10
3 = 11
4 = 100
5 = 101
6 = 110
7 = 111
8 = 1000
9 = 1001
10 = 1010
11 = 1011
12 = 1100
13 = 1101
14 = 1110
15 = 1111
16 = 10000
17 = 10001
18 = 10010
19 = 10011
20 = 10100
27
6.4.4
When you look at this sequence, 0 and 1 are the same for decimal and binary number systems.
At the number 2, you see carrying first take place in the binary system. If a bit is 1, and you add 1 to it, the
bit becomes 0 and the next bit becomes 1. In the transition from 15 to 16 this effect roles over through 4
bits, turning 1111 into 10000.
6.5
Bytes
6.5.1
Bits are rarely seen alone in computers. They are almost always bundled together into 8-bit
collections, and these collections are called bytes. Why are there 8 bits in a byte? A similar question is,
"Why are there 12 eggs in a dozen?" The 8-bit byte is something that people settled on through trial and
error over the past 50 years.
6.5.2
With 8 bits in a byte, you can represent 256 values ranging from 0 to 255, as shown here:
0 = 00000000
1 = 00000001
2 = 00000010
...
254 = 11111110
255 = 11111111
6.5.3
In the article How CDs Work, on the WEB you can learn that a CD uses 2 bytes, or 16 bits, per
sample. That gives each sample a range from 0 to 65,535, like this:
0 = 0000000000000000
1 = 0000000000000001
2 = 0000000000000010
...
65534 = 1111111111111110
65535 = 1111111111111111
6.5.4
Bytes are frequently used to hold individual characters in a text document. In the American
Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) character set, each binary value between 0 and 127 is
given a specific character. Most computers extend the ASCII character set to use the full range of 256
characters available in a byte. The upper 128 characters handle special things like accented characters from
common foreign languages.
6.5.5
You can see the 127 standard ASCII codes below. Computers store text documents, both on
disk and in memory, using these codes. For example, if you use Notepad in Windows 95/98 to create a text
file containing the words, "Four score and seven years ago," Notepad would use 1 byte of memory per
character (including 1 byte for each space character between the words -- ASCII character 32). When
Notepad stores the sentence in a file on disk, the file will also contain 1 byte per character and per space.
6.5.6
Try this experiment: Open up a new file in Notepad and insert the sentence, "Four score and
seven years ago" in it. Save the file to disk under the name getty.txt. Then use the explorer and look at the
size of the file. You will find that the file has a size of 30 bytes on disk: 1 byte for each character. If you
add another word to the end of the sentence and re-save it, the file size will jump to the appropriate
number of bytes.
28
6.5.7
Each character consumes a byte.
If you were to look at the file as a computer looks at it, you would find that each byte contains not a letter
but a number -- the number is the ASCII code corresponding to the character (see below). So on disk, the
numbers for the file look like this:
F o u r a n d
s e v e n
70 111 117 114 32 97 110 100 32 115 101 118 101 110
6.5.8
By looking in the ASCII table, you can see a one-to-one correspondence between each
character and the ASCII code used. Note the use of 32 for a space -- 32 is the ASCII code for a space. We
could expand these decimal numbers out to binary numbers (so 32 = 00100000) if we wanted to be
technically correct -- that is how the computer really deals with things.
6.6
Standard American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) Character Set
6.6.1
The first 32 values (0 through 31) are codes for things like carriage return and line feed. The
space character is the 33rd value, followed by punctuation, digits, uppercase characters and lowercase
characters.
0 NUL
1 SOH
2 STX
3 ETX
4 EOT
5 ENQ
6 ACK
7 BEL
8 BS
9 TAB
10 LF
11 VT
12 FF
13 CR
14 SO
15 SI
16 DLE
17 DC1
18 DC2
19 DC3
20 DC4
21 NAK
22 SYN
23 ETB
24 CAN
25 EM
26 SUB
27 ESC
28 FS
29 GS
30 RS
31 US
32
29
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
+
,
.
/
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
:
;
<
=
>
?
@
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
30
86 V
87 W
88 X
89 Y
90 Z
91 [
92 \
93 ]
94 ^
95 _
96 `
97 a
98 b
99 c
100 d
101 e
102 f
103 g
104 h
105 i
106 j
107 k
108 l
109 m
110 n
111 o
112 p
113 q
114 r
115 s
116 t
117 u
118 v
119 w
120 x
121 y
122 z
123 {
124 |
125 }
126 ~
127 DEL
6.7
Lots of Bytes
6.7.1
When you start talking about lots of bytes, you get into prefixes like kilo, mega and giga, as in
kilobyte, megabyte and gigabyte (also shortened to K, M and G, as in Kbytes, Mbytes and Gbytes or KB,
MB and GB). The following table shows the multipliers:
31
Name
Abbr.
Size
Kilo
2^10 = 1,024
Mega
2^20 = 1,048,576
Giga
2^30 = 1,073,741,824
Tera
2^40 = 1,099,511,627,776
Peta
2^50 = 1,125,899,906,842,624
Exa
2^60 = 1,152,921,504,606,846,976
Zetta
2^70 = 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424
Yotta
2^80
1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176
6.7.2
You can see in this chart that kilo is about a thousand, mega is about a million, giga is about a
billion, and so on. So when someone says, "This computer has a 2 gig hard drive," what he or she means is
that the hard drive stores 2 gigabytes, or approximately 2 billion bytes, or exactly 2,147,483,648 bytes.
How could you possibly need 2 gigabytes of space? When you consider that one CD holds 650 megabytes,
you can see that just three CDs worth of data will fill the whole thing! Terabyte databases are fairly
common these days, and there are probably a few petabyte databases floating around the Pentagon by now.
6.8
Binary Math
6.8.1
Binary math works just like decimal math, except that the value of each bit can be only 0 or 1.
To get a feel for binary math, let's start with decimal addition and see how it works. Assume that we want
to add 452 and 751:
452
+ 751
--1203
6.8.2
6.8.3
To add these two numbers together, you start at the right: 2 + 1 = 3. No problem. Next, 5 + 5 = 10,
so you save the zero and carry the 1 over to the next place. Next, 4 + 7 + 1 (because of the carry) =
12, so you save the 2 and carry the 1. Finally, 0 + 0 + 1 = 1. So the answer is 1203.
Binary addition works exactly the same way:
010
+ 111
--1001
6.8.4
Starting at the right, 0 + 1 = 1 for the first digit. No carrying there. You've got 1 + 1 = 10 for
the second digit, so save the 0 and carry the 1. For the third digit, 0 + 1 + 1 = 10, so save the zero and carry
the 1. For the last digit, 0 + 0 + 1 = 1. So the answer is 1001. If you translate everything over to decimal
you can see it is correct: 2 + 7 = 9.
6.9
Quick Recap
6.9.1
Bits are binary digits. A bit can hold the value 0 or 1.

Bytes are made up of 8 bits each.
32
6.9.2
Binary math works just like decimal math, but each bit can have a value of only 0 or 1.
There really is nothing more to it -- bits and bytes are that simple!
6.9.3
A bit is short for "binary digit." It is the smallest possible unit of information; i.e. a bit is to
information what an atom is to an element! A bit could be represented by an on-off switch. This is
essentially the case for static memory chips, or RAM (random-access memory), where each of the
thousands of bits is a transistor, which may be in the on or off state. Dynamic RAM uses charged or
uncharged capacitors to store data. [As an aside, static RAM is faster than dynamic RAM, but is also more
expensive and power-consuming. Because capacitors discharge over time, dynamic memory must be
constantly refreshed.] Magnetic media (floppies, hard drives, tape, even credit cards and ATM cards, use a
positively or negatively charged magnetic region for each bit.
6.10
Data lines
6.10.1
Transferring individual bits between CPU and memory would be very time consuming, so it is
customary to send a larger chunk of information. For some reason or another, memory is usually divided
into eight-bit chunks called bytes. Four-bit chunks are called nibbles - no kidding! Most computers, then,
will have at least 8 lines running between CPU and memory for data in and 8 lines for data out. Thus, a
whole byte is transferred at once (in parallel). This also means that we only need a unique address for each
byte in our memory, rather than having to have a unique address for each bit. Early IBM-type PCs had an
8-line (or 8-bit) data bus running between memory and the 8086 CPU. Later, the 80286 CPU improved on
this by have a 16-bit data bus. Computers containing 80386, or 80486 have a 32-bit data bus. Pentium
chips have a 64-bit external data bus.
6.10.2
We also have names for larger chunks of information. Since computers work in binary,
memory is usually divided up into divisions that are a power of 2. Hence,
kilobyte = 1024 bytes (1024 = 210), abbreviated KB (Kb is kilobits)
megabyte = 1024 KB = 1,048,576 bytes, abbreviated MB (Mb is megabits)
gigabyte = 1024 MB = 1,073,741,824 bytes, abbreviated GB (Gb is gigabits)
6.11
Address lines
6.11.1
Address lines run between the CPU and memory and are used to tell the memory which
particular byte we want to read or write. Early microcomputers used 16 address lines. Each line could be
[on/off; high/low; true/false; 0/1; etc.], allowing for 216 unique addresses, or 65,536 bytes of addressable
memory.
6.11.2
The original IBM PC had 20 address lines. Since 2 20 = 1,048,576, IBM PCs, and the Microsoft
DOS which was written for it, could only utilize 1 MB of memory. About 360 KB was reserved for ROM
BIOS, video RAM, etc. (more on this later), and the other 640 KB was available for the DOS operating
system and user programs. PCs have essentially been stuck with that limitation ever since, although
Windows (and other, newer, operating systems like OS/2, LINUX, Windows 95) gets around it somewhat.
The CPUs themselves have advanced beyond that stage (the 80286 has 24 address lines, allowing for 16
MB to be addressed; the 80386/486 has 32 address lines to address 4 gigabytes), but in order to maintain
"backward compatibility," DOS has remained a 1 MB (640 KB) world. Windows, and to a much greater
extent, Windows 95, have crashed the 1 MB barrier by using protected mode, 32-bit addressing
6.12
So what do we put into memory?
6.12.1
Instructions and data!
33
6.12.1.1
Instructions
6.12.1.1.1 Instructions are stored as binary numbers, just as data is. For example, 10110010 (decimal
178) might be interpreted by the CPU as "get the byte of data located at the address given by the next two
bytes and add it to the number in the accumulator (a part of the CPU that contains numbers to be acted on).
6.12.1.2
Data: ASCII, integers, floating point real and complex, etc.
6.12.1.2.1 Data are usually either numbers or letters. Of course, memory can only hold binary numbers,
so we have to agree how to interpret those numbers (a kind of code) when we want them to represent
letters (or numbers, for that matter). ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange. In this system, 7 bits are used to represent 128 (2 7) different letters, numbers, punctuation,
and special codes. When the eighth bit is used (why waste it?), we have Extended ASCII, in which 256
characters are available. The "upper" 128 characters are not as standard as the first 128. Refer to an
Extended ASCII chart.
6.12.2
Not all computers use this system. IBM, on their mainframes, stubbornly sticks with EBCDIC,
which means something but I have tried very hard to forget what. Unicode is a new system which use 2
bytes, allowing many more characters to be represented (how many, class?), such as Kanji, Cyrillic,
Hebrew, etc. Unicode is backwards compatible with ASCII, meaning that operating systems using
Unicode, such as Windows 95, can still make sense of ASCII files.
6.12.3
Earlier it was mentioned that 10110010 equals decimal 178. So why do we need a "code" for
representing numbers in a computer? Why not just use binary (converted back to decimal when we type it
in or read it, of course)? Well, how would we represent negative numbers? What about fractions? What
about numbers larger than 8 bits can represent (28 = 256)? You see the problem. The solution, shortened a
bit (no pun intended) is to use more than one byte, and, for floating point numbers, to use some of the bits
for an exponent and the rest for the mantissa. The table below shows some of the more common data
types. The exact details depend on the particular program used (which, in turn, usually depends on the
compiler used to create the program).
6.13
Common Data Types
Data Type
Approximate Range
(from)
logical
False (0)
character
a
short integer
-128.00
integer
-32,768
long integer
-2 x 109
single precision -3.4 x 10+38 to -1.2 x
IEEE real
10-38
double precision -1.8 x 10+308 to -2.2 x
IEEE real
10-308
like single precision
single precision
real, for both real
complex
and imaginary parts
like double precision
double precision
real, for both real
complex
and imaginary parts
7.1
Personal Computers (PC)
(to)
True (1)
Z (sort of!)
127.00
+32,767
+2 x 109
Significant
Bits
Digits
8
NA
8
NA
8
2
16
4
32
9
+1.2 x 10-38 to +3.4 x 10+38
32
+2.2 x 10-308 to 1.8 x 10+308
64
15
like single precision real,

for both real and imaginary
parts
like double precision real,
for both real and imaginary
parts
34
7.1.1
When you mention the word "technology," most people think about computers. Virtually every
facet of our lives has some computerized component. The appliances in our homes have microprocessors
built into them, as do our televisions. Even our cars have a computer. But the computer that everyone
thinks of first is typically the personal computer, or PC.
7.1.2
A PC is a general purpose tool built around a microprocessor. It has lots of different parts -memory, a hard disk, a modem, etc. -- that work together. "General purpose" means that you can do many
different things with a PC. You can use it to type documents, send e-mail, browse the Web and play games.
we will talk about PCs in the general sense and all the different parts that go into them. You will learn
about the various components and how they work together in a basic operating session. You'll also find out
what the future may hold for these machines.
Motherboard - This is the main circuit board that all of the other internal components connect to.
The CPU and memory are usually on the motherboard. Other systems may be found directly on the
motherboard or connected to it through a secondary connection. For example, a sound card can be
built into the motherboard or connected through PCI.
Power supply - An electrical transformer regulates the electricity used by the computer.
Hard disk - This is large-capacity permanent storage used to hold information such as programs
and documents.
Operating system - This is the basic software that allows the user to interface with the computer.
Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) Controller - This is the primary interface for the hard drive, CDROM and floppy disk drive.
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) Bus - The most common way to connect additional
components to the computer, PCI uses a series of slots on the motherboard that PCI cards plug
into.
SCSI - Pronounced "scuzzy," the small computer system interface is a method of adding
additional devices, such as hard drives or scanners, to the computer.
AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port is a very high-speed connection used by the graphics card to
interface with the computer.
Sound card - This is used by the computer to record and play audio by converting analog sound
into digital information and back again.
Graphics card - This translates image data from the computer into a format that can be displayed by
the monitor.
7.2
Defining a PC
7.2.1
Here is one way to think about your PC: "A PC is a general-purpose information processing
device. It can take information from a person (through the keyboard and mouse), from a device (like a
floppy disk or CD) or from the network (through a modem or a network card) and process it. Once
processed, the information is shown to the user (on the monitor), stored on a device (like a hard disk) or
sent somewhere else on the network (back through the modem or network card)."
7.2.2
We have lots of special-purpose processors in our lives. An MP3 Player is a specialized
computer for processing MP3 files. It can't do anything else. A Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) is a
specialized computer for handling GPS signals. It can't do anything else. A Gameboy is a specialized
computer for handling games, but it can't do anything else. A PC can do it all because it is general-purpose.
7.3
On the Inside
7.3.1
Let's take a look at the main components of a typical desktop computer.
Central processing unit (CPU) - The microprocessor "brain" of the computer system is called the central
processing unit. Everything that a computer does is overseen by the CPU.
35
Memory - This is very fast storage used to hold data. It has to be fast because it connects directly to the
microprocessor. There are several specific types of memory in a computer:
Random-access memory (RAM) - Used to temporarily store information that the computer is currently
working with
Read-only memory (ROM) - A permanent type of memory storage used by the computer for important
data that does not change
Basic input/output system (BIOS) - A type of ROM that is used by the computer to establish basic
communication when the computer is first turned on
Caching - The storing of frequently used data in extremely fast RAM that connects directly to the CPU
Virtual memory - Space on a hard disk used to temporarily store data and swap it in and out of RAM as
needed
7.3.2
The computer you are using to read this page uses a microprocessor to do its work. The
microprocessor is the heart of any normal computer, whether it is a desktop machine, a server or a laptop.
The microprocessor you are using might be a Pentium, a K6, a PowerPC, a Sparc or any of the many other
brands and types of microprocessors, but they all do approximately the same thing in approximately the
same way.
7.3.3
If you have ever wondered what the microprocessor in your computer is doing, or if you have
ever wondered about the differences between types of microprocessors, then read on. In this self-study
material you will learn how fairly simple digital logic techniques allow a computer to do its job, whether
its playing a game or spell checking a document!
7.4
Inside a Microprocessor
7.4.1
To understand how a microprocessor works, it is helpful to look inside and learn about the
logic used to create one. In the process you can also learn about assembly language -- the native language
of a microprocessor -- and many of the things that engineers can do to boost the speed of a processor. A
microprocessor executes a collection of machine instructions that tell the processor what to do. Based on
the instructions, a microprocessor does three basic things:
1
Using its ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit), a microprocessor can perform mathematical

operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Modern microprocessors
contain complete floating point processors that can perform extremely sophisticated
operations on large floating point numbers.
A
microprocessor
can
move data from
one
memory location
to
another.
A
microprocessor
can
make
decisions
and
jump to a new set
of
instructions based
on
those decisions.
7.4.2
There
sophisticated things
microprocessor
its
three
basic
following diagram
extremely
simple
capable of doing
may
be
very
that
a
does, but those are
activities.
The
shows
an
microprocessor
those three things:
36
7.4.3
This is about as simple as a microprocessor gets. This microprocessor has:

a)
An address bus (that may be 8, 16 or 32 bits wide) that sends an address to memory
b)
A data bus (that may be 8, 16 or 32 bits wide) that can send data to memory or receive
data from memory
c)
An RD (read) and WR (write) line to tell the memory whether it wants to set or get the
addressed location
d)
A clock line that lets a clock pulse sequence the processor
e)
A reset line that resets the program counter to zero (or whatever) and restarts execution
f)
Let's assume that both the address and data buses are 8 bits wide in this example.
7.4.4
Here are the components of this simple microprocessor:

a)
Registers A, B and C are simply latches made out of flip-flops.
b)
The address latch is just like registers A, B and C.
c)
The program counter is a latch with the extra ability to increment by 1 when told to do
so, and also to reset to zero when told to do so.
d)
The ALU could be as simple as an 8-bit adder (see the section on adders in How
Boolean Logic Works for details), or it might be able to add, subtract, multiply and
divide 8-bit values. Let's assume the latter here.
e)
The test register is a special latch that can hold values from comparisons performed in
the ALU. An ALU can normally compare two numbers and determine if they are equal,
if one is greater than the other, etc. The test register can also normally hold a carry bit
from the last stage of the adder. It stores these values in flip-flops and then the
instruction decoder can use the values to make decisions.
f)
There are six boxes marked "3-State" in the diagram. These are tri-state buffers. A tristate buffer can pass a 1, a 0 or it can essentially disconnect its output (imagine a switch
that totally disconnects the output line from the wire that the output is heading toward).
A tri-state buffer allows multiple outputs to connect to a wire, but only one of them to
actually drive a 1 or a 0 onto the line.
37
g)
The instruction register and instruction decoder are responsible for controlling all of the
other components.
7.4.5
Although they are not shown in this diagram, there would be control lines from the instruction
decoder that would:
a)
Tell the A register to latch the value currently on the data bus
b)
Tell the B register to latch the value currently on the data bus
c)
Tell the C register to latch the value currently on the data bus
d)
Tell the program counter register to latch the value currently on the data bus
e)
Tell the address register to latch the value currently on the data bus
f)
Tell the instruction register to latch the value currently on the data bus
g)
Tell the program counter to increment
h)
Tell the program counter to reset to zero
i)
Activate any of the six tri-state buffers (six separate lines)
j)
Tell the ALU what operation to perform
k)
Tell the test register to latch the ALU's test bits
l)
Activate the RD line
m)
Activate the WR line
n)
Coming into the instruction decoder are the bits from the test register and the clock line,
as well as the bits from the instruction register.
7.5
RAM and ROM
7.5.1
The previous section talked about the address and data buses, as well as the RD and WR lines.
These buses and lines connect either to RAM or ROM -- generally both. In our sample microprocessor, we
have an address bus 8 bits wide and a data bus 8 bits wide. That means that the microprocessor can address
(28) 256 bytes of memory, and it can read or write 8 bits of the memory at a time. Let's assume that this
simple microprocessor has 128 bytes of ROM starting at address 0 and 128 bytes of RAM starting at
address 128.
7.5.2
ROM stands for read-only memory. A ROM chip is programmed with a permanent collection
of pre-set bytes. The address bus tells the ROM chip which byte to get and place on the data bus. When the
RD line changes state, the ROM chip presents the selected byte onto the data bus.
7.5.3
RAM stands for random-access memory. RAM contains bytes of information, and the
microprocessor can read or write to those bytes depending on whether the RD or WR line is signaled. One
problem with today's RAM chips is that they forget everything once the power goes off. That is why the
computer needs ROM.
By the way, nearly all computers contain some amount of ROM (it is possible to create a simple computer
that contains no RAM -- many microcontrollers do this by placing a handful of RAM bytes on the
processor chip itself -- but generally impossible to create one that contains no ROM).
7.5.4
On a PC, the ROM is called the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System). When the microprocessor
starts, it begins executing instructions it finds in the BIOS. The BIOS instructions do things like test the
hardware in the machine, and then it goes to the hard disk to fetch the boot sector .This boot sector is
another small program, and the BIOS stores it in RAM after reading it off the disk. The microprocessor
then begins executing the boot sector's instructions from RAM. The boot sector program will tell the
microprocessor to fetch something else from the hard disk into RAM, which the microprocessor then
executes, and so on. This is how the microprocessor loads and executes the entire operating system.
Read-only memory (ROM), also known as firmware, is an integrated circuit programmed with specific
data when it is manufactured. ROM chips are used not only in computers, but in most other electronic
items as well. You will learn about the different types of ROM and how each works.
38
7.5.5
Random access memory (RAM) is the best known form of computer memory. RAM is
considered "random access" because you can access any memory cell directly if you know the row and
column that intersect at that cell.
7.5.6
The opposite of RAM is serial access memory (SAM). SAM stores data as a series of memory
cells that can only be accessed sequentially (like a cassette tape). If the data is not in the current location,
each memory cell is checked until the needed data is found. SAM works very well for memory buffers,
where the data is normally stored in the order in which it will be used (a good example is the texture buffer
memory on a video card). RAM data, on the other hand, can be accessed in any order.
Question
I know my computer uses DRAM (dynamic RAM) for the main memory. I have also heard of static
RAM. What is the difference, and why are there two kinds?
Answer
Your computer probably uses both static RAM and dynamic RAM at the same time, but it uses them for
different reasons because of the cost difference between the two types. If you understand how dynamic
RAM and static RAM chips work inside, it is easy to see why the cost difference is there, and you can also
understand the names.
Dynamic RAM is the most common type of memory in use today. Inside a dynamic RAM chip, each
memory cell holds one bit of information and is made up of two parts: a transistor and a capacitor. These
are, of course, extremely small transistors and capacitors so that millions of them can fit on a single
memory chip. The capacitor holds the bit of information -- a 0 or a 1 (see How Bits and Bytes Work on the
WEB page for more information on bits). The transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on
the memory chip read the capacitor or change its state.
A capacitor is like a small bucket that is able to store electrons. To store a 1 in the memory cell, the bucket
is filled with electrons. To store a 0, it is emptied. The problem with the capacitor's bucket is that it has a
leak. In a matter of a few milliseconds a full bucket becomes empty. Therefore, for dynamic memory to
work, either the CPU or the memory controller has to come along and recharge all of the capacitors
holding a 1 before they discharge. To do this, the memory controller reads the memory and then writes it
right back. This refresh operation happens automatically thousands of times per second.
This refresh operation is where dynamic RAM gets its name. Dynamic RAM has to be dynamically
refreshed all of the time or it forgets what it is holding. The downside of all of this refreshing is that it takes
time and slows down the memory.
Static RAM uses a completely different technology. In static RAM, a form of flip-flop holds each bit of
memory. A flip-flop for a memory cell takes 4 or 6 transistors along with some wiring, but never has to be
refreshed. This makes static RAM significantly faster than dynamic RAM. However, because it has more
parts, a static memory cell takes a lot more space on a chip than a dynamic memory cell. Therefore you get
less memory per chip, and that makes static RAM a lot more expensive.
So static RAM is fast and expensive, and dynamic RAM is less expensive and slower. Therefore static
RAM is used to create the CPU's speed-sensitive cache, while dynamic RAM forms the larger system
RAM space.
7.6
How ROM Works

39
7.6.1
Read-only memory (ROM), also known as firmware, is an integrated circuit programmed
with specific data when it is manufactured. ROM chips are used not only in computers, but in most other
electronic items as well. In this trainee handbook you will learn about the different types of ROM and how
each works.
7.6.1.1
Let's start by identifying the different types of ROM.
7.6.2
7.6.2.1
ROM Types
There are five basic ROM types:
ROM
PROM
EPROM
EEPROM
Flash memory
7.6.2.2
Each type has unique characteristics, which you'll learn about in this article, but they are all
types of memory with two things in common:
Data stored in these chips is nonvolatile -- it is not lost when power is removed.
Data stored in these chips is either unchangeable or requires a special operation to
change (unlike RAM, which can be changed as easily as it is read).
7.6.2.3
This means that removing the power source from the chip will not cause it to lose any data.
7.6.3
ROM at Work
7.6.3.1
Similar to RAM, ROM chips (Figure 1) contain a grid of columns and rows. But where the
columns and rows intersect, ROM chips are fundamentally different from RAM chips. While RAM uses
transistors to turn on or off access to a capacitor at each intersection, ROM uses a diode to connect the
lines if the value is 1. If the value is 0, then the lines are not connected at all.
7.6.3.2
A diode normally allows current to flow in only one direction and has a certain threshold,
known as the forward breakover, that determines how much current is required before the diode will pass
it on. In silicon-based items such as processors and memory chips, the forward breakover voltage is
approximately 0.6 volts. By taking advantage of the unique properties of a diode, a ROM chip can send a
charge that is above the forward breakover down the appropriate column with the selected row grounded
to connect at a specific cell. If a diode is present at that cell, the charge will be conducted through to the
ground, and, under the binary system, the cell will be read as being "on" (a value of 1). The neat part of
ROM is that if the cell's value is 0, there is no diode at that intersection to connect the column and row. So
the charge on the column does not get transferred to the row.
7.6.3.3
As you can see, the way a ROM chip works necessitates the programming of perfect and
complete data when the chip is created. You cannot reprogram or rewrite a standard ROM chip. If it is
incorrect, or the data needs to be updated, you have to throw it away and start over. Creating the original
template for a ROM chip is often a laborious process full of trial and error. But the benefits of ROM chips
outweigh the drawbacks. Once the template is completed, the actual chips can cost as little as a few cents
each. They use very little power, are extremely reliable and, in the case of most small electronic devices,
contain all the necessary programming to control the device. A great example is the small chip in the
singing fish toy. This chip, about the size of your fingernail, contains the 30-second song clips in ROM
and the control codes to synchronize the motors to the music.
40
7.6.4
PROM
7.6.4.1
Creating ROM chips totally from scratch is time-consuming and very expensive in small
quantities. For this reason, mainly, developers created a type of ROM known as programmable read-only
memory (PROM). Blank PROM chips can be bought inexpensively and coded by anyone with a special
tool called a programmer.
7.6.4.2
PROM chips have a grid of columns and rows just as ordinary ROMs do. The difference is
that every intersection of a column and row in a PROM chip has a fuse connecting them. A charge sent
through a column will pass through the fuse in a cell to a grounded row indicating a value of 1. Since all
the cells have a fuse, the initial (blank) state of a PROM chip is all 1s. To change the value of a cell to 0,
you use a programmer to send a specific amount of current to the cell. The higher voltage breaks the
connection between the column and row by burning out the fuse. This process is known as burning the
PROM.
7.6.5
You Need Connections
7.6.5.1
No matter how powerful the components inside your computer are, you need a way to interact
with them. This interaction is called input/output (I/O). The most common types of I/O in PCs are:
Monitor - The monitor is the primary device for displaying information from the
computer.
Keyboard - The keyboard is the primary device for entering information into the
computer.
Mouse - The mouse is the primary device for navigating and interacting with the
computer
Removable storage - Removable-storage devices allow you to add new information to
your computer very easily, as well as save information that you want to carry to a
different location.
Floppy disk - The most common form of removable storage, floppy disks are
extremely inexpensive and easy to save information to.
CD-ROM - CD-ROM (compact disc, read-only memory) is a popular form of
distribution of commercial software. Many systems now offer CD-R
(recordable) and CD-RW (rewritable), which can also record.
Flash memory - Based on a type of ROM called electrically erasable
programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), Flash memory provides fast,
permanent storage. CompactFlash, SmartMedia and PCMCIA cards are all types
of Flash memory.
DVD-ROM - DVD-ROM (digital versatile disc, read-only memory) is similar to
CD-ROM but is capable of holding much more information.
41
Ports
Parallel - This port is commonly used to connect a printer.
Serial - This port is typically used to connect an external modem.
Universal Serial Bus (USB) - Quickly becoming the most popular external
connection, USB ports offer power and versatility and are incredibly easy to use.
Firewire (IEEE 1394) - Firewire is a very popular method of connecting digitalvideo devices, such as camcorders or digital cameras, to your computer.
Internet/network connection
Modem - This is the standard method of connecting to the Internet.
Local area network (LAN) card - This is used by many computers, particularly
those in an Ethernet office network, to connected to each other.
Cable modem - Some people now use the cable-television system in their home
to connect to the Internet.
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) modem - This is a high-speed connection that
works over a standard telephone line.
Very high bit-rate DSL (VDSL) modem - A newer variation of DSL, VDSL
requires that your phone line have fiber-optic cables.
7.7
From Powering Up to Shutting Down
7.7.1
Now that you are familiar with some of the parts and workings of a PC, let's see what happens
in a typical computer session, from the moment you turn the computer on until you shut it down:
i)
You press the "On" button on the computer and the monitor.
ii)
You see the BIOS software doing its thing, called the power-on self-test (POST). On many
machines, the BIOS displays text describing such data as the amount of memory installed in
your computer and the type of hard disk you have. During this boot sequence, the BIOS
does a remarkable amount of work to get your computer ready to run.
The BIOS determines whether the video card is operational. Most video cards have a
miniature BIOS of their own that initializes the memory and graphics processor on the
card. If they do not, there is usually video-driver information on another ROM on the
motherboard that the BIOS can load.
The BIOS checks to see if this is a cold boot or a reboot. It does this by checking the
value at memory address 0000:0472. A value of 1234h indicates a reboot, in which case
the BIOS skips the rest of POST. Any other value is considered a cold boot.
If it is a cold boot, the BIOS verifies RAM by performing a read/write test of each
memory address. It checks for a keyboard and a mouse. It looks for a PCI bus and, if it
finds one, checks all the PCI cards. If the BIOS finds any errors during the POST, it
notifies you with a series of beeps or a text message displayed on the screen. An error at
this point is almost always a hardware problem.
The BIOS displays some details about your system. This typically includes information
about the following:
Processor
Floppy and hard drive
Memory
BIOS revision and date
Display
Any special drivers, such as the ones for SCSI adapters, are loaded from the adapter and
the BIOS displays the information.
The BIOS looks at the sequence of storage devices identified as boot devices in the
CMOS Setup. "Boot" is short for "bootstrap," as in the old phrase "Lift yourself up by
your bootstraps." Boot refers to the process of launching the operating system. The
BIOS tries to initiate the boot sequence from the first device using the bootstrap
loader.
42
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
ix)
x)
The bootstrap loader loads the operating system into memory and allows it to begin
operation. It does this by setting up the divisions of memory that hold the operating system,
user information and applications. The bootstrap loader then establishes the data structures
that are used to communicate within and between the sub-systems and applications of the
computer. Finally, it turns control of the computer over to the operating system.
Once loaded, the operating system's tasks fall into six broad categories:
Processor management - Breaking the tasks down into manageable chunks and
prioritizing them before sending to the CPU
Memory management - Coordinating the flow of data in and out of RAM and
determining when virtual memory is necessary
Device management - Providing an interface between each device connected to the
computer, the CPU and applications
Storage management - Directing where data will be stored permanently on hard drives
and other forms of storage
Application Interface - Providing a standard communications and data exchange
between software programs and the computer
User Interface - Providing a way for you to communicate and interact with the
computer
You open up a word processing program and type a letter, save it and then print it out.
Several components work together to make this happen:
The keyboard and mouse send your input to the operating system.
The operating system determines that the word-processing program is the active
program and accepts your input as data for that program.
The word-processing program determines the format that the data is in and, via the
operating system, stores it temporarily in RAM.
Each instruction from the word-processing program is sent by the operating system to
the CPU. These instructions are intertwined with instructions from other programs that
the operating system is overseeing before being sent to the CPU.
All this time, the operating system is steadily providing display information to the
graphics card, directing what will be displayed on the monitor.
When you choose to save the letter, the word-processing program sends a request to the
operating system, which then provides a standard window for selecting where you wish
to save the information and what you want to call it. Once you have chosen the name
and file path, the operating system directs the data from RAM to the appropriate storage
device.
You click on "Print." The word-processing program sends a request to the operating
system, which translates the data into a format the printer understands and directs the
data from RAM to the appropriate port for the printer you requested.
You open up a Web browser and check out a Web page. Once again, the operating system
coordinates all of the action. This time, though, the computer receives input from another
source, the Internet, as well as from you. The operating system seamlessly integrates all
incoming and outgoing information.
You close the Web browser and choose the "Shut Down" option.
The operating system closes all programs that are currently active. If a program has
unsaved information, you are given an opportunity to save it before closing the program.
The operating system writes its current settings to a special configuration file so that it will
boot up next time with the same settings.
If the computer provides software control of power, then the operating system will
completely turn off the computer when it finishes its own shut-down cycle. Otherwise, you
will have to manually turn the power off.
43
7.8
A Fit for the Future?
7.8.1
Silicon microprocessors have been the heart of the computing world for more than 40 years. In
that time, microprocessor manufacturers have crammed more and more electronic devices onto
microprocessors. In accordance with Moore's Law, the number of electronic devices put on a
microprocessor has doubled every 18 months. Moore's Law is named after Intel founder Gordon Moore,
who predicted in 1965 that microprocessors would double in complexity every two years. Many have
predicted that Moore's Law will soon reach its end because of the physical limitations of silicon
microprocessors.
7.8.2
The current process used to pack more and more transistors onto a chip is called deep-ultraviolet
lithography (DUVL), which is a photography-like technique that focuses light through lenses to
carve circuit patterns on silicon wafers. DUVL will begin to reach its limit around 2005. At that
time, chipmakers will have to look to other technologies to cram more transistors onto silicon to
create more powerful chips. Many are already looking at extreme-ultraviolet lithography (EUVL)
as a way to extend the life of silicon at least until the end of the decade. EUVL uses mirrors instead
of lenses to focus the light, which allows light with shorter wavelengths to accurately focus on the
silicon wafer. To learn more about EUVL, see How EUV Chipmaking Works.
7.8.3
As the computer moves off the desktop and becomes our constant companion,
augmented-reality displays will overlay computer-generated graphics to the real world.
7.8.4
Beyond EUVL, researchers have been looking at alternatives to the traditional microprocessor
design. Two of the more interesting emerging technologies are DNA computers and quantum
computers. DNA computers have the potential to take computing to new levels, picking up where Moore's
Law leaves off. There are several advantages to using DNA instead of silicon:
As long as there are cellular organisms, there will be a supply of DNA.
The large supply of DNA makes it a cheap resource.
Unlike traditional microprocessors, which are made using toxic materials, DNA biochips
can be made cleanly.
DNA computers are many times smaller than today's computers.
44
7.8.5
DNA's key advantage is that it will make computers smaller, while at the same time increasing
storage capacity, than any computer that has come before. One pound of DNA has the capacity to store
more information than all the electronic computers ever built. The computing power of a teardrop-sized
DNA computer, using the DNA logic gates, will be more powerful than the world's most powerful
supercomputer. More than 10-trillion DNA molecules can fit into an area no larger than 1 cubic centimeter
(.06 inch3). With this small amount of DNA, a computer would be able to hold 10 terabytes (TB) of data
and perform 10-trillion calculations at a time. By adding more DNA, more calculations could be
performed.
7.8.6
Unlike conventional computers, DNA computers could perform calculations simultaneously.
Conventional computers operate linearly, taking on tasks one at a time. It is parallel computing that will
allow DNA to solve complex mathematical problems in hours -- problems that might take electrical
computers hundreds of years to complete. You can learn more about DNA computing in How DNA
Computers Will Work.
7.8.7
Today's computers work by manipulating bits that exist in one of two states: 0 or 1. Quantum
computers aren't limited to two states; they encode information as quantum bits, or qubits. A qubit can be
a 1 or a 0, or it can exist in a superposition that is simultaneously 1 and 0 or somewhere in between.
Qubits represent atoms that are working together to serve as computer memory and a microprocessor.
Because a quantum computer can contain these multiple states simultaneously, it has the potential to be
millions of times more powerful than today's most powerful supercomputers. A 30-qubit quantum
computer would equal the processing power of a conventional computer capable of running at 10 teraops,
or trillions of operations per second. Today's fastest supercomputers have achieved speeds of about 2
teraops. You can learn more about the potential of quantum computers in How Quantum Computers Will
Work.
7.8.8
Already we are seeing powerful computers in non-desktop roles. Laptop computers and
personal digital assistants (PDAs) have taken computing out of the office. Wearable computers built into
our clothing and jewelry will be with us everywhere we go. Our files will follow us while our computer
provides constant feedback about our environment. Voice- and handwriting-recognition software will
allow us to interface with our computers without using a mouse or keyboard. Magnetic RAM and other
innovations will soon provide our PC with the same instant-on accessibility that our TV and radio have.
7.8.9
One thing is an absolute certainty: The PC will evolve. It will get faster. It will have more
capacity. And it will continue to be an integral part of our lives
7.9
How Modems Work
7.9.1
If you have the capability you can try opening the WEB page and accessing this article on your
on the internet on your computer at home. If you do it probably has arrived via modem.
7.9.2
In this pre-course self study package we'll show you how a modem brings you Web pages.
We'll start with the original 300-baud modems and progress all the way through to the ADSL
configurations!
(Note: If you are unfamiliar with bits, bytes and the ASCII character codes, reading How Bits and
Bytes Work on the WEB Page "how stuff works" will help make this article much clearer.)
7.9.3
Let's get started with a short recap of how the modem came to be.
45
7.10
The Origin of Modems
7.10.1
The word "modem" is a contraction of the words modulator-demodulator. A modem is
typically used to send digital data over a phone line.
7.10.2
The sending modem modulates the data into a signal that is compatible with the phone line,
and the receiving modem demodulates the signal back into digital data. Wireless modems convert digital
data into radio signals and back.
7.10.3
Modems came into existence in the 1960s as a way to allow terminals to connect to computers
over the phone lines. A typical arrangement is shown below:
7.10.4
In a configuration like this, a dumb terminal at an off-site office or store could "dial in" to a
large, central computer. The 1960s were the age of time-shared computers, so a business would often buy
computer time from a time-share facility and connect to it via a 300-bit-per-second (bps) modem.
7.10.5
A dumb terminal is simply a keyboard and a screen. A very common dumb terminal at the time
was called the DEC VT-100, and it became a standard of the day (now memorialized in terminal
emulators worldwide). The VT-100 could display 25 lines of 80 characters each. When the user typed a
character on the terminal, the modem sent the ASCII code for the character to the computer. The computer
then sent the character back to the computer so it would appear on the screen.
7.10.6
When personal computers started appearing in the late 1970s, bulletin board systems (BBS)
became the rage. A person would set up a computer with a modem or two and some BBS software, and
other people would dial in to connect to the bulletin board. The users would run terminal emulators on
their computers to emulate a dumb terminal.
7.10.7
People got along at 300 bps for quite a while. The reason this speed was tolerable was because
300 bps represents about 30 characters per second, which is a lot more characters per second than a person
can type or read. Once people started transferring large programs and images to and from bulletin board
46
systems, however, 300 bps became intolerable. Modem speeds went through a series of steps at
approximately two-year intervals:
7.11
300 bps - 1960s through 1983 or so

1200 bps - Gained popularity in 1984 and 1985
2400 bps
9600 bps - First appeared in late 1990 and early 1991
19.2 kilobits per second (Kbps)
28.8 Kbps
33.6 Kbps
56 Kbps - Became the standard in 1998
ADSL, with theoretical maximum of up to 8 megabits per second (Mbps) - Gained popularity
in 1999
300-bps Modems
7.11.1
We'll use 300-bps modems as a starting point because they are extremely easy to understand. A
300-bps modem is a device that uses frequency shift keying (FSK) to transmit digital information over a
telephone line. In frequency shift keying, a different tone (frequency) is used for the different bits.
7.11.2
When a terminal's modem dials a computer's modem, the terminal's modem is called the
originate modem. It transmits a 1,070-hertz tone for a 0 and a 1,270-hertz tone for a 1. The computer's
modem is called the answer modem, and it transmits a 2,025-hertz tone for a 0 and a 2,225-hertz tone for
a 1. Because the originate and answer modems transmit different tones, they can use the line
simultaneously. This is known as full-duplex operation. Modems that can transmit in only one direction at
a time are known as half-duplex modems, and they are rare.
7.11.3
Let's say that two 300-bps modems are connected, and the user at the terminal types the letter
"a." The ASCII code for this letter is 97 decimal or 01100001 binary (see How Bits and Bytes Work for
details on binary). A device inside the terminal called a UART (universal asynchronous
receiver/transmitter) converts the byte into its bits and sends them out one at a time through the terminal's
RS-232 port (also known as a serial port). The terminal's modem is connected to the RS-232 port, so it
receives the bits one at a time and its job is to send them over the phone line.
7.12
Faster Modems
7.12.1
In order to create faster modems, modem designers had to use techniques far more
sophisticated than frequency-shift keying. First they moved to phase-shift keying (PSK), and then
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). These techniques allow an incredible amount of information
to be crammed into the 3,000 hertz of bandwidth available on a normal voice-grade phone line. 56K
modems, which actually connect at something like 48 Kbps on anything but absolutely perfect lines, are
about the limit of these techniques (see the links at the end of this article for more information).
47
7.12.2
Here's a look inside a typical 56K modem:
7.12.3
All of these high-speed modems incorporate a concept of gradual degradation, meaning they
can test the phone line and fall back to slower speeds if the line cannot handle the modem's fastest speed.
7.12.4
The next step in the evolution of the modem was asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL)
modems. The word asymmetric is used because these modems send data faster in one direction than they
do in another. An ADSL modem takes advantage of the fact that any normal home, apartment or office has
a dedicated copper wire running between it and phone company's nearest mux or central office. This
dedicated copper wire can carry far more data than the 3,000-hertz signal needed for your phone's voice
channel. If both the phone company's central office and your house are equipped with an ADSL modem on
your line, then the section of copper wire between your house and the phone company can act as a purely
digital high-speed transmission channel. The capacity is something like 1 million bits per second (Mbps)
between the home and the phone company (upstream) and 8 Mbps between the phone company and the
home (downstream) under ideal conditions. The same line can transmit both a phone conversation and the
digital data.
7.12.5
The approach an ADSL modem takes is very simple in principle. The phone line's bandwidth
between 24,000 hertz and 1,100,000 hertz is divided into 4,000-hertz bands, and a virtual modem is
assigned to each band. Each of these 249 virtual modems tests its band and does the best it can with the
slice of bandwidth it is allocated. The aggregate of the 249 virtual modems is the total speed of the pipe.
7.12.6
7.13
(For information on the latest DSL technology, see How DSL Works.)
Point-to-Point Protocol
7.13.1
Today, no one uses dumb terminals or terminal emulators to connect to an individual
computer. Instead, we use our modems to connect to an Internet service provider (ISP), and the ISP
connects us into the Internet. The Internet lets us connect to any machine in the world. Because of the
48
relationship between your computer, the ISP and the Internet, it is no longer appropriate to send individual
characters. Instead, your modem is routing TCP/IP packets between you and your ISP.
7.13.2
The standard technique for routing these packets through your modem is called the Pointto-Point Protocol (PPP). The basic idea is simple -- your computer's TCP/IP stack forms its TCP/IP
datagrams normally, but then the datagrams are handed to the modem for transmission. The ISP receives
each datagram and routes it appropriately onto the Internet. The same process occurs to get data from the
ISP to your computer. See this page (you need to be on the WEB to see this information) on the internet
for additional information on PPP.
7.13.3
If you want to know more about modems, protocols, and especially if you wish to delve
into things like PSK and QAM in more detail, check out the links on the WEB!
8.1
How Routers Work
8.1.1
The Internet is one of the 20th century's greatest communications developments. It allows
people around the world to send e-mail to one another in a matter of seconds, and it lets you read, among
other things, the articles on. We're all used to seeing the various parts of the Internet that come into our
homes and offices -- the Web pages, e-mail messages and downloaded files that make the Internet a
dynamic and valuable medium. But none of these parts would ever make it to your computer without a
piece of the Internet that you've probably never seen. In fact, most people have never stood "face to
machine" with the technology most responsible for allowing the Internet to exist at all: the router.
8.1.2
Routers are specialized computers that send your messages and those of every other Internet
user speeding to their destinations along thousands of pathways. In this training package we'll look at how
these behind-the-scenes machines make the Internet work.
8.2
Routers Keep The Messages Moving
8.2.1
When you send e-mail to a friend on the other side of the country, how does the message know
to end up on your friend's computer, rather than on one of the millions of other computers in the world?
Much of the work to get a message from one computer to another is done by routers, because they're the
crucial devices that let messages flow between, rather than within, networks
49
8.2.2
Let's look at what a very simple router might do. Imagine a small company that makes
animated 3-D graphics for local television stations. There are 10 employees of the company, each with
their own computer. Four of the employees are animators, while the rest are in sales, accounting and
management. The animators will need to send lots of very large files back and forth to one another as they
work on projects. To do this, they'll use a network.
8.2.3
When one animator sends a file to another, the very large file will use up most of the network's
capacity, making the network run very slowly for other users. One of the reasons that a single intensive
user can affect the entire network stems from the way that Ethernet works. Each information packet sent
from a computer is seen by all the other computers on the local network. Each computer then examines the
packet and decides whether it was meant for their address. This keeps the basic plan of the network simple,
but has performance consequences as the size of the network, or level of network activity increases. To
keep the animators' work from interfering with that of the folks in the front office, the company sets up
two separate networks, one for the animators and one for the rest of the company. A router links the two
networks and connects both networks to the Internet.
8.2.4
The router is the only device that sees every message sent by any computer on either of the
company's networks. When an animator sends a huge file to another animator, the router looks at the
recipient's address and keeps the traffic on the animator's network. When an animator, on the other hand,
sends a message to the bookkeeper asking about an expense-account check, then the router sees the
recipient's address and forwards the message between the two networks.
8.2.5
One of the tools a router uses to decide where a packet should go is a configuration table. A
configuration table is a collection of information, including:
Information on which connections lead to particular groups of addresses
Priorities for connections to be used
Rules for handling both routine and special cases of traffic
8.2.6 A configuration table can be a simple as a half-dozen lines in the smallest routers, but can grow to
massive size and complexity in the very large routers that handle the bulk of Internet messages.
50
8.2.7 A router, then, has two separate but related jobs. First, the router ensures that information doesn't
go where it's not needed. This is crucial for keeping large volumes of data from clogging the connections
of "innocent bystanders."
8.2.8
Second, the router makes sure that information does make it to the intended destination. In
performing these two jobs, a router is extremely useful in dealing with two separate computer networks. It
joins the two networks, passing information from one to the other and, in some cases, performing
translations of various protocols between the two networks.
8.2.9
It also protects the networks from one another, preventing the traffic on one from
unnecessarily spilling over to the other. As the number of networks attached to one another grows, the
configuration table for handling traffic among them grows, and the processing power of the router is
increased. Regardless of how many networks are attached, though, the basic operation and function of the
router remains the same. Since the Internet is one huge network made up of tens of thousands of smaller
networks, its use of routers is an absolute necessity.
8.3
Taking Packets from One Place to Another
8.3.1
When you make a telephone call to someone on the other side of the country, the telephone
system establishes a stable circuit between your telephone and the telephone you're calling. The circuit
might involve a half dozen or more steps through copper cables, switches, fiber-optics, microwaves and
satellites, but those steps are established and remain constant for the duration of the call. This circuit
approach means that the quality of the line between you and the person you're calling is consistent
throughout the call, but a problem with any portion of the circuit -- say, a tree falls across one of the lines
used, or there's a power problem with a switch -- brings your call to an early and abrupt end. When you
send an e-mail message with an attachment to the other side of the country, a very different process is
used.
8.3.2
Internet data, whether in the form of a Web page, a downloaded file or an e-mail message,
travels over a system known as a packet-switching network. In this system, the data in a message or file is
broken up into packages about 1,500 bytes long. Each of these packages gets a wrapper that includes
information on the sender's address, the receiver's address, the package's place in the entire message, and
how the receiving computer can be sure that the package arrived intact. Each data package, called a
packet, is then sent off to its destination via the best available route -- a route that might be taken by all
the other packets in the message or by none of the other packets in the message. This might seem very
complicated compared to the circuit approach used by the telephone system, but in a network designed for
data there are two huge advantages to the packet-switching plan. First, the network can balance the load
across various pieces of equipment on a millisecond-by-millisecond basis. Second, if there is a problem
with one piece of equipment in the network while a message is being transferred, packets can be routed
around the problem, ensuring the delivery of the entire message.
8.3.3
The routers that make up the main part of the Internet can reconfigure the paths that packets
take because they look at the information surrounding the data packet, and they tell each other about line
conditions, such as delays in receiving and sending data and traffic on various pieces of the network. Not
all routers do so many jobs, however. Therefore, routers come in different sizes. For example:
If you have enabled Internet Connection Sharing between two Windows 98-based
computers, you're using one of the computers (the computer with the Internet connection)
as a simple router. In this instance, the router does so little -- simply looking at data to see
whether it's intended for one computer or the other -- that it can operate in the background
of the system without significantly affecting the other programs you might be running.
Slightly larger routers, the sort used to connect a small office network to the Internet, will
do a bit more. These routers frequently enforce rules concerning security for the office
51
network (trying to secure the network from some sorts of attacks). They handle enough
traffic that they're generally stand-alone devices rather than software running on a server.
The largest routers, those used to handle data at the major traffic points on the Internet,
handle millions of data packets every second and work to configure the network most
efficiently. These routers are large stand-alone systems that have far more in common with
super-computers than with your office server
8.3.4
Let's take a look at a medium-sized router -- the router used in the How Stuff Works office. In
our case, the router only has two networks to worry about: The office network, with about 50 computers
and devices, and the Internet. The office network connects to the router through an Ethernet connection,
specifically a 100 base-T connection. (100 base-T means that the connection is 100 megabits per second,
and uses a twisted-pair cable like an 8-wire version of the cable that connects your telephone to the wall
jack.)
8.3.5
There are two connections between the router and our ISP (Internet Service Provider). One is a
T-1 connection that supports 1.5 megabits per second. The other is an ISDN line that supports 128 kilobits
per second. The configuration table in the router tells it that all out-bound packets are to use the T-1 line,
unless it's unavailable for some reason (e.g. - a backhoe digs up the cable). If it can't be used, then
outbound traffic goes on the ISDN line. This way, the ISDN line is held as "insurance" against a problem
with the faster T-1 connection, and no action by a staff member is required to make the switch in case of
trouble. The router's configuration table knows what to do.
8.3.6
In addition to routing packets from one point to another, the How Stuff Works router has rules
limiting how computers from outside the network can connect to computers inside the network, how the
How Stuff Works network appears to the outside world, and other security functions. While most
companies also have a special piece of hardware or software called a firewall to enforce security, the rules
in a router's configuration table are important to keeping a company's -- or a family's -- network secure.
8.3.7
One of the crucial tasks for any router is knowing when a packet of information stays on its
local network. For this, it uses a mechanism called a subnet mask. The subnet mask looks like an IP
address and usually reads "255.255.255.0". This tells the router that all messages with the sender and
receiver having an address sharing the first three groups of numbers are on the same network, and
shouldn't be sent out to another network. Here's an example: The computer at address 15.57.31.40 sends a
request to the computer at 15.57.31.52. The router, which sees all the packets, matches the first three
groups in the address of both sender and receiver (15.57.31) , and keeps the packet on the local network.
8.3.8
Between the time these words left the Howstuffworks.com server and the time they showed up
on your monitor (if the trainees is connected to the internet), they passed through several routers (it's
impossible to know ahead of time exactly how many "several" might be) that helped them along the way.
It's very similar to the process that gets a postal letter from your mailbox to the mailbox of a friend, with
routers taking the place of the mail sorters and handlers along the way.
8.4
How Routers Know Where to Send Data
8.4.1
Routers are one of several types of devices that make up the "plumbing" of a computer
network. Hubs, switches and routers all take signals from computers or networks and pass them along to
other computers and networks, but a router is the only one of these devices that examines each bundle of
data as it passes and makes a decision about exactly where it should go. To make these decisions, routers
must first know about two kinds of information: addresses and network structure.
52
8.4.2
When a friend mails a birthday card to be delivered to you at your house, they probably use an
address that looks something like this:
Joe Smith
123 Maple Street
Smalltown, FL 45678
8.4.3
The address has several pieces, each of which helps the people in the postal service move the
letter along to your house. The ZIP code can speed the process up, but even without the ZIP code, the card
will get to your house, as long as your friend includes your state, city and street address. You can think of
this address as a logical address because it describes a way someone can get a message to you. This
logical address is connected to a physical address that you generally only see when you're buying or
selling a piece of property. The survey plat of the land and house, with latitude, longitude or section
bearings, gives the legal description, or address, of the property.
8.4.4
Every piece of equipment that connects to a network, whether an office network or the
Internet, has a physical address. This is an address that's unique to the piece of equipment that's actually
attached to the network cable. For example, if your desktop computer has a network interface card (NIC)
in it, the NIC has a physical address permanently stored in a special memory location. This physical
address, which is also called the MAC address (for Media Access Control) has two parts, each 3 bytes
long. The first 3 bytes identify the company that made the NIC. The second 3 bytes are the serial number
of the NIC itself.
8.4.5
The interesting thing is that your computer can have several logical addresses at the same time.
Of course, you're used to having several "logical addresses" bring messages to one physical address. You
mailing address, telephone number (or numbers) and home e-mail address all work to bring messages to
you when you're in your house. They are simply used for different types of messages -- different networks,
so to speak.
8.4.6
Logical addresses for computer networks work in exactly the same way. You may be using the
addressing schemes, or protocols, from several different types of networks simultaneously. If you're
connected to the Internet (and if you're reading this, you probably are), then you have an address that's part
of the TCP/IP network protocol. If you also have a small network set up to exchange files between several
family computers, then you may also be using the Microsoft NetBEUI protocol. If you connect to your
company's network from home, then your computer may have an address that follows Novell's IPX/SPX
protocol. All of these can coexist on your computer. Since the driver software that allows your computer to
communicate with each network uses resources like memory and CPU time, you don't want to load
protocols you won't need, but there's no problem with having all the protocols your work requires running
at the same time.
53
8.5
Routers Understand the Protocols
8.5.1
The first and most basic job of the router is to know where to send information addressed to
your computer. Just as the mail handler on the other side of the country knows enough to keep a birthday
card coming toward you without knowing where your house is, most of the routers that forward an e-mail
message to you don't know your computer's MAC address, but they know enough to keep the message
flowing.
8.5.2 The chances are very good that you'll never see the MAC address for any of your equipment
because the software that helps your computer communicate with a network takes care of matching the
MAC address to a logical address. The logical address is what the network uses to pass information along
to your computer.
8.5.3
If you'd like to see the MAC address and logical address used by the Internet Protocol (IP) for
your Windows computer, you can run a small program that Microsoft provides. Go to the "Start" menu,
click on "Run," and in the window that appears, type "WINIPCFG." When the gray window appears, click
on "More Info" and you'll get this sort of information:
8.5.4
Windows 98 IP Configuration:
Host Name: NAMEHOWSTUFFWORKS
DNS Servers: 208.153.64.20
208.153.0.5
Node Type: Broadcast
NetBIOS Scope ID:
IP Routing Enabled: Yes
WINS Proxy Enabled: No
NetBIOS Resolution Uses DNS: No
Ethernet adapter:
Description: PPP Adapter
Physical Address: 44-45-53-54-12-34
DHCP Enabled: Yes
IP Address: 227.78.86.288
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Default Gateway: 227.78.86.288
54
DHCP Server: 255.255.255.255

Primary WINS Server:
Secondary WINS Server: Lease Obtained: 01 01 80 12:00:00 AM
Lease Expires: 01 01 80 12:00:00 AM
8.5.5
There's a lot of information here that will vary depending on exactly how your connection to
the Internet is established, but the physical Routers are programmed to understand the most common
network protocols. That means they know the format of the addresses, how many bytes are in the basic
package of data sent out over the network, and how to make sure all the packages reach their destination
and get reassembled. For the routers that are part of the Internet's main "backbone," this means looking at,
and moving on, millions of information packages every second. And simply moving the package along to
its destination isn't all that a router will do. It's just as important, in today's computerized world, that they
keep the message flowing by the best possible route.
8.5.6
In a modern network, every e-mail message is broken up into small pieces. The pieces are sent
individually and reassembled when they're received at their final destination. Because the individual pieces
of information are called packets and each packet can be sent along a different path, like a train going
through a set of switches, this kind of network is called a packet-switched network. It means that you don't
have to build a dedicated network between you and your friend on the other side of the country. Your email flows over any one of thousands of different routes to get from one computer to the other. Depending
on the time of day and day of the week, some parts of the huge public packet-switched network may be
busier than others. When this happens, the routers that make up this system will communicate with one
another so that traffic not bound for the crowded area can be sent by less congested network routes. This
lets the network function at full capacity without excessively burdening already-busy areas. You can see,
though, how Denial of Service attacks, in which people send millions and millions of messages to a
particular server, will affect that server and the routers forwarding message to it. As the messages pile up
and pieces of the network become congested, more and more routers send out the message that they're
busy, and the entire network with all its users can be affected.
8.6
Tracing a Message
8.6.1
If you're using a Microsoft-Windows-based system, you can see just how many routers are
involved in your Internet traffic by using a program you have on your computer. The program is called
Traceroute, and that describes what it does -- it traces the route that a packet of information takes to get
from your computer to another computer connected to the Internet. To run this program, click on the "MSDOS Prompt" icon on the "Start" menu. Then, at the "C:\WINDOWS>" prompt, type "tracert
www.howstuffworks.com". The results looked like this:
55
End of Section - SECTION II - Review Exercise

Answers found at page 62
Q26
Computers use a:
a) base-2 number system, known as the binary number system
b) base-10 number system known as the decimal number system
c) base-4 number system
d) none of the above
Q27
The word bit is a shortening of the words "Binary digit." Whereas decimal digits have 10 possible
values ranging from 0 to 9, bits have only two possible values: 0 and 1. Therefore, a binary number
is composed of only 0s and 1s, like this: 1011. You figure out what the value of the binary number
1011 by using a base of 2 instead of a base of 10. So 1011 =
1
0
1
1
(1 * 2^3) + (0 * 2^2) + (1 * 2^1) + (1 * 2^0) =
(1*2*2*2)+ (0*2*2) + (1*2*1) + (1*)
=
8
+
0
+
2
+ 1
= 11
You can see that in binary numbers, each bit holds the value of increasing powers of 2. That
makes counting in binary pretty easy. Which on of the following answers is correct??
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
0= 1
1= 1
2 = 11
3 = 11
4 = 101
Q28
Bits are rarely seen alone in computers. They are almost always bundled together into 8-bit
collections, and these collections are called bytes. Why are there 8 bits in a byte? A similar
question is, "Why are there 12 eggs in a dozen?" The 8-bit byte is something that people settled
on through trial and error over the past 50 years. With 8 bits in a byte, how many values can
you represent?
a) 64 values
b) 128 values
c) 256 values
d) 512 values
Q29
In the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) character set, each
binary value between 0 and 127 is given a specific character. Most computers extend the ASCII
character set to use the full range of 256 characters available in a byte. The upper 128
characters handle special things like accented characters from common foreign languages. If
you were to look at the file as a computer looks at it, you would find that each byte contains not
a letter but?
a) a number -- the number is the ASCII code corresponding to the character
b) digits, uppercase characters and lowercase characters
c) binary numbers
d) a one-to-one correspondence between each character
56
Q30
When you start talking about lots of bytes, you get into prefixes like kilo, mega and giga, as in
kilobyte, megabyte and gigabyte (also shortened to K, M and G, as in Kbytes, Mbytes and Gbytes or
KB, MB and GB). The following table shows the multipliers:
Name Abbr. Size
Kilo
2^10 = 1,024
Mega M
2^20 = 1,048,576
Giga
2^30 = 1,073,741,824
Tera
2^40 = 1,099,511,627,776
Peta
2^50 = 1,125,899,906,842,624
Exa
2^60 = 1,152,921,504,606,846,976
Zetta
2^70 = 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424
Yotta Y
2^80 = 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176
You can see in this chart that kilo is about a thousand, mega is about a million, giga is about a billion,
and so on. So when someone says, "This computer has a 2 gig hard drive," what he or she
means is that the hard drive stores 2 gigabytes, or approximately 2 billion bytes, or exactly?
a) 2,147,483,648 bytes.
b) 1,125,899,906,842,624 bytes.
c) 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes.
d) 1,048,576 bytes.
Q31
Bits are binary digits. A bit can hold the value 0 or 1. Bytes are made up of 8 bits each. Binary math
works just like decimal math, but each bit can have a value of only 0 or 1.
Q32
Since computers work in binary, memory is usually divided up into divisions that are a power
of 2. Hence, which of these statements is not true?
a) kilobyte = 1024 bytes (1024 = 210), abbreviated KB (Kb is kilobits)
b) megabyte = 1024 KB = 1,048,576 bytes, abbreviated MB (Mb is megabits)
c) gigabyte = 1024 MB = 1,073,741,824 bytes, abbreviated GB (Gb is gigabits)
d) Zettabyte= 1024 GB = 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes, abbreviated ZB(Zb is Zetabits)
Q33
What do we put into memory?

a)
Instructions
b)
Data
c)
Characters
d)
Instructions and data
e)
None of the above
57
Q34 Write the number of the subject beside the correct definition?
1. Central
Processing Unit
2. Memory
3. Random-access
memory (RAM)
4. Read-only
memory (ROM)
5. Basic
input/output system
(BIOS)
6. Caching
7. Virtual memory
Q35
Used to temporarily store information that the computer is currently

working with
A type of ROM that is used by the computer to establish basic
A permanent type of memory storage used by the computer for important
Space on a hard disk used to temporarily store data and swap it in and out
of RAM as needed
The storing of frequently used data in extremely fast RAM that connects
directly to the CPU
The microprocessor "brain" of the computer system is called the central
This is very fast storage used to hold data. It has to be fast because it
connects directly to the microprocessor. There are several specific types of
memory in a computer:
Which one of these things does a microprocessor NOT do?

a) Using its ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit), a microprocessor can perform mathematical operations
like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Modern microprocessors contain complete
floating point processors that can perform extremely sophisticated operations on large floating
point numbers.
b) A microprocessor can move data from one memory location to another.
c) A microprocessor can make decisions and jump to a new set of instructions based on those
decisions
d) A microprocessor can build a test register with a special latch that can hold values from
comparisons performed in the ALU.
Q36 Read-only memory (ROM), also known as firmware, is an integrated circuit programmed with
specific data when it is manufactured. ROM chips are used not only in computers, but in most other
electronic items as well. There are different types of ROM and each type has unique characteristics, , but
they are all types of memory with two things in common. Which of the following statements about ROM is
NOT true?
a) Data stored in these chips is nonvolatile -- it is not lost when power is removed and Data
stored in these chips is either unchangeable or requires a special operation to change
(unlike RAM, which can be changed as easily as it is read).
b) Data stored in these chips is volatile -- it is lost when power is removed and Data stored
in these chips is either changeable OR requires a special operation to change (unlike
RAM, which can be changed as easily as it is read)
c) Data stored in these chips is nonvolatile -- it is not lost when power is removed and Data
stored in these chips is changeable (like RAM, which can be changed as easily as it is
read).
d) It is firm and wares well.
58
Q37
Similar to RAM, ROM chips contain a grid of columns and rows. But where the columns and rows
intersect, ROM chips are fundamentally different from RAM chips. While RAM uses transistors to
turn on or off access to a capacitor at each intersection, ROM uses a diode to connect the lines if the
value is 1. If the value is 0, then the lines are not connected at all. The way a ROM chip works
necessitates the programming of perfect and complete data when the chip is created. You cannot
reprogram or rewrite a standard ROM chip. If it is incorrect, or the data needs to be updated, you
have to throw it away and start over. Creating the original template for a ROM chip is often a
laborious process full of trial and error. But the benefits of ROM chips outweigh the drawbacks.
Once the template is completed, the advantages of ROM chips include which of the following
statements:
a) actual ROM chips can cost as little as a few cents each.
b) ROM chips use very little power, ROM chips extremely reliable and,
c) ROM chips contain all the necessary programming to control the device
d) All of the above
Q38
Match the identified Internet/network connection on the left column to the definition on the
right?
1. Modem
A newer variation of DSL, VDSL requires that your phone
line have fiber-optic cables.
2. Local Area Network
This is a high-speed connection that works over a standard
(LAN)
telephone line.
3. Cable Modem
Some people now use the cable-television system in their
home to connect to the Internet.
4. Digital Subscriber Line
This is used by many computers, particularly those in an
(DSL) modem
Ethernet office network, to connected to each other.
5. Very high bit-rate DSL
Modulator-Demodulator is the standard method of
(VDSL) modem
connecting to the Internet
Q39
Once loaded, the operating system's tasks fall into six broad categories. Which one of the
following answers is correct?
a) Processor management - Breaking the tasks down into manageable chunks and prioritizing them
before sending to the CPU
b) Memory management - Coordinating the flow of data in and out of RAM and determining when
virtual memory is necessary
c) Device management - Providing an interface between each device connected to the computer, the
CPU and applications
d) Storage management - Directing where data will be stored permanently on hard drives and other
forms of storage
e) Application Interface - Providing a standard communications and data exchange between
software programs and the computer
f) User Interface - Providing a way for you to communicate and interact with the computer
g) All of the above
Q40
The word "modem" is a contraction of the words modulator-demodulator. A modem is typically used
to send digital data over a phone line. The sending modem modulates the data into a signal that is
compatible with the phone line, and the receiving modem demodulates the signal back into digital
data. Wireless modems convert digital data into radio signals and back. Modem speeds went through
a series of steps at approximately two-year intervals: 300 bps - 1960s through 1983 or so; 1200 bps Gained popularity in 1984 and 1985; 9600 bps - First appeared in late 1990 and early 1991. 56 Kbps
- Became the standard in which year??
a) 1995
b) 1996
c) 1997
d) 1998
59
Q41
A 300-bps modem is a device that uses frequency shift keying (FSK) to transmit digital information
over a telephone line. In frequency shift keying, a different tone (frequency) is used for the different
bits. When a terminal's modem dials a computer's modem, the terminal's modem is called the
originate modem. It transmits a 1,070-hertz tone for a 0 and a 1,270-hertz tone for a 1. The
computer's modem is called the answer modem, and it transmits a 2,025-hertz tone for a 0 and a
2,225-hertz tone for a 1. Because the originate and answer modems transmit different tones, they can
use the line simultaneously. This is known as full-duplex operation. Modems that can transmit in
only one direction at a time are known as?
a) Quarter-duplex modems
b) One third-duplex modems
c) Double duplex modems
d) Half-duplex modems
Q41
Select the answer with the correct words to insert into the following paragraph at (1), (2) and
(3)?
"In order to create faster modems, modem designers had to use techniques far more sophisticated
than frequency-shift keying. First they moved to (1) _______and then (2) _______These techniques
allow an incredible amount of information to be crammed into the 3,000 hertz of bandwidth available
on a normal voice-grade phone line. 56K modems. All of these high-speed modems incorporate a
concept of (3)______meaning they can test the phone line and fall back to slower speeds if the line
cannot handle the modem's fastest speed."
a) (1) phase-shift keying (PSK) (2) 3,000 hertz (3) gradual degradation,
b) (1) asymmetric digital (2) 9600 bps, (QAM) (3) gradual degradation,
c) (1) phase-shift keying (PSK) (2) quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) (3) gradual
degradation,
d) (1) Cable Modem
Q42
Today, we use our modems to connect to an Internet service provider (ISP), and the ISP connects us
into the Internet. Because of the relationship between your computer, the ISP and the Internet, it is no
longer appropriate to send individual characters. Instead, your modem is routing TCP/IP packets
between you and your ISP. The standard technique for routing these packets through your modem is
called the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). We're all used to seeing the various parts of the Internet that
come into our homes and offices -- the Web pages, e-mail messages and downloaded files that make
the Internet a dynamic and valuable medium. But none of these parts would ever make it to your
computer without a piece of the Internet that you've probably never seen. What is the
technology considered most responsible for allowing the Internet to exist?
a) modems
b) network
c) diode
d) the router
60
Q43
The router is the only device that sees every message sent by any computer on either of the
company's networks. One of the tools a router uses to decide where a packet should go is a
configuration table. A configuration table is a collection of information, including: Information on
which connections lead to particular groups of addresses, Priorities for connections to be used, Rules
for handling both routine and special cases of traffic. A configuration table can be a simple as a halfdozen lines in the smallest routers, but can grow to massive size and complexity in the very large
routers that handle the bulk of Internet messages. A router, then, has two separate but related jobs.
First, the router ensures that information doesn't go where it's not needed." Second, the router makes
sure that information does make it to the intended destination. In performing these two jobs, a
router is extremely useful in dealing with two separate computer networks. It joins the two
networks, passing information from one to the other and, in some cases, performing
translations of various protocols between the two networks. A router also?
a) protects the networks from one another, preventing the traffic on one from unnecessarily
spilling over to the other
b) As the number of networks attached to one another grows, the configuration table for handling
traffic among them grows, and the processing power of the router is decreased
c) Depending on how many networks are attached, though, the basic operation and function of the
router will change
d) Since the Internet is one huge network made up of tens of thousands of smaller networks, its
use of routers is not really needed.
Q44
Internet data, whether in the form of a Web page, a downloaded file or an e-mail message, travels
over a system known as a packet-switching network. In this system, the data in a message or file is
broken up into packages about 1,500 bytes long. Each of these packages gets a wrapper that
includes information on the sender's address, the receiver's address, the package's place in the
entire message, and how the receiving computer can be sure that the package arrived intact.
Each data package, is called a?
a) Bit
b) Byte
c) Packet
Q45
Hubs, switches and routers all take signals from computers or networks and pass them along to
other computers and networks, but a router is the only one of these devices that examines each
bundle of data as it passes and makes a decision about exactly where it should go. To make
these decisions, routers must first know about two kinds of information what are they?
a) addresses and network structure
b) the ZIP code & logical addresses
c) physical address & network interface card
d) MAC address & logical addresses
Q46
What is a protocol? A set of rules governing the exchange of data between two entities.
Protocols are used to speak the same language. The key elements of a Protocol are:
a) Data format, coding signal level, error handling, speed matching and sequencing.
b) knowing enough to keep the message flowing
c) matching the MAC address to a logical address
d) the MAC address and logical address used by the Internet Protocol (IP)
61
Q47
Physical Routers know the format of the addresses, how many bytes are in the basic package of data
sent out over the network, and how to make sure all the packages reach their destination and get
reassembled. In a modern network, every e-mail message is broken up into small pieces. The pieces
are sent individually and reassembled when they're received at their final destination. The individual
pieces of information are called packets and each packet can be sent along a different path, like
a train going through a set of switches, this kind of network is called?
a) A Ring Network
b) A Star Network
c) A Tree Network
d) A Packet-switched network.
Q48
One of the benefits that Data Communications provides is as follows?

a) Allow slower transfer of information between locations;
b) Denies access to databases, services and computing facilities;
c) Prohibits duplication and mirroring of important information resources;
d) Prohibits application load sharing.
e) Many data communications requirements can be satisfied by collections of point to point
communications links, and this type of interconnection has been used many times in the past.
62
A26
A27
A28
A29
A30
A31
A32
a)
c)
c)
a)
a)
True
d)
A33
d)
A34
1. Central
Processing Unit
2. Memory
3. Random-access
memory (RAM)
4. Read-only
memory (ROM)
5. Basic
input/output system
(BIOS)
6. Caching
ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS -SECTION II

base-2 number system, known as the binary number system
3 = 11
256 values
a number -- the number is the ASCII code corresponding to the character
2,147,483,648 bytes
Zettabyte= 1024 GB = 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes, abbreviated ZB(Zb is
Zetabits)
Instructions and data
3.
5.
4.
7.
6.
Used to temporarily store information that the computer is currently

working with
A type of ROM that is used by the computer to establish basic
A permanent type of memory storage used by the computer for important
Space on a hard disk used to temporarily store data and swap it in and out
of RAM as needed
The storing of frequently used data in extremely fast RAM that connects
directly to the CPU
1.
The microprocessor "brain" of the computer system is called the central

7. Virtual memory
2.
This is very fast storage used to hold data. It has to be fast because it
connects directly to the microprocessor. There are several specific types of
memory in a computer:
A35
d)
A microprocessor can build a test register with a special latch that can hold values
from comparisons performed in the ALU.
A36
d)
It is firm and wares well.
A37
d)
All of the above
A38
1. Modem
5
A newer variation of DSL, VDSL requires that your phone
line have fiber-optic cables.
2. Local Area Network
4
This is a high-speed connection that works over a standard
(LAN)
telephone line.
3. Cable Modem
3
Some people now use the cable-television system in their
home to connect to the Internet.
4. Digital Subscriber Line
2
This is used by many computers, particularly those in an
(DSL) modem
Ethernet office network, to connected to each other.
5. Very high bit-rate DSL
1
Modulator-Demodulator is the standard method of
(VDSL) modem
connecting to the Internet
A39
g)
All of the above
A40
d)
1998
A41
c)
(1) phase-shift keying (PSK) (2) quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) (3)
gradual degradation
A42
d)
the router
A43
a)
protects the networks from one another, preventing the traffic on one from
unnecessarily spilling over to the other
A44
c)
Packet
A45
a)
addresses and network structure
A46
a)
Data format, coding signal level, error handling, speed matching and sequencing.
A47
d)
A Packet-switched network.
A48
e)
Many data communications requirements can be satisfied by collections of point
to point communications links, and this type of interconnection has been used many times in
the past.
63
SECTION - III
9.1
NETWORKING
9.1.1
Course Objectives
9.1.1.1
This section of the self-study package is intended to provide trainees with:

i)
the principles of data communications including the requirements, rationale,
technology, and the intent of Open Systems Interconnection
ii)
a broad appreciation of the principles of different types of Data Communications
Networks
iii)
an understanding of some of the basic concepts of how Data Communications
Networks can be integrated by Open Systems Interconnection
iv)
an introduction to the range of applications which can be supported.
v)
a foundation from which trainees should progress to other courses on data
communications applications and to making intelligent choices with regard to
different data networks, OSI services and applications.
9.1.2
Networks In Use Today
9.1.2.1
A wide range of different types of data networks are in use today. Many have been installed to
support special applications [e.g. the Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunications Network (AFTN) )]. Other,
more general purpose data networks, which can be used for a wide range of applications have been
established over the last 20 years on the basis of standardised data communications network services and
standard protocols. The standardisation activity which led to these began is the early 1970s. Some of these
latter networks are used to support 'public' data network services.
9.1.2.2
During that time, the problems of data communications have been well understood, and the
technology basis supporting communications has changed dramatically with the ever greater sophistication
of communications and transmission technologies and the wide availability of relatively cheap computing
power. These influences have lead to an ever greater diversity of data communications network types and
data communications requirements.
9.1.2.3
So, this course starts with a broad overview of the range of the network types in common use
today, including some of those that are liable to be in use tomorrow.
9.1.2.4
Data Communications provide the following benefits:

Allow fast transfer of information between locations;
Allow access to databases, services and computing facilities;
Allow duplication and mirroring of important information resources;
Allow application load sharing.
Many data communications requirements can be satisfied by collections of point to
point communications links, and this type of interconnection has been used many times
in the past.
9.1.2.5
However, use of network technology offers a number of distinct advantages by:

Increasing resilience by providing alternative communications paths;
Allowing resource sharing of communications system components;
Allowing rationalisation of the use of communications resources;
Simultaneously supporting a range of different data communications applications.
64
9.1.2.6
This leads to the concept of a general purpose backbone data communications network. As
more and more Information Technology (IT) and communications applications use such a backbone
network, the cost/benefit ratio improves.
9.2
Topological are collections of data switching nodes connected to each other by fixed
communications links. They come in many different shapes and sizes. Topological Networks can provide
connections between a community of end systems to exchange data (called stations). Topologies consisting
of stations and end systems can take a wide variety of forms. Each topology has its own benefits, and its
precise shape will be determined by many factors including the geographic distribution of the end systems,
the traffic loads expected, resilience requirements, quality of service requirements etc.
9.2.1
Star Networks: This type of network is easy to manage and administer but a single fault at the
centre can cause the entire network to fail because there are no alternative routing capabilities. Since all
traffic must traverse the central node, it can become congested. Only the central node needs a switching
capability.
9.2.3
Ring Networks: May be economical in terms of communications link costs, but a single node
or connection failure can cause the entire network to fail with some types of protocols (e.g. where the
communication links carry data in one direction only).
9.2.4
Complete Networks: Have the highest resilience, lowest transit delays and throughput, but
depending on the geographical topology, they may be expensive. Each node must be able to handle
connections to each other node, requiring a degree of intelligence at each node. Single and multiple
communications link failures can be overcome with appropriate re-routing intelligence at each node.
9.2.5
Tree Networks: Allows distribution of control and administration (which might suit some
organisational requirements), a single failure will isolate only a part of the network - there are no
alternative routing possibilities.
65
9.2.6
Irregular Networks: Are constructed of combinations of the above topologies, and each
component and connection will be subject to the advantages and disadvantages of its type of local
topology. However, this type of network is commonly constructed as a compromise between all of the
above topologies which can suit a particular purpose, organisation or application.
9.3
Broadcast Networks operate on a different principle: A station wishing to send data to one or
more other stations 'broadcasts' the data over a common communications media so that all of the other
stations can receive it. Only the destination stations for which the data is intended actually accept and use
the data, the others ignore it. In effect, the communications media and the end stations operate the
'switching' themselves.
9.3.1
There are many types of broadcast networks in use, and all have different strategies for
directing the data to the appropriate recipient and preventing clashes, where two or more stations try to
send data simultaneously over the common channel. The figure above illustrates a number of quite
different broadcast network techniques.
Ring, the stations all connect to their immediate neighbours in a ring. This might take the
form of a number of communication lines which link adjacent stations or a continuous
cable. Data sent from one station is received by the adjacent node and passed onward so
that it eventually reaches all the others. In this case each end station acts as a node.;
Satellite, the stations can all send and receive radio signals to/from a satellite over a
common radio channel. The satellite simply re-broadcasts the data so that all of the stations
can receive it;
66
Bus, all of the stations connect to a single 'multidrop' communications line. Senders wait till
the line is not busy and simply transmit data addressed to a recipient station.
9.4
These technologies, use a variety of different protocols to overcome or prevent clashes where
several stations try to send simultaneously.
9.4.1
LANs are usually networks of the 'broadcast' type which are found in situations as diverse as
large corporate networks, and home computing. There are many different ways to use a LAN, and a single
LAN may, for example, be simultaneously used to support terminal access to a mainframe, and to share
data between PCs. The distinction between the two is not the LAN technology itself, rather the way it is
used. A LAN is simply the medium to exchange data, and the terms "Peer-to-Peer" and "Client/Server"
refer to the way the software that uses the LAN works, rather than the LAN itself.
9.4.2
Peer-to-Peer operation is typical of networking software used in small isolated workgroups,
and is the operational mode of products such as Microsoft's Windows for Workgroups or Novel's Netware
Lite. In Peer-to-Peer networking all systems are equals. Resources on any PC (e.g. Disks, Printers, Comms
Ports) may be made available to users on other PCs. There is no need for one PC to be dedicated to a task,
such as being a file server; potentially each PC is every other PC's file server. With the right software, a
user on one PC can "mount" the disk on another PC as if it was locally attached to their PC, and,
simultaneously the reverse may also happen.
9.4.3
Peer-to-Peer networking is ideal for sharing data in small workgroups, where each user is
responsible for their own machine. However, it is difficult to administer and really does require awareness
amongst its users and their co-operation to work properly. For example, who is responsible for data backup
or file deletion? If one user saves their file on another's PC, can they be sure it will still be there when they
go back to find it, and who is responsible for ensuring that the file is properly backed up?
67
9.5
On Client/Server networks, one or more systems are configured as dedicated servers,
providing access to shared data (as File Servers), shared resources [e.g. Print Servers) and shared service
access (i.e. to external communications services via Wide Area Networks (WAN)]. Users on Client PCs
can, for example, mount the disk on the File Server to appear as a local disk, but they cannot mount disks
on another user's PC.
9.5.1
It is also common for servers to have a different operating system from their client PCs. While
a client PC will typically be running DOS or DOS/Windows, the server is more likely to be running a
more powerful operating system, such as Unix, Netware, OS/2 or Windows NT. Server operating systems
usually need to support pre-emptive multi-tasking in order to serve their users efficiently, and to provide
better security than a single user system does.
9.5.2
The advantage of a server approach is that by concentrating common resources at a single
location, it is possible to manage and protect those resources better. A server may be out of the office
environment and in a computer room with a protected power supply and protected from intruders.
Responsibility for data backup can be made clear, with all user data being backed up on a controlled and
regular basis.
9.5.3
The disadvantage of the server approach is that the server is a single point of failure, and
organisations that implement a server approach must either be prepared for occasions when the network is
unavailable (and typically most client PCs will be unusable), or invest in multiple servers.
68
9.6
LANs can only link communities in a relatively confined locality. A typical LAN is limited by
its technology to a maximum distance of 2 Kilometres.
9.6.1
There are a number of different types Wide Area Network (WAN) technologies, each have
different communications characteristics. The first type of WAN which was developed to offer a global
service was the X.25 Packet Switch Technology. A functional diagram of an X.25 Packet Switched
Network is illustrated.
9.6.2
Users connect their systems over a standardised interface and protocol (the X.25 Protocol) to a
packet switch which is a node of the packet switched network. Packet switches serving different user
communities and localities interconnect so that they can forward data to intended recipient end stations.
The service is able to switch data communications channels between different end user stations on
demand, and each user can establish a large number of different channels simultaneously over a single
access link to the PSN.
9.6.3
The standards are:

X.25 - which specifies the interface between an X.25 Host and the packet switching
service;
X.3 - which specifies the operation of a Packet Assembler/Disassembler (PAD) which is
used to interface comparatively simple terminals using Asynchronous modems to the
Packet switching service;
X.29 - which specifies how an X.3 PAD communicates with a distant host using X.25.
69
X.25 PSN technology is ageing and has a number of disadvantages. More recent
technologies such as Frame Relay and Asynchronous Transfer Mode do not have these
disadvantages and will probably replace X.25 in the future.
9.7
Internetworking is about joining dissimilar types of network, whether they be LAN or WAN
or wireless network, to form an 'internet'. The individual networks which are joined to form an internet are
referred to as 'subnetworks'. An internet provides a common communications service to its networked
applications users regardless of whether the system on which they run is mainframe or PC, or whether they
are connected to LAN or WAN. The design of these applications is therefore independent of the system
that runs them or the subnetwork to which they are attached. The graphic above illustrates a simple
internet consisting of a LAN and two X.25 Packet Switched subnetworks. The LAN is coupled to the
WANs using a 'Router' which acts as a gateway. It maps between the different network protocols and
manages the internetwork's addressing and routing.
9.7.1
A larger scale internetwork has been created by 'The Internet'. This interconnects a vast
number of computer subnetworks into a single global system, allowing the users of each subnetwork to
exchange data with any other user, and access services provided by any service providers attached to the
Internet. It also supports a comprehensive range of data communications applications, such as e-mail, file
transfer, and remote access to computing resources.
9.7.2
The Internet is the realisation of the potential of internetworking. It is not an organisation or
service, but the result of the application of internetworking technology. The Internet is the simple
consequence of many organisations adopting common communications protocols, applications that use
them, a common addressing scheme, and then interconnecting their respective subnetworks.
70
9.7.3
The Internet illustrates that:

Internetworking can interconnect subnetworks and data communications users on a global
scale;
An internetwork can support a wide range of applications using a common data
communications technology and infrastructure
9.7.4
Internetworking is about joining dissimilar types of network, whether they be
LAN or WAN or wireless network, to form an 'internet'. The individual networks which are joined to form
an internet are referred to as 'subnetworks'. An internet provides a common communications service to its
networked applications users regardless of whether the system on which they run is mainframe or PC, or
whether they are connected to LAN or WAN. The design of these applications is therefore independent of
the system that runs them or the subnetwork to which they are attached. The LAN is coupled to the WANs
using a 'Router' which acts as a gateway. It maps between the different network protocols and manages the
internetwork's addressing and routing.
9.7.5
Following on from the requirements for internetworks outlined previously, this section
introduces the trainee to the Open System Interconnection Reference Model. The OSI Reference Model is
a complete model of data communications supporting distributed applications and it provides terminology
which can be used to define data communications services and protocols in a standardised way.
9.8
Open System Interconnect (OSI)
9.8.1
This section introduces OSI:
the requirement for standards;
background and introduction to the OSI Reference Model;
protocol and service layering;
connection oriented and Connectionless communications;
general concepts and structure of OSI protocols.
The trainee will be made aware of the needs for standardisation in this area.
71
9.8.2
There are a number of organisations which have formally developed the OSI
Standards. The International Standards Organisation (ISO) and the International Telecommunications
Union (ITU) have co-operated to develop the OSI standards over the period since the mid 1970s. In the
field of OSI, ISO has formed a joint technical committee (JTC1) with the International Electrical
Committee, so this combination is often referenced as ISO/IEC JTC1.
9.8.3
The OSI Reference Model was constructed to provide a framework of concepts
within which it was possible to discuss networks and data communications in an abstract sense. It was
designed to be unrelated to any particular network or application's terminology. This was necessary
because OSI is about all data networks and all data communications applications. In this sense, the OSI
reference model provides a meta-language for describing data communications systems. It provides:
A common terminology for all aspects of data communications interworking;
A common specification of the data communications services provided by the different
layers;
The concepts of protocol layers and layer services as a means of allocating the different
data communications functions into different protocol layers. This has additionally
made OSI highly modular and it explicitly outlines all of the different communications
functions which must be defined in a complete data communications system;
In doing this it does not constrain a supplier to implement the OSI protocols in any
particular way, but merely to obey the protocols which are defined in the context of
OSI.
9.8.4
Without an OSI Reference model, open communications would be difficult, there would be
many islands of 'data communications' which could only exchange information with difficulty.
72
9.9
The OSI reference model is a layered model, and identifies two types of Systems:
End Systems which are 'Host Computers', the users of network services, and which
comprise seven protocol layers, providing communications services to applications.
Intermediate Systems which are either Routers or Packet Switches, and comprise only the
three layers appropriate to network communications.
9.9.1
End systems may either communicate directly, using the services of a physical
communications medium, or communicate via one or more Intermediate Systems. The definition of each
protocol layer is:
Application Layer: contains all the information (or semantics) that is exchanged
between End Systems. In particular, it contains all user information that is exchanged. It
also provides the means to allow the End Systems to agree to the semantics of the
information exchanged;
Presentation Layer: provides the means to represent the information exchanged (i.e.
the Syntax) between the End Systems without changing the semantics of the
information;
Session Layer: provides the means to mark significant part of the information
exchanged between systems: for example, a Unit or Word, a page, a chapter, a file or a
message. It also provides applications with a set of tools to structure communications
dialogues;
73
Transport Layer: provides end-to-end control and information interchange with the
level of reliability that is needed for the application. The services provided to the upper
layers are independent of the underlying network implementation. The Transport Layer
is therefore the "user's liaison, acting as the go-between for the user and the network,
enhancing the network's service to that required by the application;
Network Layer: provides the means to establish, maintain and terminate the switched
connections between End Systems, or to transfer datagrams between two End Systems.
Addressing and routing functions are included in the Network Layer;
Data Link Layer: provides the synchronisation and error control for the information
transmitted over each individual physical link accessing the network or connecting
network components;
Physical Layer: provides the functional and procedural characteristics to activate,
maintain and deactivate the physical connection. It also includes the electrical and
mechanical characteristics of the physical interface to the external transmission media.
9.9.2
The seven layer model has proved remarkably resilient to change since it was first introduced,
although it has been considerably enhanced over the years. The original reference model considered only
connection mode communications. It was later amended to include connectionless communications, and
now also includes a Security Model, a Naming and Addressing Model, and a Systems Management Model.
A Quality of Service (QoS) Management Framework is a likely future addition.
9.9.3
Each Layer is defined by a 'layer service' which is provided to the next layer up. Each layer
service is supported by a 'layer protocol'. Each layer of the model uses the layer services provided by its
next lower layer and enhances it by using its layer protocol to provide the layer's service to the next higher
layer. In this way, the OSI Reference model defines a 'stack' of seven layers of protocols.
9.9.4
A further important characteristic of OSI is that it specifies both connection oriented and
connectionless communications services. Examples of connection oriented services include the Telephone
network, X.25 Packet Switched Data Network Services, Telex, Integrated Service Data Network (ISDN).
In all of these services, a connection is established between the two communicating parties before data or
information is transmitted. The data usually arrives in the same order as it was sent, and there are
mechanisms which prevent information arriving too fast for the recipient to deal with (i.e. Flow Control).
When the information flow has been completed, the connection between the two parties is disconnected.
9.9.5
Examples of connectionless mode communications include the postal service, messaging
systems, and Local Area Networks. In such systems, the information is prepared with an address and other
74
envelope information and passed through at least one intermediary system on its way to the destination.
The originating end system establishes a connection only with the first intermediary system and passes the
information over that connection. As soon as the information has been transferred to the intermediary
system and stored by it, the connection is broken. There is no concept of a connection between the
originating system and the recipient system.
9.9.6
The connection-mode data communications characteristics are:
9.9.7
The connection can reserve resources to guarantee a particular quality of service

Information arrives and the recipient's system in the same order as it was sent. There is
no need to sort and re-order the information;
The flow of information can be easily regulated so that the receiving system does not
become overloaded;
The network can control congestion more easily by regulating the flow of information
through circuits and by regulating the number of connections accepted;
Because of the reliability of true connection mode, higher level protocols need not
implement rigorous checks and recovery procedures to overcome data loss or
unsequenced data;
However, the connection mode of working involves a lot of protocol overhead, resulting
in inefficiency and a limited throughput of information.
The connectionless mode characteristics are:
It is efficient in terms of network provision;

Such a network can be more resilient when nodes fail - information simply takes
another path;
It is of use in certain applications (e.g. where repetitive data is sent as a continuous
stream, and the loss of individual items is tolerable, or where an application can operate
in 'send and forget mode).
9.9.8
Connectionless versus connection mode networks was one of the great debates in OSI during
the 1980s. On one side, the common carriers argued for the X.25 model because of their perceived need to
provide a contractual Quality of Service to their users. On the other hand LAN vendors did not want the
overhead of X.25 slowing LANs down.
9.9.9
A number of different issues must be resolved by the OSI network service if it is to span a
number of different network types:
Congestion management: The different networks all have different approaches to

controlling traffic congestion. Some networks react to congestion by discarding data in
transit. Others react by inhibiting traffic entering the network. This has the consequence
that either the OSI network service must recover from loss of data or the transport layer
must do it;
Addressing: Each different subnetwork type has a different addressing scheme to identify
the user systems connected to it. However, the network layer must offer a consistent and
well organised addressing scheme which applies to all ISO systems;
Internetwork connections: In order to establish a data transfer capability between all OSI
applications, it will be necessary to interconnect different networks;
75
Connection oriented vs. connectionless networks: these are fundamentally different

techniques for which there are two possibilities for interconnection:
Either the applications requires a connection oriented service, in which case the individual
connectionless networks must be enhanced to provide a connection oriented service, or the
application must upgrade the interconnection itself; or
The application can tolerate a connectionless service, and the individual connection
oriented networks can be used in a connectionless fashion.
Reliable end-to-end communications: One of the OSI requirements is to be able to

establish reliable end-to-end communications, despite the fact that some of the subnetworks
supporting the network layer are inherently unreliable;
Transparency: The OSI data communications service user requires transparency of the
underlying subnetworks - the network layer has to provide a consistent service interface
irrespective of the type of the subnetworks used.
Routing: Each type of network has its own routing capability and strategy, however, in
interconnecting a number of 'subnetworks', it is necessary to define a new routing capability
and strategy which deals with routing through those subnetworks.
9.9.10
There are many requirements for data interchange between systems connected to different
types of incompatible network in the way illustrated. How do you interconnect a PC on, for example, an
Ethernet LAN, with another directly connected to an X.25 network? How do you join two LANs on
remote sites?
9.9.11
There is a range of different compatibility problems to be addressed:

Connectionless vs. Connection Oriented Services;
Frame, Packet, block length differences;
Reliable transfer as opposed to unreliable transfer;
Throughput and flow control differences;
76
User system identification and addressing;

Quality of Service differences;
Error detection and correction;
Routing maintenance;
Address mapping;
Data formats and encoding;
Security functions.
9.9.12
The various techniques used to meet such requirements are known collectively as
"Internetworking". Internetworking supports end-to-end data transfer between systems (e.g. between two
PCs) attached to different networks, including networks of different types and characteristics.
9.9.13
There are a number of different techniques which have been developed to link data networks
of similar and dissimilar types to support data communications paths which traverse different
'subnetworks'. These are:
Repeaters which can directly join two networks of the same type to extend its maximum
length;
LAN Bridges which are used to link two similar LANS by means of a Wide Area
Network;
Routers which can interconnect different types of subnetwork and perform an 'internet'
routing function;;
Gateways which are used to link similar Wide Area Networks.
77
Review Questions - SECTION III - Answers Page 83

Q49
One of the distinct advantages of using network technology is as follows:

a) Decreased resilience by providing alternative communications paths;
b) Prohibiting resource sharing of communications system components;
c) Decreased rationalisation of the use of communications resources;
d) Simultaneously supporting a range of different data communications applications.
Q50
The following shape describes what type of general topology network?

a) Tree
b) Ring
c) Irregular
d) Complete
e) Star
Q51
Topological are collections of data switching nodes connected to each other by fixed
communications links. They come in many different shapes and sizes. Topological Networks can
provide connections between a community of end systems to exchange data (called stations).
Topologies consisting of stations and end systems can take a wide variety of forms. Each topology
has its own benefits, and its precise shape will be determined by many factors including the
geographic distribution of the end systems, the traffic loads expected, resilience requirements,
quality of service requirements etc. Please indicate if you think that these statements are true
or false:
a) Star Networks: This type of network is difficult to manage and administer but multiple faults at
the centre can cause the entire network to fail however there are alternative routing capabilities.
Since all traffic must traverse the central node, it can never become congested. Only the central
node needs a switching capability.
True
False
b) Ring Networks: May be economical in terms of communications link costs, but a single node or
connection failure can cause the entire network to fail with some types of protocols (e.g. where
the communication links carry data in one direction only).
True
False
c) Complete Networks: Have the highest resilience, lowest transit delays and throughput, but
depending on the geographical topology, they may be expensive. Each node must be able to
handle connections to each other node, requiring a degree of intelligence at each node. Single and
multiple communications link failures can be overcome with appropriate re-routing intelligence
at each node.
True
False
d) Tree Networks: Allows distribution of control and administration (which might suit some
organisational requirements), a single failure will isolate only a part of the network - there are no
alternative routing possibilities.
True
False
78
e) Irregular Networks: Are constructed of combinations of the above topologies, and each
component and connection will be subject to the advantages and disadvantages of its type of
local topology. However, this type of network is commonly constructed as a compromise
between all of the above topologies which can suit a particular purpose, organisation or
application.
True
False
Q52
Broadcast Networks: There are many types of broadcast networks in use, and all have different
strategies for directing the data to the appropriate recipient and preventing clashes, where two
or more stations try to send data simultaneously over the common channel. Which one of these
statements is true?
a) Ring, the stations do not connect to their immediate neighbours in a ring. This might take the
form of a number of communication lines which link stations. Data sent from one station is
received and passed onward so that it eventually reaches all the others. In this case each end
station acts as a node;
True
False
b) Satellite, the stations can all send and receive radio signals to/from a satellite over a common
radio channel. The satellite simply re-broadcasts the data so that all of the stations can receive it;
True
False
c) Bus, all of the stations connect to a single 'multidrop' communications line. Senders wait till the
line is not busy and simply transmit data addressed to a recipient station.
True
False
d) These technologies, use a variety of different protocols to overcome or prevent clashes where
several stations try to send simultaneously.
True
False
Q53
LANs are usually what type of networks?

a) Broadcast
b) Simple
c) Complex
Q54
On Client/Server networks, one or more systems are configured as dedicated servers, providing
access to shared data (as File Servers), shared resources [e.g. Print Servers) and shared service
access [i.e. to external communications services via Wide Area Networks (WAN). A
disadvantage of the Client/Server approach is that:
a) The server is a single point of failure, and organisations that implement a server approach must
either be prepared for occasions when the network is unavailable (and typically most client PCs
will be unusable), or invest in multiple servers
b) Responsibility for data backup can be made clear
c) All user data can be backed up on a controlled and regular basis
d) A server may be in a computer room with a protected power supply and protected from intruders
79
Q55
Internetworking is about joining dissimilar types of network, whether they be LAN or WAN or
wireless network, to form an 'internet'. The individual networks which are joined to form an internet
are referred to as 'subnetworks'. An internet provides a common communications service to its
networked applications users regardless of whether the system on which they run is mainframe
or PC, or whether they are connected to LAN or WAN. A larger scale global internetwork has
been created by
a) The Airways Engineering LAN
b) The STC WAN
c) The Proxy Server
d) The Internet
Q56
The Internet illustrates that: Internetworking can interconnect subnetworks and data communications
users on a global scale and an internetwork can support a wide range of applications using a common
data communications technology and infrastructure. Internetworking is about joining dissimilar types
of network, whether they be LAN or WAN or wireless network, to form an 'internet'. The LAN is
coupled to the WANs using a 'Router' which acts as a gateway. It maps between the different
network protocols and manages the internetwork's addressing and routing. The individual
networks which are joined to form an internet are referred to as:
a) WAN
b) LAN
c) Routers
d) Subnetworks
Q57
The OSI Reference Model is a complete model of data communications supporting distributed
applications and it provides terminology which can be used to define data communications services
and protocols in a standardised way. The OSI Reference Model was constructed to provide a
framework of concepts within which it was possible to discuss networks and data communications in
an abstract sense. It was designed to be unrelated to any particular network or application's
terminology. This was necessary because OSI is about all data networks and all data communications
applications. In this sense, the OSI reference model provides a meta-language for describing data
communications systems. It provides:
a) A common terminology for all aspects of data communications interworking;
b) the data provided by the different layers;
c) the different data communications sectional protocol layers.
d) a constraint on the OSI protocols which are defined in the context of OSI.
80
Q58
Without an OSI Reference model, open communications would be difficult, there would be many
islands of 'data communications' which could only exchange information with difficulty. The OSI
reference model is a layered model, and identifies two types of Systems: End Systems which
comprise seven protocol layers, providing communications services to applications. Intermediate
Systems which are either Routers or Packet Switches, and comprise only the three layers appropriate
to network communications. Mark the number of the appropriate Layer beside the correct definition:
1. Application
Layer
2. Presentation
Layer
3. Session Layer
4. Transport
Layer
5. Network
Layer
6. Data Link
Layer:
7. Physical
Layer:
Q59
provides the means to mark significant part of the information

exchanged between systems: for example, a Unit or Word, a page, a
chapter, a file or a message. It also provides applications with a set of
tools to structure communications dialogues;
provides end-to-end control and information interchange with the level
of reliability that is needed for the application. The services provided to
the upper layers are independent of the underlying network
implementation. The Transport Layer is therefore the "user's liaison,
acting as the go-between for the user and the network, enhancing the
network's service to that required by the application;
provides the means to establish, maintain and terminate the switched
connections between End Systems, or to transfer datagrams between two
End Systems. Addressing and routing functions are included in the
Network Layer;
contains all the information (or semantics) that is exchanged between
End Systems. In particular, it contains all user information that is
exchanged. It also provides the means to allow the End Systems to agree
to the semantics of the information exchanged;
provides the synchronisation and error control for the information
transmitted over each individual physical link accessing the network or
connecting network components;
provides the functional and procedural characteristics to activate,
maintain and deactivate the physical connection. It also includes the
electrical and mechanical characteristics of the physical interface to the
external transmission media.
provides the means to represent the information exchanged (i.e. the
Syntax) between the End Systems without changing the semantics of the
information;
Each Layer is defined by a 'layer service' which is provided to the next layer up. Each layer
service is supported by a 'layer protocol'. Each layer of the model uses the layer services
provided by its next lower layer and enhances it by using its layer protocol to provide the
layer's service to the next higher layer. In this way, the OSI Reference model defines a 'stack' of
?
a) Seven layers of protocols
b) Six layers of protocols
c) Five layers of protocols
d) Eight layers of protocols
81
Q60
A number of different issues must be resolved by the OSI network service if it is to span a
number of different network types. Match the correct issue to the definition:
1. Congestion
Each different subnetwork type has a different addressing scheme to
management:
identify the user systems connected to it. However, the network layer
must offer a consistent and well organised addressing scheme which
applies to all ISO systems;
2. Addressing:
In order to establish a data transfer capability between all OSI
3. Internetwork
these are fundamentally different techniques for which there are two
connections:
possibilities for interconnection: Either the applications requires a
connection oriented service, in which case the individual
connectionless networks must be enhanced to provide a connection
oriented service, or the application must upgrade the interconnection
itself; or
The application can tolerate a connectionless service, and the
individual connection oriented networks can be used in a
connectionless fashion.
4. Connection
Each type of network has its own routing capability and strategy,
oriented vs.
however, in interconnecting a number of 'subnetworks', it is necessary
connectionless
to define a new routing capability and strategy which deals with
networks
routing through those subnetworks.
5. Reliable end-toThe different networks all have different approaches to controlling
end
traffic congestion. Some networks react to congestion by discarding
communications:
data in transit. Others react by inhibiting traffic entering the network.
This has the consequence that either the OSI network service must
recover from loss of data or the transport layer must do it;
6. Transparency:
One of the OSI requirements is to be able to establish reliable end-toend communications, despite the fact that some of the subnetworks
7. Routing:
The OSI data communications service user requires transparency of the
underlying subnetworks - the network layer has to provide a consistent
service interface irrespective of the type of the subnetworks used.
Q61
There are a number of different techniques which have been developed to link data networks
of similar and dissimilar types to support data communications paths which traverse different
'subnetworks'. These are:
a) Repeaters which can directly join two networks of the same type to extend its maximum length
b) LAN Bridges which are used to link two similar LANS by means of a Wide Area Network
c) Routers which can interconnect different types of subnetwork and perform an 'internet' routing
function
d) Gateways which are used to link similar Wide Area Networks
e) All of the above
82
ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS -SECTION III

A49
A50
A51
A52
A53
A54
A55
A56
A57
A58
A59
d)
Simultaneously supporting a range of different data communications applications.
e)
Star
False
True
True
True
True
False
True
True
True
a)
Broadcast
a)
The server is a single point of failure, and organisations that implement a server
approach must either be prepared for occasions when the network is unavailable (and typically
most client PCs will be unusable), or invest in multiple servers
d)
The Internet
d)
Subnetworks
a)
A common terminology for all aspects of data communications interworking;
1. Application
Layer
2. Presentation
Layer
3. Session Layer
4. Transport
Layer
5. Network
Layer
6. Data Link
Layer:
7. Physical
Layer:
a)
provides the means to mark significant part of the information

exchanged between systems: for example, a Unit or Word, a page, a
chapter, a file or a message. It also provides applications with a set of
tools to structure communications dialogues;
provides end-to-end control and information interchange with the level
of reliability that is needed for the application. The services provided to
the upper layers are independent of the underlying network
implementation. The Transport Layer is therefore the "user's liaison,
acting as the go-between for the user and the network, enhancing the
network's service to that required by the application;
provides the means to establish, maintain and terminate the switched
connections between End Systems, or to transfer datagrams between
two End Systems. Addressing and routing functions are included in the
Network Layer;
contains all the information (or semantics) that is exchanged between
End Systems. In particular, it contains all user information that is
exchanged. It also provides the means to allow the End Systems to agree
to the semantics of the information exchanged;
provides the synchronisation and error control for the information
transmitted over each individual physical link accessing the network or
connecting network components;
provides the functional and procedural characteristics to activate,
maintain and deactivate the physical connection. It also includes the
electrical and mechanical characteristics of the physical interface to the
external transmission media.
provides the means to represent the information exchanged (i.e. the
Syntax) between the End Systems without changing the semantics of the
information;
Seven Layers
83
A60
A61
1. Congestion
management:
2. Addressing:
3. Internetwork
connections:
4. Connection
oriented vs.
connectionless
networks
5. Reliable end-toend
communications:
6. Transparency:
7. Routing:
e)
All of the above
Each different subnetwork type has a different addressing scheme to

identify the user systems connected to it. However, the network layer
must offer a consistent and well organised addressing scheme which
applies to all ISO systems;
In order to establish a data transfer capability between all OSI
these are fundamentally different techniques for which there are two
possibilities for interconnection: Either the applications requires a
connection oriented service, in which case the individual
connectionless networks must be enhanced to provide a connection
oriented service, or the application must upgrade the interconnection
itself; or
The application can tolerate a connectionless service, and the
individual connection oriented networks can be used in a
connectionless fashion.
Each type of network has its own routing capability and strategy,
however, in interconnecting a number of 'subnetworks', it is necessary
to define a new routing capability and strategy which deals with
routing through those subnetworks.
The different networks all have different approaches to controlling
traffic congestion. Some networks react to congestion by discarding
data in transit. Others react by inhibiting traffic entering the network.
This has the consequence that either the OSI network service must
recover from loss of data or the transport layer must do it;
One of the OSI requirements is to be able to establish reliable end-toend communications, despite the fact that some of the subnetworks
The OSI data communications service user requires transparency of the
underlying subnetworks - the network layer has to provide a consistent
service interface irrespective of the type of the subnetworks used.
84
ADS
ADS-B
ADSL
AGP
ASCII
ASM
ATC
ATS
ATFM
ATM
ATN
BIOS
Bit
BIOS
CD-R
CD-RW
CNS/ATM
CPU
DGNSS
DME
DL
DSL
DRAM
DVD-ROM
EEPROM
FANS
FIRs
FSK
GBAS
GNSS
GPS
HF
ICAO
IDE
ILS
IMC
INS
I/O
IP
ISO
IRS
ISDN
IT
LAAS
MAC
MLS
MMR
Modem
PPP
NDB
PC
PCI
GLOSSARY
Automatic Dependent Surveillance
Automatic Dependent Surveillance - Broadcast
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
Accelerated Graphics Port
American Standard Code for Information Interchange
Airspace Management
Air Traffic Control
Air Traffic Services
Air Traffic Flow Management
Air Traffic Management
Aeronautical Telecommunication Network
Basic Input/Output System
Short for "binary digit."
Basic Input/Output System
Compact Disk Recordable
Compact Disk Rewritable
Communications, Navigation, Surveillance / Air Traffic Management
Central Processing Unit
Differential Global Navigation Satellite System
Distance Measuring Equipment
Data Link
Digital Subscriber Line
Dynamic Random Access Memory
Digital Versatile Disc, Read-Only Memory
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
ICAO Future Air Navigation System (FANS)
Flight Information Regions
Frequency Shift Keying
Ground Based Augmentation System
Global Navigation Satellite System
Global Positioning Satellite
High Frequency
International Civil Aviation Organization
Integrated Drive Electronics
Instrument Landing Systems
Instrument Meteorological Conditions
Inertial Navigation System
Input/Output
Internet Protocol
International Standards Organization
Inertial Reference System
Integrated Service Data Network
Information Technology
Local Area Augmentation System
Media Access Control
Microwave Landing System
Multi-Mode Receiver
Modulator De-modulator
Point to Point Protocol
Non Directional Radio Beacon
Personal Computers
Peripheral Component Interconnect
85
PROM
PSK
QAM
RAM
ROM
RNAV
RNP
RS-232 port
SBAS
SCSI
SAM
SSR Mode S
TCP/IP
UART
USB
VDSL
VHF
VMC
VOR
WAAS
Programmable Read-Only Memory

Phase-Shift Keying
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Random Access Memory
Read Only Memory (also known as firmware)
Area Navigation
Required Navigation Performance
Serial Port
Space Based Augmentation System
Small Computer System Interface
Serial Access Memory
Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) Mode S
Transport Communications Protocol / Internet Protocol
Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter
Universal Serial Bus
Very High bit-rate modem
Very High Frequency
Visual Meteorological Conditions
Very High Frequency Omni-Directional Radio Range
Wide Area Augmentation System
86

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Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002

Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002

The Communications, Navigation, Surveillance / Air Traffic Management (CNS/ATM)

Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002

AIR TRAFFIC DEMAND

System shortcomings in the early 1980s amounted to essentially three factors:

Propagation limitations of existing line of sight systems;

The difficulty, caused by a variety of reasons, to implement current Communications,

These shortcomings were reflected in problems, such as:

The inability to expand to meet future traffic growth, in an evolutionary fashion.

Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002

FUTURE AIR NAVIGATION SYSTEM (FANS) COMMITTEE - FANS Phase I

Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002

The Tenth Air Navigation Conference - September 1991

Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002

Communications, navigation and surveillance systems, employing digital technologies,

Improving upon the present levels of safety;

OVERALL DESCRIPTION OF THE NEW CNS/ATM SYSTEMS

Communications - Navigation - Surveillance

Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002

VHF spectrum saturation in many areas of the world.

Future Communication Environment

Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002

Data communication using ARINC 622 standard is available as an interim system

Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002

The propagation limitations of current lineof-sight VHF voice communication systems

A single aviation network

No full coverage of VHF voice

HF communication is not restricted to lineof-sight because the radio waves are

Improved air - ground

VHF spectrum saturation in many areas of

The lack of digital air-ground data

Voice communication has slow rate of

More fast data

Voice communication has the problems

Problems eliminated due

Possibility of errors of transmission or

Errors are detected and

High workload of a controller.

Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002

Current Air Navigation Environment

5.2.1.1 Very High Frequency Omni-Directional Radio Range (VOR)

Non Directional Radio Beacon (NDB)

Inertial Navigation System (INS) / Inertial Reference System (IRS)

Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002

Progressive introduction of area navigation (RNAV) capability in compliance with the

Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002

Three- and four-dimensional navigation accuracy will be improved.

No full coverage of VOR/DME

Global coverage, world-wide navigation service is

Accuracy limitations, that does not

High-accuracy navigation for all phases of flight.

Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002

Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002

Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002

en-route/terminal operations and

Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002

Improved Flow Management

En-route and Terminal Operations

Improved flow management will prevent excessive levels of congestion.

Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002

Self-study Material - Version 1- June 2002

Oceanic areas with

New CNS System Elements