2009 CT 4140 Book of Slides

1
Structural Dynamics
CT 4140
Prof. Dr. Andrei V. Metrikine
Section CM, Room 6.59, Tel.: 84749

A.Metrikine@tudelft.nl
http://www.mechanics.citg.tudelft.nl
Lecture 1
CT 4140 Structural Mechanics
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences
2009 Delft, The Netherlands
Contents of Lecture 1
Meeting Times
Mondays and Fridays: Theatre D at 10.45-12.30 am
Wednesdays:
Theatre E at 10.45-12.30 am
1. General information about the course
February
2. Significance of dynamics for civil engineering

3. Recollection of knowledge regarding undamped 1 DOF
systems
equation of motion, free vibration, the general solution of

homogeneous equation, characteristic equation, eigenvalues,
natural frequency
March
week 6
week 7
week 8
week 9
week 10
week 11
week 12
Lecture 1
2 February
Lecture 4
9 February
Lecture 7
16 February
Lecture 10
23 February
Lecture 13
2 March
Lecture 16
9 March
Lecture 19
16 March
Lecture 2
4 February
Lecture 5
11 February
Lecture 8
18 February
Lecture 11
25 February
Lecture 14
4 March
Lecture 17
11 March
Lecture 20
18 March
Lecture 3
6 February
Lecture 6
13 February
Lecture 9
20 February
Lecture 12
27 February
Lecture 15
6 March
Lecture 18
13 March
Color Code:
Structural Vibrations (Part 1)
Waves in Structural Elements (Part 2)
Exercise
Lecture 1

Lecture 1
General information about the course

Blackboard Content
Required Pre-knowledge
Announcements Announcements will be downloaded to the Blackboard site

Course
Information
Contains the Meeting Times, Consulting Times and a file

Bonus_Status.xls, etc.
Staff
Information
Contains my coordinates
Course
Documents
Contains the following folders: Lecture Notes, Lecture Slides,

Supplements to Lecture Notes, Maple Files
Assignments
Will contain non-compulsory assignments, which will be given

throughout the course. Solving these assignments contributes to your
bonus.
Books
Specifies Required, Recommended and Optional Reading
Links
Contains a number of links to similar courses in world-famous

Universities
Lecture 1

CT 2022
Dynamics of
Systems
The theory of vibrations of a one-degree-of-freedom systems: natural and

forced vibrations, damping, resonance, energy.
Natural vibrations of an undamped two-degree-of-freedom system,
vibration isolation, normal modes.
CT 3110
Elastostatics
of Slender
Structures
Equilibrium equations and boundary conditions for taut string, bar in

tension/compression and torsion, shear beam and bending beam.
Solution techniques for ordinary differential equations with boundary
conditions.
or, alternatively,
CT 4145 Dynamics
of Mechanical
Systems and
Slender Structures
Lecture 1
This course contains the above information.

Course Objectives
Earthquake-Induced Vibrations of Buildings
Main: Modelling of the dynamic behavior of civil engineering structures
Cause
Result
Model
string
string
rigid
body
1-mass-spring
system
bar
bar
2-mass-spring
system
beam
beam
plate
plate
F(t)
n-mass-spring
system
Earthquakes are extremely dangerous for

metropolitans not to mention that they can cause
tsunami
Models to be considered
Lecture 1

Lecture 1
Significance of dynamics for civil engineering
Earthquakes are also dangerous because of possible liquefaction

(indirect effect)
Lecture 1


Banda Aceh (Indonesia 2004) Debris Detail

(indirect effect through tsunami)
7
Lecture 1

Wind-Induced Vibrations of Structures
Vibrating Tacoma Narrows Bridge
Skyscrapers
Traffic-Induced Vibrations
Bullet train in Kyoto City
Chimney
Bullet train passing a bridge
High-speed trains cause significant amplification of the dynamic response of railways
Wind force: FWIND = f MEAN ( X ) + f FLUCT ( X , t )

F
Dynamic rail buckling

is a serious danger
Wind-farm
Lecture 1
Wind can cause intense vibrations of relatively flexible

structures

Lecture 1
10

Soil Vibration from a High-Speed Train
Super-fast Train
Transatlantic Underwater Tunnel New-York London
Lecture 1

11
Lecture 1

12
Construction- and Production-Induced Vibrations
Super-fast Train
Pile driving
Construction of a machine foundation
The vibration level in the surrounding buildings must be low!

Final.avi
Lecture 1
13

Lecture 1
14

Human-Induced Vibrations
Wave- and Flow-Induced Vibrations
Semi-submersible offshore platform
Mega-Float in Tokyo Bay
Waves and currents are capable

of causing violent vibrations of
offshore structures
Millennium bridge experienced severe walking-induced lateral vibrations
Lecture 1

Floating offshore facility

15
Lecture 1
Installation of a riser

16
Cross-Flow-Induced Vibrations
Axial-Flow-Induced Vibrations
Guido 1.avi
Floating offshore facility
Vortex Induced Vibration of

Risers
Lecture 1
Instability of a submerged
cantilever
Floating LNG factory

17

Lecture 1
18

Ice-Induced Vibrations
Ice-Induced Vibrations
ice sheet
rigid
struct.
The Molikpaq
cracks
Light-house surrounded by ice
Lecture 1
Ice failure against square

shaped cross-section
Ice failure against cylinder
IIV tests

ice
rubbles
19
Lecture 1

20
Examples of One-Degree-of-Freedom Idealizations
Classification of Dynamic Loads

harmonic
Machines
x(t)
Walking / Dancing
m
periodical
Waves
Idealization of bending motion of an offshore platform in waves
Wind
t
F(t)
Vortex / Galopping
random
Traffic
transient
Piling
Unloaded
static
position
m
t
Earthquakes
x(t)
pulse
Lecture 1
Explosions
F(t)
Idealization of vertical vibration of a lorry on a bridge
Collisions
21

Lecture 1
Recollection of knowledge regarding undamped 1 DOF systems

1 DOF Systems without Damping

Equation of motion
and initial conditions:
The General Solution for 1 DOFS without Damping

Equation of motion:
Model:
The General Solution:

2
x(t)
&& kx = F ( t )
mx+
F(t)
x ( t ) = X k exp ( sk t ), X k , sk complex
&&
x+ x = 0
2
n
x ( 0 ) = x0 , x& ( 0 ) = v0
k =1
Characteristic Equation:
sk2 + n2 = 0
s1,2 = in eigenvalues
Free Vibrations
&& kx = 0
mx+
x ( 0 ) = x0
22
Begin Generalization
Equation of motion of N DOFS:
&&
x+ x = 0
2
n
n = k m
(N)
+ a1 x
( N 1)
+ ...aN 1 x + aN x = 0
(1)
(N )
( N 1)
x& ( 0 ) = v0
sk + a1sk
x ( t ) = X k exp ( sk t )
k =1
+ ...aN 1sk + aN = 0
End Generalization
Lecture 1

23
Lecture 1

24
The General Solution in Real Form and Free Vibrations

of 1 DOFS without Damping
1. Recollection of knowledge regarding undamped 1 DOF
systems
x ( t ) = X 1 exp ( int ) + X 2 exp ( int ) = A cos (nt ) + B sin (nt )
vibrations under harmonic force, amplitude-frequency and phasefrequency characteristics, resonance, vibrations under general
disturbing force
Begin Important Formula
exp ( int ) = cos (nt ) + i sin (nt )
2. Dirac delta-function and derivation of Duhamels integral
End Important Formula
3. Recollection of knowledge regarding 1 DOF systems with
2/n
Free Vibration:
x ( t ) = x0 cos (nt ) +
sin (nt ) = A0 cos (nt 0 )
A0 = x02 + ( v0 n ) amplitude
v0
x0n
0 = tan 1
Lecture 1
4. Frequency-Domain Analysis of 1 DOFS
initial phase
25
Lecture 2
Forced Vibration of 1 DOFS without Damping under

Harmonic Excitation
Equation of motion
Beating:
mx&& + kx = F0 cos (t )
Amplitude-Frequency and Phase-Frequency

Characteristics of 1 DOFS without Damping
Steady-state solution:
30
x ( 0 ) = x0 , x& ( 0 ) = v0
x (t ) =
20
10
sin (nt )
The Steady-State Solution:
x (t ) =
-10
A=
F0
1
k 1 2 n2
n < 1
0,
=
,
90
n > 1
-30
0
50
100
150
time t [s]
200
250
1
F0
1
cos (t )
k 1 2 n2

xsteady = A cos (nt + )

180
-20
F
1
+ 0
( cos (t ) cos (nt ) )
k 1 2 n2
F0
1
cos (t )
k 1 2 n2
A/x static
x(t)k/F 0
Lecture 2
26


v0
Integral Fourier transform, spectrum, frequency response function
x ( t ) = x0 cos (nt ) +
Equation of motion, characteristic equation, aperiodic and damped

free vibrations, forced vibration under harmonic and general-type
force
A0
x0
viscous damping
v0
v0
/n
Amplitude-Frequency Characteristic
(Magnification Factor)
27
Lecture 2
/n
Phase-Frequency Characteristic

28
Resonance in 1 DOFS without Damping

Frequency-domain representation
of resonance :
Vibrations of 1 DOFS without Damping under

General Disturbing Force
Time-domain representation
of resonance
Equation of motion and initial conditions:
&& kx = F ( t )
mx+
x ( 0 ) = x0 , x& ( 0 ) = v0
20
x(t)k/F0
A/x static
10
Solution in the form of Duhamels integral:
x ( t ) = x0 cos (nt ) +
2
-10
/n
Lecture 2
10
15
20
t
t
29
How do we describe mathematically an impulsive force (force of short duration),

which applies a momentum I = 1?
2dt
I ( 2dt ) , t dt < t < t + dt

F =
otherwise
0,
0, t t
lim F = ( t t ) =
dt 0
, t = t
Dirac Delta-Function
I = F t =
I
2dt = I
2dt
30
Derivation of Duhamels Integral

Representation of the external force using Dirac delta-function:
( t t ) dt = 1
mx&&p + kx p = I ( t )
x p ( 0 ) = 0, x& p ( 0 ) = 0
xp (t ) =
mx&&p + kx p = 0
x p ( 0 ) = 0, x& p ( 0 ) = I m
I = 1N s
1
1
sin (n t ) , t 0 x p ( t t ) =
sin (n ( t t ) ) , t t 0
mn
mn
Response to the original force:
x p ( t ) = F ( t ) x p ( t t ) dt =
F ( t ) ( t t ) dt = F ( t )
( t ) = 1
s
Response to Dirac delta-function:
Properties of Dirac Delta-Function
&& kx = F ( t ) = F ( t ) ( t t ) dt = F ( t t ) ( t ) dt
mx+
Let us make the force shorter and shorter keeping I = 1.

F
Lecture 2
dt

Dirac Delta-Function as Mathematical Representation

of Impulsive Forces
1
F ( t ) sin (n ( t t ) ) dt , t > t
mn
xp (t ) =
F
x ( t ) = 0 t sin (t )
2k

I
2dt
1
F ( t ) sin (n ( t t ) ) dt
mn 0
25
t [s]
F
1
A= 0
k 1 2 n2
sin (nt ) +
The idea behind the Duhamels integral is representation

of the force by a sequence of short pulses:
-20
0
0
v0
1
F ( t ) sin (n ( t t ) ) dt
mn 0
t
Lecture 2
Dirac delta-function and derivation of Duhamels integral

31
Lecture 2
Dirac delta-function and derivation of Duhamels integral

32
10
1 DOFS with Viscous Damping

Equation of motion
and initial conditions:
Free Motion of 1 DOFS with Viscous Damping

Model:
x(t)
&& & kx = F ( t )
mx+cx+
x ( 0 ) = x0 , x& ( 0 ) = v0
Critical Damping:
c
x
Free Motion
ccrit = 2 km ( c = ccrit n2 = n2 )
Aperiodic Motion:
&&
x + 2nx& + x = 0,
x0
n = k m the natural frequency of undamped vibration
x (t ) =
2
n
damping factor
c m = 2n
s1 = n + n 2 n2 , s2 = n n2 n2
2
n
F(t)
Eigenvalues:
s + 2ns + = 0
2
Damped Vibration:
x0
( s1 exp ( s2 t ) s2 exp ( s1 t ) )
s1 s2
The general Solution:
x ( t ) = X n exp ( sn t ) = exp ( nt ) X 1 exp t n 2 n2 + X 2 exp t n 2 n2

n =1
x ( t ) = exp ( nt ) ( A cos (1t ) + B sin (1t ) ) ,
1 = n2 n 2
))
t
Lecture 1
Recollection of knowledge regarding 1 DOFS with viscous damping
33

Damped Vibration:
x ( t ) = A0 exp ( nt ) cos (1t 0 )
1 = n2 n 2
v nx
v + nx0
A0 = x + 0 + 0 , 0 = arctan 0
1 1
x01
A0exp(-nt)
2
1
0
1
Lecture 2
Amplitude:
A0 exp ( nt )
Period:
T1 = 2 1 =
x ( 0 ) = x0 , x& ( 0 ) = v0
x ( t ) = exp ( nt ) ( A cos (1t ) + B sin (1t ) ) + x part ( t )

Real form of particular solution:
n
2
n
Phase angle: 0
x part = X c cos (t ) + X s sin (t ) ,

Xc =
-A0 exp(-nt)

Forced Vibration of 1 DOFS with Viscous Damping

under Harmonic Excitation
mx&& + cx& + kx = F0 cos (t )
2
0
T1 =
34
Equation of motion
x ( t ) = exp ( nt ) ( A cos (1t ) + B sin (1t ) ) ,
x0

Free Vibrations of 1 DOFS with Viscous Damping
A0
Lecture 2
35
Lecture 2
(n2 2 ) ,
F0
2
m ( 2 )2 + 4n 2 2
n
Xs =
F0
2n
m ( 2 2 )2 + 4n 2 2
n

36
11
Complex Form of Particular Solution for Dynamic Systems

Begin Generalization
auxiliarysystem
Equation of motion
x ( t ) = exp ( nt ) ( A cos (1t ) + B sin (1t ) ) + X cos (t ) , = arg( X )
mx&&% + cx%& + kx% = F0 exp ( it )
x% part = X exp ( it )
X=
substitution
2
2
= 1 2 + 2 2
n
n
xstatic
2n 2c
=
=
n ccrit
2
F = F0 cos (t )
F = F0 sin (t )
End Generalization
Lecture 2
Lecture 2
37

= 0.2
3.5
1/ 2
3.0
= 0.3
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
= 0.5
=1
=2
0.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
/n
1.5
2.0
2.5
38

Vibrations of 1 DOFS with Viscous Damping under

General Disturbing Force
Frequency-Domain Analysis of Forced Vibrations of

1 DOFS under General Disturbing Force
Equation of motion and initial conditions:
Main idea: represent the external force as the superposition of harmonic vibrations.
&& & kx = F ( t )
mx+cx+
Mathematical tool: Integral Fourier Transform
x ( 0 ) = x0 , x& ( 0 ) = v0
The general solution in the form of Duhamels integral:
v
nx
x ( t ) = exp ( nt ) x0 cos (1t ) + 0 + 0 sin (1t )
1
1
Equation of motion:
Decomposition of the force and displacement:
&& & kx = F ( t )
mx+cx+
F ( t ) 1
=
x ( t ) 2
1
+
F ( t ) exp ( n ( t t ) ) sin (1 ( t t ) ) dt
m1 0
Reminder: the main idea behind this solution is
the representation of the external force by a
sequence of short pulses
Lecture 2
4.0
Magnification factor (dynamic

amplification factor):
F0
1
m 2 + 2in + n2
=0
4.5
X exp ( it ) ( 2 m + i c + k ) = F0 exp ( it )
Re ( X exp ( it ) ) ,
x part =
Im ( X exp ( it ) ) ,
5.0
xsteady ( t ) = lim x ( t ) = X cos (t )
Particular solution of the auxiliary problem is found as:
X/xstatic
cos (t )
mx&& + cx& + kx = F0
sin (t )
Steady-State Vibrations of 1 DOFS with Viscous Damping

%
F ( )
x% ( ) exp ( it ) d
F% ( ) and x% ( ) are frequency spectrums of F ( t ) and x ( t )

t
t
Equation in the frequency domain and its solution:
( m + i c + k ) x% ( ) = F% ( )
dt

39
Lecture 2
x% ( ) = F% ( ) ( 2 m + i c + k )
Frequency-Domain Analysis of 1 DOFS
40
12
The Frequency Response Function (FRF)
The Integral Fourier Transform and Typical Spectrums
Frequency Response Function of 1 DOFS with Viscous Damping:
The Forward Fourier Transform:
1
G ( i ) =
2 m + i c + k
f% ( ) =
Mathematical definition: G (i ) is the spectrum of the response of a dynamic

system to the pulse load (Dirac delta function)
Solution in the Frequency Domain:
f (t ) =
1
2
f% ( ) exp ( i t ) d
f (t )
f% ( )
(t )
f ( t ) = f 0 H ( t0 t
x% ( ) = G ( i ) F% ( )
sin (t0 )
f% ( ) = 2 f 0
f0
)
t 0
t0
2 f 0t0
H (...) is the Heaviside (step) Function
Transformation of the Frequency Domain Solution to the Time Domain:
1
2
f ( t ) exp ( i t ) dt ,
Physical Significance: G (i ) is the complex amplitude of the steady-state response

of a dynamic system to a harmonic force of unit amplitude
x (t ) =
The Inverse Fourier Transform:
f ( t t0 )
G ( i ) F% ( ) exp ( it ) d
f% ( ) exp ( i t0 )
Lecture 2
41

Lecture 2
42

Unstable 1 DOFS Galloping in Wind

Prismatic bar subject to a steady wind blowing in x-direction:
B
1. Unstable 1 DOFS Galloping in Wind
v cos
Fz
2. Unstable 1 DOFS under Harmonic Disturbing Force
L
k 2
Fz
equations of motion, matrix form of equations of motion, free

vibrations, characteristic equation, natural frequencies and normal
modes, forced vibration under harmonic force, the undamped vibration
absorber
z&
3. Recollection of knowledge regarding undamped 2 DOFS
z&
y
x
k 2
c 2
Visco-elastically supported rigid prismatic bar in steady wind;

the bar may move in the vertical direction only.
The Lift (across-wind) and Drag (along-wind) forces on the bar (small attack angles):
FL =
Lecture 3
43
1 2
v CL BL,
2
FD =
1 2
v CD BL
2
Lecture 3
44
13
Total force in z-direction:
Equation of vertical motion of the bar:
1
Fz = FL ( ) cos ( ) + FD ( ) sin ( ) FL ( ) + FD ( ) = v 2 BLCZ ( )
2
1
dC
mz&& + cz& + kz = - vBLz& z
z + ceff z& + kz = 0
m &&
2
d =0
1
dC
dC
ceff = c + vBL z
can be negative since z < 0
2
d =0
d =0
C z

Cz
v
Fx
FL
Approximation of C z:
Characteristic Equation and Eigenvalues:
FD
s 2 + 2neff s + n2 = 0
Fz
z&
z&
neff = ceff
dC
z& dC
C z ( ) z z ,
d
=0 v d =0
Lecture 3
45

If ceff < 0, the bar oscillations are unstable!

Lecture 3

Development of Instability in time:
Phase Plane:
Velocity
Velocity
Phase plane:
Displacement
Lecture 3
Displacement
Nonlinear equation of motion:
The linearized lift force predicts the unlimited growth of vibrations!

46


Development of instability in time:
( 2m )
If ceff < 0, both eigenvalues have a positive real part
dCz
dCL
=
+ CD ( 0 )
d
=0 d =0
s1 = neff + neff 2 n2 , s2 = neff neff 2 n2
47
% & 2 ) + kz = 0,
m &&
z + z& ( ceff + cz
Lecture 3
c% > 0
48
14
Unstable 1 DOFS under External Harmonic Force

Linearized Equation of Motion and Initial Conditions
Equations of motion:
mx&& + ceff x& + kx = F0 cos (t ) , ceff < 0
F = [ F1 , F2 ]
The steady-state solution of the linearized problem does not exist if ceff < 0 !
The Fourier Transform is not applicable!
49

Lecture 3
(m s
M &&
x+K x=0
2
1 n
k +k k +k k k +k k +k k
+ k1 + k3 )( m2 sn2 + k2 + k3 ) k32 = 0 sn4 + sn2 1 3 + 2 3 + 1 2 1 3 2 3 = 0
m2
m1m2
m1
All eigenvalues are imaginary!
(1)
( 2)
x1 ( t ) = X n exp ( snt ), x2 ( t ) = X n exp ( snt ) x ( t ) = X n exp ( snt )
n =1
n =1
n =1
The Frequency Equation:
4 2 (a2 + b2 ) + (a2b2 ab4 ) = 0
Substitution of the General Solution into Equation of Motion gives:

1
2
Xn = X ( ), X ( )
m1
k1
k3
=0
m2 sn2 + k2 + k3
Recollection of knowledge regarding undamped 2 DOFS
s = i,
- frequency
k1 + k3
m1
partial frequencies
k +k
b = 2 3
m2
a =
The Characteristic Equation:
Lecture 3
50
Free Vibrations of Undamped 2 DOFS

Stiffness Matrix
The Characteristic Equation as Polynomial:
x1 + k1 x1 + k3 ( x1 x2 ) = 0
m1&&
m
x2 + k2 x2 + k3 ( x2 x1 ) = 0
2 &&
m s + k1 + k3
det ( M s + K ) =
k3
Mass Matrix

2
n
Force Vector
Free Vibrations of Undamped 2 DOFS
2
1 n
Displacemetn Vector
T
0
m
M = 1
0
m
2
k3
k + k
K = 1 3
k
k
+ k3
3
2
xsteady ( t ) = lim x ( t ) X cos (t )
( M sn2 + K ) X n = 0,
k2
k1
x = [ x1 , x2 ]
M &&
x + K x = F,
The Steady-State Solution
x2(t)
m2
Equations of motion in matrix form:
= neff 2 n2
Unstable 1 DOFS under External Harmonic Force
x1(t)
k3
x ( t ) = exp ( neff t ) A cos (1,eff t ) + B sin (1,eff t ) + X cos (t arg( X ) ) ,
Lecture 3
F2(t)
F1(t)
m1
m2 &&
x2 + k2 x2 + k3 ( x2 x1 ) = F2 ( t )
( 2m ) , 1,eff
Model:
m1&&
x1 + k1 x1 + k3 ( x1 x2 ) = F1 ( t )
x ( 0 ) = x0 , x& ( 0 ) = v0
neff = ceff
Recollection of Knowledge Regarding Undamped 2 DOFS
F1(t)
x1(t)
k3
F2(t)
x2(t)
m2
k2
x
51
Lecture 3
ab =
k3
m1m2
'coupling frequency'

52
15
Natural Frequencies and Normal Modes

of Undamped 2 DOFS
Mathematics behind Normal Modes

Matrix Form of the General Solution with 8 unknowns:
Natural Frequencies (both real):
n1 =
1
a2 + b2
2
2
a
b2 ) + 4ab4 ,
2
n 2 =
1
a2 + b2 +
2
2
a
x ( t ) = X n exp ( snt )
n =1
b2 ) + 4ab4
2
4 pairs of 2 algebraic equations (each pair is linearly dependent):
(M s
The General Solution of the Governing Equations:
2
n
x1 ( t ) = A1 cos (n1t ) + B1 sin (n1t ) + C1 cos (n 2t ) + D1 sin (n 2t )
From these equations, one can find:
x2 ( t ) = A2 cos (n1t ) + B2 sin (n1t ) + C2 cos (n 2t ) + D2 sin (n 2t )
X n(
Mode 2
Mode 1
2)
(1)
Xn
We have 4 initial conditions and 8 unknown constants to determine???
Lecture 3
Physical Significance of Normal Modes
Equations of Motion:
x2(t)
n1 = a2 ab2 = k m ,
x2(t)
Mode 2
m1 = m2 = m
x2 = A2 cos ( t ) + B2 cos ( t + 0 )
Algebraic equations with respect to the amplitudes:
2 m1 A1 + k1 A1 + k3 A1 k3 A2 = F0(1)
2
m2 A2 + k2 A2 + k3 A2 k3 A1 = 0
2k3 2k3
Symmetrical system
a2 = b2
A2 A1 = B2 B1 = 1
x1(t)
x1 = A1 cos ( t ) + B1 cos ( t + 0 )
m2 &&
x2 + k2 x2 + k3 ( x2 x1 ) = F0( ) cos ( t + 0 )
x
k
Lecture 3
2
ab
(a2 n22 )
x2(t)
k1 = k2 = k ,
m1 m2
x1(t)
Mode 1
m1&&
x1 + k1 x1 + k3 ( x1 x2 ) = F0( ) cos ( t )
1
(a2 n21 ) + ( C cos (n2t ) + D sin (n2t ) )
Particular case of symmetrical system
54
Undamped 2 DOFS under Harmonic Loading
x1 ( t ) = A cos (n1t ) + B sin (n1t ) + C cos (n 2t ) + D sin (n 2t )
x1(t)
k3

The General Solution with 4 unknowns in Real Form:
2
ab
m11sn2 + k11
m s2 + k
= 21 n2 21
2
m12 sn + k12
m22 sn + k22
Lecture 3
53

m1 m2
Thus, only 4 unknowns remain in the general solution, which can be determined from
the initial conditions.
x2 ( t ) = ( A cos (n1t ) + B sin (n1t ) )
+ K ) X n = 0, n = 1..4
m1 B1 + k1 B1 + k3 B1 k3 B2 = 0
2
( 2)
m2 B2 + k2 B2 + k3 B2 k3 B1 = F0
n 2 = a2 + ab2 =
( k + 2k3 )
C2 C1 = D2 D1 = 1

55
Lecture 3

56
16
The Undamped Dynamic Absorber
Model:
x1(t)
k
Mx&&1 + Kx1 + k3 ( x1 x2 ) = F0 cos (t )
x2(t)
mx&&2 + k ( x2 x1 ) = 0
x2 = A2 cos ( t )
(b)
m
k
Algebraic equations with respect to the amplitudes:
2
m1 A1 + k1 A1 + k3 A1 k3 A2 = F0
2
m2 A2 + k2 A2 + k3 A2 k3 A1 = 0
m
K/2
K/2
Auxiliary mass
Lecture 3
57

Model:
a =
k+K
k
, b =
, ab =
M
m
k
mM
1. Unstable 2 DOFS Flutter
2. Formulation of equations of motion of a 3 DOFS using the

displacement method
3. Representation of a structure by N DOFS
x static
2n ( b2 2 )
2
n21 )( 2 n22 )

A2
=
x static ( 2 )( 2 n22 )
2
n
2
n1
Lecture 3
2
ab
A/xstatic
The Magnification Factors:
58
Contents of Lectures 4&5
A1

x2(t)
x1 = A1 cos ( t )
(a)
M
x1(t)
k
x2(t)
m
Examples - a bridge and a vibrating machine:
Lecture 3
x1(t)
k
Bridge beam
n1
n2
A1
A2

4. A numerical recipe for finding the stiffness matrix for a node

of N DOFS.
59
Lecture 4 & 5
60
17
Unstable 2 DOFS Flutter
Prismatic rigid bar of rectangular shape subject to a uniform flow:
The vertical force and the moment:
1 2 z&
& B
v BL C1 + C2
+ C3
2
v
v
1 2 2 z&
& B
M y = v B L C4 + C5
+ C6
2
v
v
Fz =
H
L
k 2
1
1
1
mz&& + c vBLC1 z& + kz vB 2 LC2& v 2 BLC3 = 0

2
2
2
1
1
1
I&& + c vB3 LC5 & + k v 2 B 2 LC6 vB 2 LC4 z& = 0

2
2
2
kz 2
vertical motion
angular motion
Lecture 4 & 5
The motion of the bar is governed by 2 coupled second-order differential equations
61

Lecture 4 & 5
62

The meaning of the coefficients in the equations of motion:
Matrix form of the equations of motion:
1
1
1
mz&& + c vBLC1 z& + kz vB 2 LC2& v 2 BLC3 = 0

2
2
2
1
1
1
I&& + c vB3 LC5 & + k v 2 B 2 LC6 vB 2 LC4 z& = 0

2
2
2
x + Cx& + K x = 0,
M &&
Effective damping of the

vertical motion
Resulting equations of motion:
z
y
mz&& + cz& + kz = Fz
I&& + c& + k = M y
Effective stiffness of
the angular motion
x = [ z, ] ,
T
1
1
vB 2 LC2
c 2 vBLC1
2
,
C=
1 vB 2 LC c 1 vB 3 LC
4
5
2
2
Velocity coupling
coefficients
m 0
M =
0 I
1
v 2 BLC3
k
2
K =
0 k 1 v 2 B 2 LC
6
The characteristic equation:
det ( M sn2 + Csn + K ) = sn4 + a1sn3 + a2 sn2 + a3 sn + a4 = 0
Effective damping of the

angular motion
Displacement
coupling
Lecture 4 & 5
63
Lecture 4 & 5
64
18
Unstable 2 DOFS Flutter Eigenvalue Analysis
Suppose, that the vertical and angular motions are uncoupled, and the effective
damping and stiffness coefficients are positive (C2= C3=C4=0, C1< 0, C5< 0, C6< 0):
Suppose, that the velocity coupling is active and the velocity coupling
coefficients are positive (C3=0, C2 >0, C4 >0, C1< 0, C5< 0, C6< 0):
mz&& + ( c QC1 ) z& + kz QBC2& QvC3 = 0
mz&& + ( c QC1 ) z& + kz QBC2& QvC3 = 0
Wind velocity
Instability!
Wind velocity
Wind velocity
Lecture 4 & 5
65

Q = vBL 2
Vibration decrement Re(s)
Stable vibrations!
Vibration frequency Im(s)
I&& + ( c QB 2C5 ) & + ( k QvBC6 ) QBC4 z& = 0,
Q = vBL 2
I&& + ( c QB 2C5 ) & + ( k QvBC6 ) QBC4 z& = 0,
Wind velocity
Lecture 4 & 5
66

coefficients are negative (C3=0, C2 <0, C4 <0, C1< 0, C5< 0, C6< 0):
coefficients have different signs (C3=0, C2 >0, C4 <0, C1< 0, C5< 0, C6< 0):
mz&& + ( c QC1 ) z& + kz QBC2& QvC3 = 0
mz&& + ( c QC1 ) z& + kz QBC2& QvC3 = 0

Instability!
Wind velocity
Wind velocity
67
Q = vBL 2
Wind velocity
Lecture 4 & 5
I&& + ( c QB 2C5 ) & + ( k QvBC6 ) QBC4 z& = 0,
Q = vBL 2
I&& + ( c QB C5 ) & + ( k QvBC6 ) QBC4 z& = 0,

2
Lecture 4 & 5
Wind velocity
68
19

Suppose, that both the velocity and displacement couplings are active and all
coupling coefficients are positive (C3>0, C2 >0, C4 >0, C1< 0, C5< 0, C6< 0):
mz&& + ( c QC1 ) z& + kz QBC2& QvC3 = 0
I&& + ( c QB 2C5 ) & + ( k QvBC6 ) QBC4 z& = 0,
Formulation of equations of motion of a 3 DOFS

using the displacement method
A rigid foundation block:
F1
Q = vBL 2
F2
g
h
k3
x1
x3
k2
This block has 3 DOF: 2 translational (horizontal and vertical) and 1 rotational
Wind velocity
69

Lecture 4 & 5
Three positions of the block, in each of which only one degree of freedom is activated:
x2
70
k3 x2
k2 x1

Matrix form of the equations of motion:
M &&
x + K x = F,
k 2 b x3
x1
ax3
k 3 h x3
m &&
x1 = k1 x1 k2 x1 k1ax3 + k2bx3 + F1
m &&
x2 = k3 x2 k3hx3 + F2
J &&
x3 = k1 x1 a + k2 x1 b k3 x2 h k3hx3 h
k1ax3 a k2bx3 b + F3 + eF1 gF2
F2
x2
k3
F3
x1
generalized force vector
m 0 0
M = 0 m 0
mass matrix
0 0 J
0
a k1 b k2
k1 + k2
stiffness matrix
K =
0
k3
h k3
2
2
2
a k1 b k2 h k3 a k1 + b k2 + h k3
F1
k 2 bx3
k1ax3
x = [ x1 , x2 , x3 ] generalized displacement vector

F = [ F1 , F2 , F3 ]
b x3
hx3
x3
k2
k1
Demonstration of the displacement method on 3 DOFS



Lecture 4 & 5
F3
k1
Wind velocity
Lecture 4 & 5
k1 x1
x2
Instability!
71
Lecture 4 & 5

72
20
A numerical recipe for finding the stiffness matrix for a

node of N DOFS
Representation of a structure by N DOFS

A road sign:
F3
F2
F1
Discrete Element or Finite Element mesh:
x3
x2
F2
x1
F1
x2
Three consecutive calculations giving a nodal stiffness matrix:
F3 = k31
x6 x
5
x9 x
8
x4
x7
x1
x3
x1 2
F2 = k21
x1 1
F3 = k33
F1 = k12
F1 = k13
F2 = k23 x1 = 0
x2 = 0
x3 =1
F2 = k22 x = 0
1
x2 =1
x3 = 0
x1 =1
x2 = 0
x3 = 0
x1 0
x1 5
F3 = k32
F1 = k11
x1 4
x1 3
x1 8 = 0
Internodal connection
Lecture 4 & 5
Representation of a structure by N DOFS
x1 7 = 0
x1 6 = 0
73

K nodal x nodal = Fnodal ,
k11
K nodal = k21
k31
k12
k22
k32
k13
T
T
k23 , x nodal = [ x1 , x2 , x3 ] , Fnodal = [ F1 , F2 , F3 ]
k33
Lecture 4 & 5
Nodal Stiffness Matrix
74

Free Vibrations of Undamped N DOFS - General

M &&
x+ K x =0
1. Free Vibrations of Undamped N DOFS - General
complex
real
2. Example: 3 DOF Foundation Block
2N
x ( t ) = X i exp ( si t )
3. The Orthogonality Property
for undamped systems only N
i =1
4. The Modal Mass Matrix and Modal Stiffness Matrix
i =1
sin (i t + i )
The corresponding system of N linear algebraic equations (the eigenvalue and the
eigenfrequency problems):
5. The Matrix of Natural Frequencies
(s M + K ) X
2
i
=0
or
2
i
The Characteristic Equation:
det ( s M + K ) = 0
2
i
M + K ) X i = 0
The Frequency Equation:
or
det ( i2 M + K ) = 0
The natural frequencies are the positive roots of the frequency equation (this definition will be
generalized to the case of systems with damping later)
Lecture 6
75
Lecture 6
Free Vibrations of Undamped N DOFS
76
21
Free Vibrations of Undamped N DOFS - General
Example: 3 DOF Foundation Block
The General Solution can be written as:
F2
x i
eigenvectors (independent of initial conditions)
x1 k1 + k2
m 0 0 &&

0 m 0 &&
0
x2 +
x3 a k1 b k2
0 0 J &&
i
i
natural frequencies (independent of initial conditions)
Assume that the parameters are such that:
phase angles (to be determined by initial conditions)
Ai
unknown constants (to be determined by initial conditions)
i =1
i =1
i =1
x ( t ) = X i sin (i t + i ) = x i Ai sin (i t + i ) = x i ui ( t ),
ui ( t ) = Ai sin (i t + i )
The Eigenmatrix:
E = x1 x 2 ... x N
Lecture 6
Free Vibrations of Undamped N DOFS
Lecture 6
77

RC1
i =1
i =1
2
i
F3
x1
x3
k2
k1
the fundamantal natural frequency
the second natural frequency
the third natural frequency

and the third eigenvector
and the first eigenvector
and the second eigenvector
78
M + K ) X i = 0
or
i2 M X i = K X i
Consider two different solutions r2 , X r and s2 , X s . These satisfy:
The Eigenmatrix:
x 12
x 22
x 32
x2
k3
The Eigenfrequency Problem:
x ( t ) = x i Ai sin (i t + i ) = x i ui ( t )
x 11
E = x 21
x 31
The Orthogonality Property

3


3
a k1 b k2
x1
x = 0
h k3
2
a 2 k1 + b 2 k2 + h 2 k3 x3
x 11
2.0 =1 2.0
1

rad
; x 1 = x 21 = 1 1.6 = 1.6
s
x
1.0
1.0
31
x 12
0.8
=1 0.8
2

rad
2 = 5.7
; x 2 = x 22 = 2 1.0 = 1.0
s
x
1
.
0
1.0
32
x 13
1.0
=1/ 2 0.5
3

rad
3 = 19.8
; x 3 = x 23 = 3 1.0 = 0.5
s
x
2.0
1.0
33
u&&i + i2ui = 0
these satisfy
0
k3
h k3
1 = 2.3
The Eigenfunctions:
F1
x 13 2.0 0.8 0.5
x 23 = 1.6 1.0 0.5
x 33 1.0 1.0 1.0
x11 = 2
x 22 = 1
x32 = 1
x12 = 0.8
MX s = KX s
2
s
Pre-multiplying these equations by X sT and X rT, respectively, we obtain
x31 = 1
X sT r2 MX r = X sT KX r ,
x21 = 1.6
MX r = KX r ,
2
r
X rT s2 MX s = X rT KX s
T
T
The following equality holds for any symmetric matrix: x A y = y A x . Thus, as M and K
are symmetric, we may rewrite the above equations as
x13 = 1
x33 = 2
r2 X sT MX r = X sT KX r , s2 X sT MX r = X sT KX r (r2 s2 ) X sT MX r = 0
RC3
x23 = 1
RC 2
Lecture 6
79
Lecture 6
80
22
The Modal Mass Matrix and Modal Stiffness Matrix
The Modal Mass Matrix and Modal Stiffness Matrix
The orthogonality with respect to the mass matrix:
Demonstration that the modal mass matrix is diagonal:
X sT MX r = 0
x1T
x1T Mx1
T
T
x
x Mx1

M * = E T M E = 2 M x1 x 2 ... x N = 2
.
.

T
x T
x N M x1
N
rs
if
The orthogonality with respect to the stiffness matrix:
X sT KX r = 0
if
rs
(follows from s2 X sT MX r = X sT KX r )
the Modal Mass Matrix (diagonal)
Definitions:
M* = ET M E
K * = ET K E
where E is the eigenmatrix
x1T Mx1
0
=
.
the Modal Stiffness Matrix (diagonal)
Lecture 6
81

Lecture 6
M + K ) X r = 0
or
0 . 0
*
m22
. 0
. .
.
0 . m*NN
Introducing the matrix of natural frequencies as:
M X r = K X r
2
r
or
M x r = K x r
2
r
Pre-multiplying by x , we obtain x M x r = x K x r which can be written as

T
s
12 x1T Mx1 22 x1T Mx 2

2 T
2 T
1 x 2 Mx1 2 x 2 Mx 2
.
.
2 T
2 T
1 x N M x1 2 x N M x 2
Using the orthogonality,
this simplifies to:
2
r
T
s
T
s
. N2 x1T Mx N x1T K x1

. N2 x T2 Mx N x T2 K x1
=
.
.
.
T
2 T
. N x N Mx N x N K x1
12 m11*
0
2 *
0
2 m22
.
.
0
0
Lecture 6
82
The Matrix of Natural Frequencies
The Eigenfrequency Problem:
.
x TN Mx 2
x1T M x N
x T2 M x N
=
T
. x N Mx N
.
.
.

2
r
0
.
0 m11*

x M x 2 .
0 0
=
.
.
.
.
0
. x TN M x N 0
T
2
x1T M x 2
x T2 M x 2
x1T K x 2
x T2 K x 2
.
x TN K x 2
k11*

=0
.
. .

. N2 m*NN 0
.
.
0
0
x1T K x N
x T2 K x N
.
.
. x TN K x N
.
Instead of
0
. .
*
. k NN
0 .
*
k22
.
.
0
We can write:
2M * = K *
83
12 m11*
0
2 *
0
2 m22
.
.
0
0
12 0
2
0 2
.
.
0
0
12 0
0 22
2 =
.
.
0
0
0
. .
. N2
.
.
k11*

=0
.
. .

. N2 m*NN 0
0 .
*
k22
.
0 m11*
0 0
. . .
. N2 0
0 k11*

0 0
=
.
. .
*
. mNN
0
.
.
.
.
Lecture 6
0
0
.
0
0
. .
*
. k NN
0 .
*
m22
.
.
0
0
. .
*
. k NN
0 .
*
k22
.
.
0
84
23
Modal Analysis of Forced Vibrations of Undamped

N DOFS - General
M &&
x + K x = F (t )
1. Modal Analysis of Forced Vibrations of Undamped N DOFS
The main idea of the Modal Analysis is to represent the forced motion as the
superposition of the normal modes of free vibrations multiplied by unknown
functions of time:
General
Use of Initial Conditions
The Steady-State Response to a Harmonic Load
x ( t ) = x i ui ( t ) = E u ( t )
i =1
2. Finding the Forced Response of N DOFS using Integral

Fourier Transform
Substitution of the above into the equations of motion gives:
M E u&& + K E u = F
Pre-multiplying this by E T, we obtain:
E T M E u&& + E T K E u = E T F
Lecture 7
85

Uncoupled System of Equations:

2 M * = K *
or
u&&i + 2i ui = Fi * ( t ) mii* , where Fi* ( t ) = x Ti F
The general solution to the modal equation of motion (Duhamels integral):
ui ( t ) = Ai sin ( i t + i ) +
F ( ) sin ( ( t ) ) d
*
ui ( t ) are known, the structural displacements can be

N
x (t ) =
i =1
Lecture 7

N DOFS Use of Initial Conditions
i =1
i =1
x& ( 0 ) = x i u&i ( 0 ) = x i i Ai cos ( i )

N
i =1
i =1
Pre-multiplying these equations by x Tj M , we obtain
x Tj Mx ( 0 ) = x Tj M x i Ai sin (i ) , x Tj M x& ( 0 ) = x Tj M x i i Ai cos ( i )
x i ui ( t ) = E u ( t )
Modal Analysis of Forced Vibrations of Undamped N DOFS

t
N
N
1
x ( t ) = x i ui ( t ) = x i Ai sin ( i t + i ) +
F * sin ( i ( t ) ) d
* i ( )
i mii 0
i =1
i =1
t
N
N
1
x& ( t ) = x i u&i ( t ) = x i i Ai cos ( i t + i ) + * Fi * ( ) cos ( i ( t ) ) d
m
i =1
i =1
ii 0
x ( 0 ) = x i ui ( 0 ) = x i Ai sin (i ) ,
where Ai and i are to be determined from the initial conditions

Once the modal displacements
calculated as:
86
To determine the unknown constants, we consider the above expressions at t=0:
i mii*
Explicit form for the vector-displacement and vector-velocity:
M *u&& + M * 2 u = E T F mii*u&&i + mii* i2ui = x Ti F
M *u&& + K *u = E T F


N DOFS- General
M *u&& + K *u = E T F
Lecture 7
87
Lecture 7
i =1
i =1

88
24

Using the orthogonality with respect to the mass matrix, we obtain:
Consider a N DOFS under a synchronous harmonic load:
x Tj M x ( 0 ) = x Tj M x j A j sin ( j ) , x Tj M x& ( 0 ) = x Tj M x j j A j cos ( j )
M &&
x + K x = F sin ( t )
Squaring the above equations and subsequently summing them up we obtain the
following expression for the amplitudes:
x Tj M x ( 0 ) x Tj M x& ( 0 )
Aj =
+
*
m*jj
j m jj
2
Rewriting these equations in the form of the uncoupled system yields:
u&&i + 2i ui =
89

The Modal Frequency Response Function of the mode i to the harmonic force
applied to the degree of freedom p:
x Ti F
x pi Fp
1
1
ui = 2
= 2
2
*
2
i mii i mi*i
x pi FRF of mode i to the force applied to

u
1
H u i Fp ( ) = i = 2
2
*
degree of freedom p
Fp i mii
Varying i and p, one can compose the
following (not symmetric) Modal
Frequency Response Matrix:
H uF
H u 1F1
Hu F
= 21
.
Hu F
N1
H u 1F2
H u 2 F2
.
H u N F2
H u 1FN
. H u 2 FN
.
.
. H u N FN
The Steady-State Response of Undamped N DOFS to a Harmonic Load 91

Lecture 7
x Ti F
*
ii
ui =
x Ti F
1
2
mii*
2
i
E T F
1
u = 2
2
i mii*

Modal Analysis of Undamped N DOFS - The

Steady-State Response to a Harmonic Load
Lecture 7
sin ( t )
or
F = 0 0 ... Fp 0
mii*
ui = ui sin ( t ) ui ( 2 + 2i ) =
x T M x ( 0 )
j = arctan j Tj
x j M x& ( 0 )
x Ti F
In the steady-state regime, the N DOFS has to vibrate on the frequency of the
external load, i.e.:
The phases are found by dividing the first above equation by the second:
Lecture 7


General expression for the modal amplitudes:
u = H uF F
The original vector-displacement is given as:
x (t ) = E u (t )
x ( t ) = x sin ( t ), u ( t ) = u sin ( t )
x = H xF
The Frequency Response Matrix:
H xF
Lecture 7
Eu = E H uF F = H xF F
F , where H xF = E H uF
H x 1F1
Hx F
= 21
.
Hx F
N1
H x 1F2
H x 2 F2
.
H x N F2
H x 1FN
. H x 2 FN
.
.
. H x N FN

25

Expressions for the amplitude of vibrations of a particular degree of freedom:
H x 1F1
.
H
x q F1
.
H
x N F1
xq = H xq Fp Fp :
x = H xF F
p =1
Elaborating further we obtain:

N
xq = H xq Fp Fp , where
N
i =1
i =1
Lecture 7
A representative plot of FRF
.
.
.
H x q F2
.
H x N F2
H xq Fp for 5 DOFS:
H xq F p
FRF of degree of freedom i to the force

applied to degree of freedom p
p =1
H xq Fp = xqi H ui Fp = xqi
H x 1FN F1

.
.
. H x q FN Fq

.
. .

. H x N FN FN

H x 1F2
Modal Analysis of Undamped N DOFS The

x pi
i2 2 mii*
=
i =1
xqi x pi
2i 2 mii*

Lecture 7

Finding the Forced Response of N DOFS by using

Integral Fourier Transform
M &&
x + K x = F (t )
Fourier Transform:
Inverse Fourier Transform
F t
%
F ( )
( )
=
exp ( i t ) dt
%
x
(
)
x ( t )
F ( t ) 1
=
x ( t ) 2
%
F ( )
1. Modal Analysis of Forced Vibrations of N DOFS with Viscous

Damping
x% ( ) exp ( i t ) d
Equation of Motion and its Solution in the Frequency Domain:
( M + K ) x% ( ) = F% ( )
2
General
Use of Initial Conditions
The Steady-State Response to a Harmonic Load
1
x% ( ) = ( 2 M + K ) F% ( )
Solution in the Time Domain:
x (t ) =
Lecture 7
1
2
1
M + K ) F% ( ) exp ( i t ) d

Lecture 8
96
26
Modal Analysis of Forced Vibrations of Damped

N DOFS - General

N DOFS - General
The most serious drawback of the Modal Analysis in application to damped systems
is that the Modal Damping Matrix is generally not diagonal!
M &&
x + C x& + K x = F ( t )
Adopting the Modal Analysis approach, we represent the forced motion as
the superposition of the normal modes of free undamped vibrations
multiplied by unknown functions of time:
Consequently, in general, the equations of motion can not be decoupled!

Let us consider a particular case that the Modal Damping Matrix is Diagonal (this
assumption is seldom realised in practice but yet used by many software packages).
x ( t ) = x i ui ( t ) = E u ( t )
i =1
In this case, multiplying the equations of motion by the inverse Modal Mass Matrix, we
obtain
Substitution of the above into the equations of motion gives:
M E u&& + C E u& + K E u = F
Pre-multiplying this by E
T,
we obtain:
M *u&& + C *u& + K *u = E T F
C * = E T C E is the Modal Damping Matrix

Modal Analysis of Forced Vibrations of Damped N DOFS
97

I u&& + ( M
u&&i +
C u& + u = ( M
2
* 1
F (t )
c
u&i + i2ui = i * ,
m
mii
*
ii
*
ii
E F
Lecture 8
Lecture 8
ui ( t ) = Ai exp ( ii t ) sin i t 1 i2 + i
mii*
c*
= ii *
*
mii 2mii
98
cii*
=
*
*
kii 2mii i
1
mii*i 1 i2
F ( ) sin (
*
Once the modal time-functions

calculated as:
1 i2 ( t ) exp ( ii ( t
) ) d
ui ( t ) are known, the generalized displacements can be
x ( t ) = x i ui ( t ) = E u ( t )
Fi ( t )
mii*
i =1
where Ai and i are to be determined from the initial conditions
mii*
Using this, we rewrite the above equation for the modal time-functions as:

The equations given by the latter matrix-equation are uncoupled, as all matrices on
the left-hand side are diagonal.
where Fi * ( t ) = x Ti F , cii* = x Ti C x i , mii* = x Ti M x i
c*
cii*
cii*
i = crii =
=
*
*
cii
2 kii mii 2 kii* mii*
The general solution to the modal equation of motion:
The following Modal Damping Ratio is often introduced:
u&&i + 2 ii u&i + 2i ui =
I u&& + ( M * ) C *u& + 2 u = ( M * ) E T F

N DOFS - General
Each modal time-function satisfies the following scalar equation:

*
or


N DOFS - General
* 1
M *u&& + ( M * ) C *u& + ( M * ) K *u = ( M * ) E T F
* 1
E T M E u&& + E T C E u& + E T K E u = E T F
Lecture 8
(M )
99
Lecture 8

100
27

Explicit form for the vector-displacement and vector-velocity:
N
i =1
i =1
x ( t ) = x i ui ( t ) = x i Ai exp ( ii t ) sin i t 1 i2 + i
+
F ( ) sin (
t
mii*i 1 i2
1 i2 ( t ) exp ( ii ( t

To determine the unknown constants, we consider the above expressions at t=0:
i =1
) ) d
i =1
(
F ( ) sin (
= x i i exp ( ii t ) i sin i t 1 i2 + i + 1 i2 cos i t 1 i2 + i

i =1
mii* 1 i2
t
2
i
Lecture 8
))
i =1
= m*jj j A j j sin ( j ) + 1 i2 cos ( j )
101
Lecture 8
102

Proportional (Rayleigh) Damping

The proportional damping is defined as follows:
C = a0 M + a1 K ,
with a0 and a1 unknown constants
The modal damping takes the form:
C * = E T C E = E T ( a0 M + a1 K ) E = a0 E T ME + a1 E T KE = a0 M * + a1 K *
2
The modal Modal Damping Ratio takes the form:
i =
Mathematically, the problem has been solved. But what about our assumption
concerning the diagonality of the Modal Damping Matrix?
cii*
a m* + a k *
a
a
= 0 ii * 1 ii = 0 + 1 i
2mii* i
2mii i
2 i
2
To identify the unknown constants, one has to know the Modal Damping Ratios for
at least two modes. Suppose, these are known for the first two modes. Then
a0 =
Lecture 8
i 1 i2 x Tj Mx ( 0 )
tan ( j ) = T
,
x j M x& ( 0 ) + i j x Tj Mx ( 0 )

x M x& ( 0 ) = x Tj M x i i Ai i sin ( i ) + 1 i2 cos ( i )
From the above two equations, the following expressions can be derived:
x T M x& ( 0 ) + x T Mx ( 0 )
j
i j j
1+
i 1 i2 x Tj M x ( 0 )
i =1
i =1
T
j

m*jj
i =1
) ) d
x Tj Mx ( 0 )
x Tj Mx ( 0 ) = x Tj M x i Ai sin (i ) = m*jj A j sin ( j )

Aj =
Pre-multiplying these equations by x Tj M , and using the orthogonality, we obtain
( t ) ) exp ( ii ( t ) ) d
1
Fi * ( ) cos i 1 i2 ( t ) exp ( ii ( t
mii* 0
i =1
x& ( 0 ) = x i u&i ( 0 ) = x ii Ai i sin ( i ) + 1 i2 cos ( i )
x& ( t ) = x i u&i ( t )
N
x ( 0 ) = x i ui ( 0 ) = x i Ai sin (i ) ,
103
2 12 (12 2 1 )
,
2 2 12
a1 =
Lecture 8
2 ( 2 2 11 )
2 2 12
Proportional Damping
104
28
1 2 2
< <
2 1 1
1
2
a0 a1
Three Cases
(assuming 1<2):
1 2 2
A: a0 > 0, a1 > 0 if
< <
2 1 1
2 1
1 2
2
a1
i
2
a0 a1
Consider a N DOFS under a synchronous harmonic load:
M &&
x + C x& + K x = F sin ( t )
Rewriting these equations in the form of the uncoupled system yields:
2 2
1 1
2
1
Modal Analysis of Damped N DOFS - The SteadyState Response to a Harmonic Load
a1
i
2
a0 a1
2 2
C: a0 0, a1 > 0 if
1 1
case B
a0
2i
2
1
a0 a1
2 1
1 2
B: a0 > 0, a1 0 if
a1
i case A
2
a0
2i
u&&i + 2ii u&i + 2i ui =
case C
i
a0
2i
mii*
sin ( t )
In the steady-state regime, the N DOFS has to vibrate on the frequency of the
external load but with a certain phase shift, i.e.:
ui =
105

substitution
ui = ui sin ( t i )
(1 ( ) )
2 2
Lecture 8
x Ti F
Lecture 8
+ ( 2i i )
x Ti F
mii*
2
i
tan i =
2i i
1 ( i )
The Steady-State Response of Damped N DOFS to a Harmonic Load
106

The Modal Amplitude-Frequency Response Characteristic:
The typical shape of the Modal Amplitude-Frequency Response Characteristic and

the Modal Phase-Frequency Response Characteristic:
A
u i Fp
The ratio of the amplitude of the displacement of mode i

u
( ) = i to that of the force applied to degree of freedom p
Fp
H uAi Fp ( ) =
(1 ( ) )
2 2
1
+ ( 2 i i )
Varying i and p, one can compose the

following (not symmetric) Modal
Amplitude-Frequency Response Matrix:
A
H uF
Lecture 8
H ui F p =
x pi
x pi
2 ii2 xiT M xi
i2 mii*
( )
1
i
1
2
( )
+ 2i
i
x pi
i2 xiT M xi
x pi
i2 xiT M xi
H u 1F1
Hu F
= 21
.
Hu F
N1
H u 1F2
H u 2 F2
.
H u N F2
H u 1FN
. H u 2 FN
.
.
. H u N FN

H uAi Fp
2
i
i
2
1
2
0
107
Lecture 8
i = arctan
( )

108
29
The Vector-Displacement in the Steady-State regime:
The Amplitude-Frequency Response Characteristic and Matrix:
x (t ) =
x u (t ) = x u sin ( t ) = x sin ( t ) H
i
i =1
i =1
i =1
ui Fp
p =1
= Fp
qi
i =1
qi
i =1
(C ) + ( D )
2
qFp
H xF
H x 1F1
Hx F
= 21
.
Hx F
N1
qFp
A
xq F p
H x 1F2
H x 2 F2
.
H x N F2
H x 1FN
. H x 2 FN
.
.
. H x N FN
H ui Fp () sin ( t i )
H ui Fp () ( sin ( t ) cos (i ) cos ( t ) sin (i ) ) = Fp CqFp sin ( t ) Fp DqFp cos ( t )

N
where CqFp =
Lecture 8
max
xqF
(t )
p
=
F
p
For a specific degree of freedom q, and assuming that the force is applied to a
specific degree of freedom p only, we find:
xqFp (t ) = Fp
H xAq Fp ( ) =
() Fp
qi
i =1
H ui Fp () cos (i ) , DqFp =
qi
i =1
H ui Fp () sin (i )
1 2 3
109

Lecture 8
110

Fourier Analysis of Forced Vibrations of Damped

N DOFS - General
1. Fourier (Frequency) Analysis of Forced Vibrations of N DOFS

with Viscous Damping
The Fourier Analysis of forced vibrations of N DOFS under general loading is facilitated
by the Integral Fourier Transforms. This analysis should be applied only in the case of
zero initial conditions. To account for not-trivial initial conditions, the Laplace Integral
Transforms can be applied (see Lecture Notes to CT 4145)
Equations of Motion and Initial Conditions:
2. The Rayleigh Method
M &&
x + C x& + K x = F ( t ) ,
x ( 0 ) = x& ( 0 ) = 0
Fourier Transform:
Inverse Fourier Transform
F ( t ) 1
=
x ( t ) 2
F t
%
F ( )
( )
=
exp ( i t ) dt
%
x
( ) x ( t )
%
F ( )
x% ( ) exp ( i t ) d
( M + i C + K ) x% ( ) = F% ( )
2
Lecture 9
111
Lecture 9
1
x% ( ) = ( 2 M + i C + K ) F% ( )
Fourier Analysis of Forced Vibrations of Damped N DOFS

112
30
Example: Fourier Analysis of Forced Vibrations of

Equation of motion:
Model:
x(t)
&& & kx = F ( t )
mx+cx+
Force:
F(t)

Inverse transform:
F0
c
x
x (t ) =
Translation of the force to the frequency domain:
F% ( ) =
exp ( i 2 ) exp ( i )
F ( t ) exp ( i t ) dt = F0 exp ( i t ) dt = F0
i
2
3
exp ( i 2 ) exp ( i 2 )
3
2sin ( 2 )
= F0 exp i
= F0 exp i
2
Lecture 9
113

Int = Re ( Int ) + i Im ( Int )
Im ( Int ) =
2sin ( 2 )
2sin ( 2 )
( 2 m + k ) + 2 c 2
2
{cos ( (t 3 2)) ( m + k ) + sin ( ( t 3 2) ) c}
Lecture 9
F
x (t ) = 0
2
2sin ( 2 )
2
2sin ( 2 ) cos ( ( t 3 2 ) ) + i sin ( ( t 3 2 ) )
{( m + k ) i c}
{( m + k ) + i c}{( m + k ) i c}
{cos ( ( t 3 2 ) ) ( m + k ) + sin ( ( t 3 2 ) ) c} +
2sin ( 2 )
( ( m + k ) + c ) i {sin ( ( t 3 2 ) ) ( m + k ) cos ( ( t 3 2 ) ) c}
Lecture 9
114
{sin ( (t 3 2)) ( m + k ) cos ( ( t 3 2) ) c}
The Rayleigh Method - General

John William Strutt, third Baron Rayleigh, was born on November 12, 1842 at
Langford Grove, Maldon, Essex, as the son of John James Strutt, second Baron,
and his wife Clara Elizabeth La Touche, eldest daughter of Captain Richard
Vicars, R. E. He was one of the very few members of higher nobility who won
fame as an outstanding scientist.
The integral of the imaginary part is zero being an integral in symmetric

limits from an anti-symmetric function!
Consequently,

Thus, the real and imaginary parts of the integrand read:
( 2 m + k ) + 2 c 2
2sin ( 2 )
2sin ( 2 ) cos ( ( t 3 2 ) ) + i sin ( ( t 3 2 ) )
3
Int = exp i t i
=
2
( 2 m + i c + k )
( 2 m + k ) + i c

Re ( Int ) =
F0
x% ( ) exp ( i t ) d = 2 exp 2 i ( m + i c + k ) exp ( i t ) d
Let us separate the real and imaginary parts in the integrand:
x% ( ) = F% ( ) ( 2 m + i c + k )
( m + i c + k ) x% ( ) = F% ( )
1
2
F0
His Theory of Sound was published in two volumes during 1877-1878, and
his other extensive studies are reported in his Scientific Papers - six
volumes issued during 1889-1920. He has also contributed to the
Re ( Int ) d = Re ( Int ) d
Encyclopedia Britannica.

Lord Rayleigh's first researches were mainly mathematical, concerning optics and vibrating
systems, but his later work ranged over almost the whole field of physics, covering sound,
wave theory, color vision, electrodynamics, electromagnetism, light scattering, flow of
liquids, hydrodynamics, density of gases, viscosity, capillarity, elasticity, and photography.
115
Lecture 9
The Rayleigh Method
116
31
The Rayleigh Method - General
The Rayleigh Method Upper Bound Estimation

The Rayleigh Quotient gives an upper bound of the fundamental frequency
The aim of the Rayleigh Method is to estimate the fundamental

natural frequency of a structure.
Consider a not normalized eigenmatrix:
Consider the equations of motion of an undamped N DOFS in the frequency

domain:
( M + K ) x
2
i
=0
or
E% = 1 x1 2 x 2 ... N x N
K x i = i2 M x i
We choose the eigenvectors multipliers such that
Using the orthogonality property we can express the natural frequencies as:
x T K x i
= Ti
= RQi( exact )
x i M x i
2
i
% T K E%
With this not normalized eigenmatrix, we have E
the Rayleigh Quotient (exact)
x = E% c
Then
( )
( )
E% c
xT K x
RQ = T
=
x Mx
E% c
x Kx
RQ 12 = T
x Mx
The Rayleigh Method
117
RQ =
i =1
N
2
i
2
i
c
i =1
2
i
The Rayleigh Method
Radar Tower
m = 10 4 kg
J = 105 kgm 2
T
F
2
i
118
x11 = 1
x1
x21 = 0.045
x2
p = 22.22 m
i=2
The Rayleigh Method Example
ci 2
2
2
i
N
N
ci 2
ci
2
c1
i
2
N
1
c
i = 2 c1
c
i=2 1
1+ i
i = 2 c1
12 +

Assume that the deviation between the exact first eigenvector and the chosen
approximate vector is small. This implies that for all i , ci << c1. Therefore
ci i
c T E% T K E% c c T 2 c
= T T
= T
= i =1
%
%
c Ic
M E% c c E M E c
K E% c
Lecture 9
The Rayleigh Method Upper Bound Estimation
i =1

= K% * and K% * = 2
Let us represent the vector x , which we want to use instead of the first eigenvector
as the following superposition (it is always possible):
To obtain an estimation of the fundamental natural frequency, we assume that

the exact eigenvector x 1 can be closely approximated by a vector x that can be
calculated using some static considerations. Usually, the static form of the
structure under the gravity load is used.
T
Lecture 9
E% T M E% = I
l = 33 m
1 = 12.70 rad/s
EI = 2 1010 Nm 2
RC1
N
N
c
c
c
12 + i i2 12 i = 12 + i (i2 12 ) 12
i = 2 c1
i = 2 c1
i = 2 c1
N
The Stiffness Matrix:
Thus, after we calculated RQ with two different estimations of the eigenvector,

the lowest resulting natural frequency should be chosen as the closest to the
exact one.
Lecture 9
The Rayleigh Method
K=
119
EI 12 6l
,
l 3 6l 4l 2
The Flexibility (Compliance) Matrix
F = Kx
Lecture 9
l3
1 3
V=
EI l 2
2
l2
2
,
The Rayleigh Method
VF=x
120
32
The Rayleigh Method Example

Two approximations of the eigenvector:
T = Jg = 105 g Nm
F = m g = 104 g N
1. Fundamental Assumptions Leading to One-Dimensional (1D)

Continuous Models
T = Jg = 105 g Nm
x1
x2
2. Examples of 1D Idealizations
x1
F = m g = 104 g N
x2
3. Derivation of the Equation of Motion for a Taut String

gravity load
gravity load
F 104 g
F = = 5
T 10 g
F 104 g
F = =
5
T 10 g
4. Boundary and Interface Conditions for 1D structures

5. Boundary and Interface Conditions for a String
6. Complete Mathematical Problem Statement for a String
10 g
14.93 rad/s
x =V
5
10 g
4
7. Free Vibrations of a Homogeneous String The Method of

Separation of Variables
10 g
12.87 rad/s
x =V
5
10 g
4
exact 12.70 rad/s

Lecture 9
The Rayleigh Method
121

Lecture 10
122

Fundamental Assumptions Leading to One-Dimensional

(1D) Continuous Models
Examples of 1D Idealizations
m
F(t)
Definition of continuous models:
x(t)
Mechanical models are referred to as continuous if it is assumed that their properties

are continuously distributed in space.
Definition of one-dimensional models:
u (t, z )
F(t)
Idealization of motion of an offshore platform on steel jacket structure

by a beam with a lumped mass on the top
w (t, x )
If the mechanical behavior of a structure is assumed to depend on time and one

coordinate only, corresponding models are called one-dimensional.
Unloaded
static
position
One-dimensional models are applicable to structures having one

dimension much greater than the other two
x(t)
F(t)
F(t)
Idealization of vertical vibration of a lorry on a bridge by a simply supported beam

with a lumped mass in the middle
Lecture 10
Fundamental assumptions behind 1D continuous models

123
Lecture 10
Fundamental assumptions behind 1D continuous models

124
33
Transverse Motion of a Taut Cable (String)

Derivation of Equation of Motion

V
w(x,t)
q1 ( x, t )
w
s
Taut cable
string subject to a transverse

distributed force
no bending stiffness;
constant tension (also in motion);
Lecture 10
Vibrations of a string
125

H
T + T
differential element of a displaced from

the rest position (horizontal line) string
Geometry:
2w
= V + V V + q1x = V + q1x
t 2
V = H tan ( )
Assumption of small deflections:
( w x )
Ax
Ballance of vertical forces:
small vibrations
V + V
Assumptions:
q1 ( x, t )
<< 1
Lecture 10
tan ( ) w x
126


Boundary Conditions - General

Definitions
Elaboration of the balance of vertical forces:
Ax
2w
= V + q1x
t 2
2 w V
=
+ q1
t 2
x
x 0
2 w V
=
+ q1
t 2
x
Substitution of the relation between the vertical and horizontal forces results in:
Where?
At the ends of a structure.
How many?
At each end n/2,
2w
A 2 = ( H tan ( ) ) + q1
t
x
w w
= T
+ q1
t 2 x x
What type?
This equation governs the small vibrations of each

differential (small) element of a string
Lecture 10
Kinematic (essential): displacements, angles A
Under the assumption of small vibrations tan ( ) w x and H = T cos ( ) T.

Thus, the following equation of motion is obtained:
2
A 2 w t 2 + G n w x n = q
127
Dynamic (natural): forces, moments
Lecture 10
Boundary Conditions for 1D models 128
34
Interface Conditions - General

Boundary Conditions
Definitions
Where?
left end
Transverse force with which a string
acts on an element or fixation at its
At a junction of a structure or
at an inclusion
V = T w x
T
w
right end
V = T w x
At each junction or inclusion n, A 2 w t 2 + G n w x n = q
How many?
What type?
Kinematic and Dynamic simultaneously
Lecture 10
Interface Conditions for 1D models
129

Type of BC
Kinematic
(displacement)
w = A (t )
Left-end
Dynamic
(external force)
w
= P
x
Dynamic
(elastic)
w
T
= kw
x
Dynamic
(viscous)
w
w
T
=c
x
t
Dynamic
(inertial)
w
2 w
=m 2
x
t
w
=P
x
w+
x = x0 :
w = w+
w
w+
=T+
T
x
x
x = x0 :
w = w+
+ w+
w
T
= P
T
x
x
x = x0 :
w = w+
+ w+
w
T
= kw+ = kw
T
x
x
x = x0 :
w = w+
+ w+
w
w+
w
T
=c
=c
T
x
x
t
t
x = x0 :
w = w+
+ w+
w
2 w+
2 w
T
=m 2 =m 2
T
x
x
t
t
x = x0
w+
w+
w+
Lecture 10
w
2w
= m 2
x
t
Lecture 10
Boundary conditions for a string
130
Complete Mathematical Problem Statement for

Vibrations of a Finite-Length String
Interface Conditions
x
x = x0
Basic Situations
w
w
T
= c
x
t
Basic Interface Conditions

Interface
w
w
T
= kw
x


Interface Conditions
Right-end
w = B (t )
2 w w
= T
+ q1
t 2 x x
Equation of motion (always present):
Initial conditions (always present):
w ( 0, x ) = ( x ) ,
Boundary Conditions (always present):
w (t, a ) = A (t ) , w (t, b) = B (t )
Interface Conditions (optional):
Lecture 10
w t ( x, t )t =0 = ( x )
example
w ( t , x0 ) = w+ ( t , x0 ) ,
w t ( x, t ) x = x = w+ t ( x, t ) x = x
0
131
a< x<b
example
132
35
Free Vibrations of a Homogeneous Finite-Length String

The Method of Separation of Variables
Governing Equations for a fixed-fixed string:
w 2 w
c
= 0,
t 2
x 2
c=
w ( 0, x ) = ( x ) ,
w t ( x, t )t =0 = ( x )
w ( t , a ) = 0,
w (t, b) = 0
0 t < ,
a xb

Consider the equation of the string motion:
2w 2 2w
c
=0
t 2
x 2
the speed of waves in the string
Substitution of w ( x, t ) = W ( x ) ( t ) results in:

2
2
2
2
W ( x ) ( t ) ) c 2 2 (W ( x ) ( t ) ) = 0 W ( x ) 2 ( t ) c 2 ( t ) 2 W ( x ) = 0
2 (
t
x
t
x
1 2
1 2
2
(t ) = c
W ( x)
( t ) t 2
W ( x ) x 2
The fundamental idea of the method of separation of variables:
w ( x, t ) = W ( x ) ( t )
The only possibility to have this equation satisfied is to have both sides of it
equal to a constant:
1 d 2
1 2W
= c2
= 2
W x 2
dt 2
The idea is that we search for the string displacement in the form of multiplication of
a function of time and a function of the co-ordinate.
Lecture 10
Free Vibrations of a String
133

Lecture 10
134


Problem statement after separation:

Time-related part:
Coordinate-related part:
1 d 2
&& + 2 = 0
= 2
dt 2
1 2W
2
c
= 2 W + 2 W = 0
W x 2
c
The separation constant must

be real to ensure the possibility of
w (t, a ) = W ( a ) (t ) = 0 W ( a ) = 0
harmonic vibrations
For this problem the general
solution can be easily found
1. Free Vibrations of a Fixed-Fixed String

2. Forced Vibrations of a Fixed-Fixed String under General
Forcing
w (t, b ) = W (b ) (t ) = 0 W (b ) = 0
Solving this problem, the separation
constant and the normal modes
(shapes) can be found
The remaining task is to employ the initial conditions

Lecture 10
135
Lecture 11
136
36
Free Vibrations of a Fixed-Fixed String


Governing equations for free vibrations of a fixed-fixed string:
2w 2 2w
c
= 0,
t 2
x 2
c=
w ( 0, x ) = ( x ) ,
w t ( x, t )t =0 = ( x )
w ( t , 0 ) = 0,
w (t, L ) = 0
0 t < ,
0 xL
the speed of waves in the string
1 d 2
&& + 2 = 0
= 2
dt 2
c2
1 d2
1 d2
1 d2
1 d2
W ( x)
W ( x ) = 2
(t ) = c2
(t ) = c2
W ( x ) dx 2
W ( x ) dx 2
( t ) dt 2
( t ) dt 2
137

w (t, 0) = W ( 0) (t ) = 0
( t ) = A sin (t ) + B cos (t )
w (t, L ) = W ( L ) (t ) = 0 W ( L ) = 0
The separation constant 2 must

be real to ensure the possibility of
2)
The constant has a physical

meaning of frequency
Lecture 11
c2
The Normal Modes:
x
Wn ( x ) = Cn sin n
The general solution for W :
W ( x ) = C sin ( x ) + D cos ( x ) ,
138

Normal Modes and The General Solution
W ( 0) = W ( L ) = 0
W = 0,

Consider the coordinate-related part:
W +
W (0) = 0
Solving this problem, the separation

constant and the normal modes
(shapes) can be found
harmonic vibration

2
1 d 2W
2
= 2 W + 2 W = 0
2
W dx
c
The general solution:
1)
Lecture 11
Time-related part:
= c
n =1
n=2
W
Substituting this expression into the boundary conditions, we obtain :
W ( 0) = 0
W ( L) = 0
D=0
x
n= 3
sin ( L ) = 0
Thus:
n L = n
x
n =4
w ( x, t ) = ( An sin (nt ) + Bn cos (nt ) ) sin ( n x )

n =1
Wn ( x ) = Cn sin ( n x )
n = c n = n c L,
Lecture 11
n = 1, 2,3,... natural frequencies
The general solution is the superposition of

vibrations on the normal modes
normal modes
139
Lecture 11
140
37

Use of the Initial Conditions

Use of the Initial Conditions
The general solution and initial conditions:
The procedure of finding An and Bn:
sin ( x ) B

n =1
w ( 0, x ) = ( x ) ,
n =1
w t ( x, t )t =0 = ( x )
sin ( n x ) = ( x ) ,
n =1
sin ( x ) B
m
141
n =1
n =1
n =1
L
L
Bn mn = 2 Bm
2 n =1
Lecture 11
L
L
Ann mn = 2 Amm
2 n =1
142
2 w 2 2 w q1 ( x, t )
c
=
t 2
x 2
A
w ( 0, x ) = ( x ) ,
Correspondingly, the free vibrations of the fixed-fixed string are described by the
following expression:
w t ( x, t )t =0 = ( x )
w ( t , 0 ) = 0,
w (t, L ) = 0
0 t < ,
0 xL
We search for the solution in the form of superposition of motions on normal modes:
L
L
2 sin (nt )
w ( x, t ) =
( x% ) sin ( n x% ) dx% + cos (nt ) ( x% ) sin ( n x% ) dx% sin ( n x )
L n =1 n
0
0
n = c n = n c L
Lecture 11
Governing equations for a fixed-fixed string under general forcing:

sin ( n x ) dx = Bn sin ( m x ) sin ( n x ) dx =
Forced Vibrations of a Fixed-Fixed String

under General Forcing
n = n L,
n =1

Thus, the resulting expressions for An and Bn are:
2
( x ) sin ( n x ) dx
L 0
sin ( n x ) = ( x ) dx

The Solution
Bn =
sin ( m x ) Ann sin ( n x ) dx = Ann sin ( m x ) sin ( n x ) dx =

2
Ln 0
Elaborating the left-hand sides, we obtain:

L
L 2, m = n L
x x
0 sin ( n x ) sin ( m x ) dx = 0 sin n L sin m L dx = 0, m n = 2 mn ,
mn is the Kronecker Delta
An =
n =1
sin ( n x ) = ( x )
sin ( n x ) = ( x ) dx
Lecture 11
sin ( x ) A
To resolve these equations we will use the orthogonality property of normal modes:
L
n =1
Substituting the general solution into the initial conditions, we obtain:
w ( t , x ) = n ( t ) sin ( n x ) automatically satisfies the boundary conditions

n =1
Substituting this form of solution into the equation of motion, we obtain:
q ( x, t )
d 2 n
,
+ n2 n sin ( n x ) = 1
2
A
n =1 dt
143
Lecture 11
n = c n
Forced Vibrations of a Fixed-Fixed String: General Forcing

144
38


Multiplying the above equation by sin(mx) and integrating from 0 to L, we obtain:

L
d 2 n
2
+ n2 n =
q ( x, t ) sin ( n x ) dx = Qn ( t )
2
dt
AL 0 1
The general solution to the above equation reads:
Substituting the above solution into the initial conditions, we obtain:
w ( 0, x ) = ( x )
w ( 0, x ) = n ( 0 ) sin ( n x ) = ( x )
w t ( x, t )t =0 = ( x )
& ( 0 ) sin ( x ) = ( x )
w t ( x, t )t =0 =
n
n
n =1
n =1
Multiplying the above equations by sin(mx) and integrating from 0 to L, we obtain:
t
1 d n ( 0)
1
n ( t ) = n ( 0 ) cos (nt ) +
sin (nt ) +
Q ( ) sin (n ( t ) ) d
n
n 0 n
dt
n (0) =
Thus, we found the following expression that satisfies the equation of motion and
the boundary conditions:
w ( t , x ) = n ( t ) sin ( n x ) with n ( t ) defined above

n =1
2
& ( 0 ) = 2 ( x ) sin ( x ) dx
( x ) sin ( n x ) dx,
n
n
L 0
L 0
Thus, we found a solution that satisfies the equation of motion, the boundary
conditions and the initial conditions. On the basis of the uniqueness theorem, we
may say that this is the solution to the problem.
To find the unknown constants, we will use the initial conditions.

Lecture 11
145

Lecture 11
146


under General Forcing: The Solution
The explicit form of the solution reads:

t

1 &
1
n ( 0 ) sin (n t ) +
w ( t , x ) = n ( 0 ) cos (nt ) +
Q ( ) sin (n ( t ) ) d sin ( n x )
n
n 0 n
n =1
where
L
n = n L,
Lecture 11
2. Vibrations of a Fixed-Fixed String Subjected to Distributed

Damping
3. Steady-State Vibrations of a Fixed-Fixed String under a
Harmonic Force
2
& ( 0 ) = 2 ( x ) sin ( x ) dx
( x ) sin ( n x ) dx,
n
n
L 0
L 0
L
2
Qn ( t ) =
q1 ( x, t ) sin ( n x ) dx
AL 0
n (0) =
1. Vibrations of a String with Various Boundary Conditions
n = c n = n c L

147
Lecture 12
148
39
Free Vibrations of a String with Various Boundary

Conditions: Elastically Supported End
Governing equations for free vibrations of a string, the left end of which is fixed,
whereas the right end is attached to a spring:
2w 2 2w
c
= 0,
t 2
x 2
w ( x, 0 ) = ( x ) ,
w ( x, t ) t t =0 = ( x )
w ( 0, t ) = 0,
T w ( x, t ) x x = L = kw ( L, t )
0 t < ,
0 x L
x
0

Conditions : Elastically Supported End
Time-related part:
1 d 2
&& + 2 = 0
= 2
dt 2
c2
left end: w ( 0, t ) = W ( 0 ) ( t ) = 0
( t ) = A sin (t ) + B cos (t )
W ( 0) = 0
right end: TW ( L ) ( t ) = k W ( L ) ( t )
TW ( L ) = k W ( L )
1 d2
1 d2
W ( x ) = 2
(t ) = c2
2
W ( x ) dx 2
( t ) dt
Lecture 12
Vibrations of a String with Various Boundary Conditions
149

W +
c2
W = 0,
W ( 0 ) = 0,
= c
n =1
TW ( L ) = k W ( L ) T cos ( L ) = k sin ( L )
sin ( n x ) = ( x ) ,
A
n =1
sin ( n x ) = ( x )
sin ( x ) sin ( x ) dx = ?
n
To resolve these equations we should use the orthogonality property but
Thus the normal modes are still sinusoidal but the natural frequencies should be
found from the following transcendental equation:

w t ( x, t )t =0 = ( x )
w ( 0, x ) = ( x ) ,
Substituting this expression into the boundary conditions, we obtain:
Lecture 12

n =1
D=0
150
TW ( L ) = k W ( L )
W ( x ) = C sin ( x ) + D cos ( x ) ,
tan ( L ) = T k ,
W ( 0) = 0
Lecture 12


2
1 2W
2
= 2 W + 2 W = 0
W x 2
c
151
Lecture 12

152
40


Return to the co-ordinate related equation and write it for two modes:
Wn+ Wn = 0,
We take the first integral in the above equation by parts:
Wm + Wm = 0
2
n
2
m
Multiplying the first equation by Wm and the second equation by Wn and then
subtracting one equation from the other, we obtain:
x=L
n x =0
W W dx = W W
n
x=L
WmWndx = (WmWn WmWn ) x =0 + WmWn dx

0
Substituting this into the last equation of the previous slide, we find:
L
(WmWn WmWn ) x=0 + WmWn dx WnWm dx + ( n2 m2 ) WmWn dx = 0

x= L
WmWn+ Wm n2Wn = 0
W W + W W = 0
2
n m
n m m
x= L
Let us check the first term in this equation for the case of the fixed-elastically
supported string:
Integrating the above equation over the interval 0<x<L, we can write
L
W ( 0)=0
(WmWn WmWn ) x=0
2
2
WmWndx WnWm dx + ( n m ) WmWn dx = 0
Lecture 12
(WmWn WmWn ) x=0 + ( n2 m2 ) WmWn dx = 0
WmW WnWm + ( n2 m2 )WmWn = 0
(WmWn WmWn ) x= L
Lecture 12
153

TW ( L ) = kW ( L )
(W ( k T )W ( k T )W W )
m
n x=L
=0
154



Consequently:
Thus, free vibrations of the fixed-elastically supported string with general initial
conditions are given as:
2
n
2
m
) W W dx = 0
m
W W dx = 0
if m n
Thus, the modes in this case are orthogonal and, therefore (coming back to slide 6):
L
sin ( x ) sin ( x ) dx = sin ( x ) dx =

2
mn
mn
n =1
tan ( n L ) = nT k ,
L sin ( 2 n L )

= mn Z n
4 n
2
An =
Now we proceed along the usual way to make use of this orthogonality for finding
An and Bn:
Bn sin ( n x ) = ( x ) dx
0 sin ( m x )
n =1
Ann sin ( n x ) = ( x ) dx
0 sin ( m x )
n =1
Lecture 12
An =
Z nn
Zn =
( x ) sin ( x ) dx
( x ) sin ( x ) dx
n
1
Z n 0
L sin ( 2 n L )
2
4 n

Bn =
Z nn
L
1
Bn =
Z n 0
n = c n
155
Lecture 12

156
41

Conditions: Inertial-Viscous End
Governing equations for free vibrations of a string, the left end of which is fixed,
whereas the right end is attached to a mass and a dashpot:
2w 2 2w
c
= 0,
t 2
x 2
w ( x, 0 ) = ( x ) ,
0 t < ,
Time-related part:
1 d 2
&& + 2 = 0
= 2
dt 2
0 xL
w ( x, t ) t t =0 = ( x )
w ( 0, t ) = 0,

Conditions : Inertial-Viscous End
x
0
T w ( x, t ) x x = L = c w ( x, t ) t x = L m 2 w ( x, t ) t 2 x = L
LE: w ( 0, t ) = W ( 0 ) ( t ) = 0
( t ) = A sin (t ) + B cos (t )
W (0) = 0

2
1 d 2W
2
c2
= 2 W + 2 W = 0
W dx 2
c
& ( t ) + m
&& ( t ) )
RE: TW ( L ) ( t ) = W ( L ) ( c
1 d
1 d
W ( x ) = 2
(t ) = c2
W ( x ) dx 2
( t ) dt 2
Lecture 12
The function of time can not be eliminated!

The method of separation of variables does
not work!
157

w ( 0, x ) = ( x ) ,
w t ( x, t )t =0
w ( t , 0 ) = 0,
w (t, L ) = 0
0 t < ,
0 x L
cd
Time-related part:
a damping factor
1 2W
2
= 2 W + 2 W = 0
W x 2
c
w (t, 0) = W ( 0) (t ) = 0
W (0) = 0
w (t, L ) = W ( L ) (t ) = 0 W ( L ) = 0
1 = 2 nd 2
2nd
1 2
1 2
W ( x ) = 2
(t ) +
(t ) = c2
2
W ( x ) x 2
( t ) t
( t ) t
Vibrations of a String with Distributed Damping
c2
( t ) = exp ( nd t ) ( A sin (1 t ) + B cos (1 t ) ) ,
Lecture 12
1 d 2 2nd d
+
= 2
dt 2 ( t ) dt
&& + 2n
& + 2 = 0
A
= ( x)

158
Vibrations of a Fixed-Fixed String Subjected to

Distributed Damping
Governing equations for free vibrations of a fixed-fixed string subjected to

distributed damping:
2nd =


Distributed Damping
2w
w 2 2 w
+ 2nd
c
= 0,
t 2
t
x 2
Lecture 12
We consider a sub-critical damping!
159
Lecture 12

160
42

Distributed Damping
W +
2
c2
W ( 0) = W ( L ) = 0
W = 0,
n =1
W ( x ) = C sin ( x ) + D cos ( x ) ,
W ( L) = 0
D=0
n =1
sin ( L ) = 0
n = c n = n c L,
Lecture 12
n = 1, 2,3,... the separation constant

the mode shapes
161

sin ( x ) B
m
n =1
sin ( n x ) = ( x ) dx
1n
nd Bn ) sin ( n x ) = ( x )
mn
Lecture 12
162

Distributed Damping
n = n L,
Lecture 12
n =1
L
sin ( x ) sin ( x ) dx = 2
n =1
L
L
L
2
2
( x ) sin ( n x ) dx An =
( x ) sin ( n x ) dx + nd ( x ) sin ( n x ) dx
L 0
L 1n 0
0

( A
To resolve these equations we will use the orthogonality property of the mode shapes:
This gives:
2
L 0
w t ( x, t )t =0 = ( x ) , 1n = nd 2
w ( x, t ) = exp ( nd t ) An sin 1n t + Bn cos 1n t
( An1n nd Bn ) sin ( n x ) = ( x ) dx
0 sin ( m x )
n =1
Bn =
) ) ) sin ( x )
2
n
sin ( n x ) = ( x ) ,
An1n nd Bn =
Correspondingly, the free vibrations of the fixed-fixed string subjected to distributed

viscous damping are described by the following expression:
We again multiply by one of the mode shapes and integrate over the length:


Distributed Damping
L
Thus the separation constant and the mode shapes are the same as in the undamped
case:
n L = n
w ( 0, x ) = ( x ) ,
= c
Substituting this expression into the boundary conditions, we obtain:
w ( x, t ) = exp ( nd t ) An sin 1n t + Bn cos 1n t
W ( 0) = 0

Distributed Damping
163
n = c n = n c L ,
) ) ) sin ( x )
1n = nd
2
n
L
L
2
An =
( x ) sin ( n x ) dx + nd ( x ) sin ( n x ) dx
L1n 0
0
Bn =
2
L 0
Lecture 12

164
43
Steady-State Vibrations of a Fixed-Fixed String under a

Harmonic Force
Governing equations for free vibrations of a fixed-fixed string under a harmonic force
arbitrarily distributed along the string:
2w 2 2w
c
= q%1 ( x ) sin ( t ) , t , 0 x L
t 2
x 2
no initial conditions
w ( 0, t ) = 0,
w ( L, t ) = 0
The general solution of the equation
2W% ( x )
q1 ( x, t ) = q%1 ( x ) sin ( t )
x 2
Lecture 12
Steady-State Vibration of a String under a Harmonic Force
165

x
x c
W% ( x ) = A sin
+ B cos
q%1 ( ) sin ( x ) d
c
c 0
c
Substituting this solution into the boundary conditions, we obtain
W% ( 0 ) = 0
B=0
W% ( L ) = 0
L c
A sin
q%1 ( ) sin ( x ) d = 0
c 0
c
Lecture 12
Thus the steady-state response of a fixed-fixed string to a harmonic force of a general

shape is given as
x
x c

w ( x, t ) = A sin
q%1 ( ) sin ( x ) d sin ( t )
c
c

0
166
1. Steady-State Vibrations of a Fixed-Fixed String Subject to
Distributed Viscous Damping under a Harmonic Force
3. A Pragmatic Procedure of Finding the Natural Frequencies of

a String
4. Other (than the Tensioned Cable) models that can be
described by the Wave Equation: a rod in longitudinal
L
L
= n, one may expect resonance
if sin
=0
c
c
c n
one may expect resonance to occur when =
= n ,
L
i.e. when the excitation frequency equals one of the natural frequencies
Lecture 12
2. The Effect of the Shape of the External Harmonic Load on

the Steady-State Response of a String
q%1 ( ) sin ( x ) d
c
L 0
sin



Harmonic Force
A=
2 %
W ( x ) = q%1 ( x )
c2
x
x
0
2 %
1
W ( x ) = 2 q%1 ( x ) , 0 x L
x
c2
c
W% ( 0 ) = 0,
W% ( L ) = 0
2
is given as
The steady-state solution is given as w ( x, t ) = W% ( x ) sin ( t ) . Substituting this into

the governing equations, we obtain
2W% ( x )

Harmonic Force
motion; beam in pure shear, torsion of a rod
167
Lecture 13
168
44
Steady-State Vibrations of a Fixed-Fixed String Subjected

to Distributed Viscous Damping under Harmonic Force
Governing equations for the steady-state vibrations of a fixed-fixed string on a
continuous viscous foundation and subjected to a harmonic force, read:
2
d x2
w ( L, t ) = 0
x
0
L
. Substituting this
2nd i %
W ( x ) = q%1 ( x ) , 0 x L
dx
c2
W% ( 0 ) = 0,
W% ( L ) = 0
2
Lecture 13
Steady-State Vibrations of a String Subject to Distributed Damping
169

c2 %
W ( x ) = q%1 ( x ) ,
c2
c2 = 2 2nd i
x
x c
W% ( x ) = A sin c + B cos c
q%1 ( ) sin cc ( x ) d
c
c c 0
x
Substituting this solution into the boundary conditions, we obtain
W% ( 0 ) = 0
B=0
W% ( L ) = 0
L c
A sin c
q%1 ( ) sin cc ( x ) d = 0
c c 0
L
Lecture 13
170


q%11 = sin ( 2 x L )
x c

w ( x, t ) = Im A sin c
q%1 ( ) sin c ( x ) d exp ( it )
c c 0
c

q%13 = 1
= 2nd i
2
The amplitude-frequencyresponse functions at x=3L/4
m s-2
q%11 = 14.93 x ( x L ) m s
5
2
c
The Effect of the Shape of External Harmonic Force on the

Steady-State String Response
Consider three different shapes of the external sinusoidal force (the maximum absolute
value of all these forces equals unity):
Thus the steady-state response of the fixed-fixed string to a harmonic force of a

general shape is given as
A=
q%1 ( ) sin c ( x ) d ,
L
c
c sin c 0
c
is given as (the solution has exactly the same form as in the undamped case; the only
difference is that the frequency c is complex now)
The steady-state solution is given as w ( x, t ) = Im W% ( x ) exp ( it )

into the governing equations, we obtain
d W% ( x )
d 2W% ( x )
-2
m s-2
If the damping factor is relatively small, i.e. n d << ,

c n
= n ,
L
i.e. when the excitation frequency approximately equals one of the natural frequencies
|W(3L/4)|/max{|q1(x)|}
w ( 0, t ) = 0,
The general solution of the equation
q1 ( x, t ) = q%1 ( x ) sin ( t )
w
w 2 w
+ 2nd
c
= q%1 ( x ) sin ( t )
t 2
t
x 2
t , 0 x L, 2nd = cd ( A )
2

The steady-state response

strongly depends on the
shape of the external force
one may expect resonance to occur when
Lecture 13

171
Lecture 13

172
45
Pragmatic Approach to Finding the Natural

Frequencies of a String

1st step. Substitution of the harmonic form of the displacement into the equation of
motion:
2w 2 2w
+c
=0
t 2
x 2
w( x ,t ) =W ( x ) exp( it )
d 2W ( x ) 2
+ 2 W ( x) = 0
dx 2
c
Example 2. Fixed-Free String:
w ( 0, t ) = 0
w ( x, t ) x x = L = 0
w( x ,t ) =W ( x ) exp( it )
W ( 0 ) = 0
dW ( x ) dx x = L = 0
2nd step. Writing the general solution of the above equation:
Example 3. Fixed-{Elastically Supported End} String:
x
x
W ( x ) = A sin
+ B cos
c
c
w ( 0, t ) = 0
T w ( x, t ) x x = L = kw ( t , L )
3rd step. Substitution of the harmonic form of the displacement into the boundary
conditions:
Example 1. Fixed-Fixed String:
Lecture 13
w ( 0, t ) = 0
w ( L, t ) = 0
w( x ,t ) =W ( x ) exp( it )
173

Example 4. Fixed-{Inertial End} String:
Lecture 13
The procedure of finding the natural frequencies
174
5th step. Obtaining the frequency equation by setting the determinant of the
coefficient matrix to zero.
A 0 + B 1 = 0
W ( 0 ) = 0
L
L
A sin c + B cos c = 0
W ( L ) = 0
A 0 + B 1 = 0
W ( 0 ) = 0
x
x
A sin
+ B cos

c
c
T
L
L
2
cos
dW ( x )
A
m sin
2
c
c
T
m
W
L
=
c
(
)
dx x = L
T
L
L
2
+ B
sin
m cos
= 0
c
c
c
175
L
L = 0
sin
cos
c
c
x
x
A sin
+ B cos
c
c
W ( 0 ) = 0
2
TdW ( x ) dx x = L = m W ( L )

4th step. Substitution of the general solution into the boundary conditions. This gives
a system of 2 linear algebraic equations with respect to A and B:
Lecture 13
W ( 0 ) = 0
TdW ( x ) dx x = L = kW ( L )



w( x ,t ) =W ( x ) exp( i t )
w ( 0, t ) = 0
2
2
T
w
x
,
t
x
m
w
x
,
t
t
( ) x=L
( ) x=L
W ( 0 ) = 0
W ( L ) = 0
w( x ,t ) =W ( x ) exp( it )
L
sin
=0
c
T
L
L T
L
L = 0
2
2
cos
sin
m sin

m cos
c
c c
c
c
c
T
L
L
2
cos
m sin
=0
c
c
c
T
L
tan
=
c cm
6th step - final. Solving the frequency equation, the roots of which are, by definition,
the natural frequencies.
Lecture 13

176
46
Other Structural Elements that can be Modelled by

the Wave Equation: Rod in Longitudinal Motion

Elastic Rod in Longitudinal Motion:
The ballance of horizontal forces:
Ax
Taylor Expansion:
( x + x ) ( x ) +
(a)
Longitudinal wave
in a pile
bg
x + x
Lecture 13
Other Structural Elements modeled by the Wave Equation
(b)
177
x
x
Resulting Equation:
Longitudinal motion of a pile induced by a falling weight.
2u
= ( x ) A + ( x + x ) A + qAx
t 2
2u
=
+q
t 2 x
The above equation is applicable to

both linear and non-linear materials
Lecture 13
178




Constitutive Equation (from here on the material is assumed linear):
bg
= E
Resulting Equation of Motion:

2u u
= E +q
t 2 x x
The above equation can be generalized to the case of variable cross-section:

A( x)
x + x
Longitudinal force at the left-end f L = A = EA u x

Longitudinal force at the right-end f L = A = EA u x
Kinematics (we assume the uniaxial deformation):

= u x
2u
u
= A ( x ) E + qA ( x )
t 2 x
x
Type of BC
Kinematic
(displacement)
u = A (t )
Left-end
A(t )
Dynamic
(elastic)
EA
u
= ku
x
Dynamic
(viscous)
EA
u
u
=c
x
t
Dynamic
(inertial)
EA
u
2u
=m 2
x
t
u = B (t )
Right-end
EA
u
= ku
x
EA
u
u
= c
x
t
EA
u
2u
= m 2
x
t
B (t )
Basic boundary conditions

Lecture 13

179
Lecture 13

180
Lecture 9, October 12
47

the Wave Equation: Shear Beam

Pure shear of a beam:
The ballance of vertical forces:
Ax
x
x
2w
= ( x ) A + ( x + x ) A + qAx
t 2
Taylor Expansion:
x
( x + x ) ( x ) +
( x + x )
( x)
Resulting Equation:
z, w
x
Multi-storey portal frame
Lecture 13
x
x
2 w
=
+q
t 2 x

both linear and non-linear material
models
181
Lecture 13
182




Constitutive Equation (from here on the "material" is assumed linear):
= G
Shear force at the left-end f S = A = GA w x
( x + x )
( x)
q

= w x
Type of BC
Kinematic
(displacement)
Shear force at the right-end f S = A = GA w x
w w
= G
+q
t 2 x x
2
The above equation can be generalized to the case of variable cross-section:

2w
w
A( x) 2 = A( x)G
+ qA ( x )
t
x
x
w = A(t )
Left-end
A
w
= kw
x
Dynamic
(elastic)
GA
Dynamic
(viscous)
w
w
GA
=c
x
t
Dynamic
(inertial)
w
2w
GA
=m 2
x
t
w = B (t )
Right-end
B
w
GA =kw
x
w
w
GA =c
x
t
w
2 w
GA =m 2
x
t

Lecture 13

183
Lecture 13

184
48

the Wave Equation: Rod in Torsion

Pure torsion of a rod:
The ballance of torque:
( x + x )
J x
M t ( x + x )
Taylor Expansion:
M t ( x + x ) M t ( x ) +
Mt ( x)
x
x + x
M t
x
x
Resulting Equation:
2 M t
=
+m
t 2
x

both linear and non-linear materials
Torsion+Bending of Tacoma Narrows Bridge
Lecture 13
2
= M t ( x ) + M t ( x + x ) + mx
t 2
185
Lecture 13
186




( x + x )
M t ( x + x )
Constitutive Equation (from here on the material is assumed linear):

M t = GJ t
Mt ( x)

= x
M t = GJ t x
Torque at the right-end M t = GJ t x

x
x + x
Type of BC
Kinematic
(displacement)
Dynamic
(elastic)
Torque at the left-end
2

= GJ t
+m
t 2 x
x
Left-end
Right-end
= A (t )
GJt
= kt
x
= B (t )
GJt
= kt
x
Dynamic
(viscous)
GJ t
= ct
x
t
GJ t
= ct
x
t
Dynamic
(inertial)
GJ t
2
= It 2
x
t
GJ t
2
= It
x
t2

Lecture 13

187
Lecture 13

188
49

the Wave Equation: General
1. Bending Vibrations of a Beam.
2w
2w
= T 2 + q cable in transverse motion
t 2
x
2u
2u
2 = E 2 +q
rod in lodgitudinal motion
t
x
2
2
w
w
2 =G 2 +q
beam in pure shear
t
x
2
2
J 2 = GJ t 2 + m
rod in torsion
t
x
2
2w
2 w
c
=
+Q
t 2
x 2
Derivation of the Equation of Motion
Boundary Conditions
Natural Frequencies and Normal Modes
Equivalent mass
All four above models are described by exactly the same equation (the wave
equation). Therefore, to carry out the mathematical analysis of all these models,
one may the procedures which we studied on the hand of the string model.
Lecture 13
189

Lecture 14
Bending Vibrations of a Beam: Derivation of the

Equation of Motion
Bending Vibrations of a Beam: Derivation of the

Equation of Motion
q ( x, t )
Euler-Bernoulli Theory:
q ( x, t )
M (x )
M = EI
M ( x + x )
V (x )
V ( x + x )
The ballance of vertical forces:

w
= V ( x ) + V ( x + x ) + q1x = dV + q1x
t 2
2 w V
=
+ q1
t 2
x
Lecture 14
The ballance of moments:

M
V=
x
2w 2M
=
+ q1
t 2
x 2
2w 2 2w
+
EI 2 = q1
t 2 x 2
x
191
2w 2 2w
2w
+ 2 EI 2 T 2 = q1
2
t
x
x
x
Generalisation 2. Beam on Visco-Elastic Foundation:
2w 2M
+ q1
=
t 2
x 2
Bending Vibrations of a Beam
2w
x 2
Generalisation 1. Axially Tensioned Beam:
Ax
190
2w 2 2w
w
+
= q1
EI 2 + kd w + cd
t 2 x 2
x
t
Lecture 14
192
50
Bending Vibrations of a Beam: Boundary Conditions

Basic Boundary Conditions
In contrast to the second-order models, at each end of the beam there can be
formulated
two kinematic conditions;
two dynamic conditions;
one kinematic and one dynamic boundary condition.
x
M (x )
Bending moment at the left-end M = EI 2 w x
q (x, t )
V = EI 3 w x
Shear force at the left-end

V (x )
M ( x + x )
Bending moment at the right-end M = EI 2 w x
V ( x + x )
V = EI 3 w x
Shear force at the right-end
Lecture 14
193

Type of BC
Kinematic
(displacement)+
Kinematic
(slope)
Kinematic
(displacement)+
Dynamic Moment
(elastic)
Kinematic
(displacement)+
Dynamic Moment
(viscous)
Kinematic
(displacement)+
Dynamic Moment
(inertial)
w = A(t )
w
= A ( t )
x
w = A(t )
2w cr 2w
=
x2 EI t x
Left-end
w
= A ( t )
x
3w
c w
=
x3
EI t
Kinematic (slope)
+
Dynamic Force
(inertial)
w
= A ( t )
x
m
3w
m 2w
=
x3
EI t 2
EI
A
c
2w
=
x2
w
w
+ Ir 2
kr w + cr
x
t
t
EI
Lecture 14
w
= B (t )
x
3 w c w
=
x3 EI t
w
= B ( t )
x
3w m 2w
=
x3 EI t 2
w = B (t )
2w
k w
= r
x2
EI x
kr
w = B(t )
A
cr
2w
c 2w
= r
x2
EI t x
cr
w = B(t )
A
Ir
I 3w
2w
= r 2
x2
EI t x
Ir
194
Type of fixation
Pined-Pined
k
Schematization
x=a
x=b
Boundary Conditions
x = a : w = 2 w x 2 = 0
x = b : w = 2 w x 2 = 0
Clamped-Clamped
x=a
x=b
x=a
x=b
x = a : w = w x = 0
x = b : w = w x = 0
Clamped-Free
x = a : w = w x = 0
2
x = b : 2 w x = 3 w x = 0
Clamped-Pinned
2w
=
x2
x=a
x=b
x = a : w = w x = 0
x = b : w = w2 x 2 = 0

w
w
+ Ir 2
kr w + cr
x
t
t
3
w
w
2w
+m 2
EI 3 = kw + c
x
t
t
w
w
w
= kw + c + m 2
x3
t
t

Most Basic Configurations
w
= B (t )
x
3w k
=
w
x3 EI
EI
2
kr
Lecture 14
Right-end
A
Kinematic (slope)
+
Dynamic Force
(viscous)
Dynamic Moment
(elastic + viscous
+inertial)
+
Dynamic Force
(elastic + viscous
+inertial)
w = A( t )
2w Ir 3w
=
x2 EI t 2 x
Right-end
w
= B (t )
x
w = A( t )
Basic Boundary Conditions

w
= A ( t )
x
3w
k
= w
x3
EI
2 w kr w
=
x2 EI x
w = B (t )


Type of BC
Kinematic (slope)
+
Dynamic Force
(elastic)
Left-end
Pinned-Free
x=a
x=b
x = a : w = 2 w x = 0
2
x = b : 2 w x = 3 w x = 0
195
Lecture 14
196
51
Bending Vibrations of a Beam: Natural Frequencies

and Normal Modes
1st step. Substitution of the harmonic form of the displacement into the equation of
motion, in which the external force is disregarded
w
w
+ EI 4 = 0
t 2
x
2
w( x ,t ) =W ( x ) exp ( it )
d W ( x)
4
dx 4
4W ( x ) = 0,
4 =
A
EI
k =1
substitution to EQM
C (
4
k =1
4
k
3rd step. Substitution of the harmonic form of the displacement into the boundary
conditions. We will consider only 4 most basic configurations. The results are
Pinned-Pinned Beam: W ( 0 ) = W ( 0 ) = 0, W ( L ) = W ( L ) = 0
4 exp k x = 0
Clamped-Clamped Beam: W ( 0 ) = W ( 0 ) = 0, W ( L ) = W ( L ) = 0
This gives the characteristic equation and the roots of it:
k4 4 = 0
The general solution can also be written as:
W ( x ) = A cosh ( x ) + B sinh ( x ) + C cos ( x ) + D sin ( x )
2nd step. Writing the general solution of the above equation:
W ( x ) = Ck exp k x

and Normal Modes
Clamped-Free Beam: W ( 0 ) = W ( 0 ) = 0, W ( L ) = W ( L ) = 0
1 = , 2 = , 3 = i , 4 = i
Clamped-Pinned Beam: W ( 0 ) = W ( 0 ) = 0, W ( L ) = W ( L ) = 0
Thus, the general solution reads:
W ( x ) = C1 exp ( x ) + C2 exp ( x ) + C3 exp ( i x ) + C4 exp ( i x )

Lecture 14
197
Lecture 14
198



and Normal Modes

and Normal Modes of a Pinned-Pinned Beam
4th step. Substitution of the general solution into the boundary conditions. This gives
a system of 4 linear algebraic equations with respect to A, B, C, D.
Pinned-Pinned Beam: W ( 0 ) = W ( 0 ) = 0, W ( L ) = W ( L ) = 0
The corresponding system of 4 algebraic equations:
5th step. Obtaining the frequency equation by setting the determinant of the
coefficient matrix to zero.
1
0
1
0
1
0
-1
0
sin( L )
cosh( L ) sinh( L ) cos( L )
cosh( L ) sinh( L ) cos( L ) sin( L )
6th step. Solving the frequency equation, thereby determining the natural
frequencies.
7th step. Finding the ratios A/D, B/D, C/D from any three of the 4 algebraic
equations. Substitution of the natural frequencies into thus found expressions gives the
normal modes.
The frequency equation:

Frequency_Equation
4 =
Lecture 14
199
B
=0
A
EI
:= 4 sinh( L ) sin( L )
n = n2
Lecture 14
EI
sin ( L ) = 0
n
=
n L = n
EI
200
52


The coefficient ratios:
Shapes of the first 3 modes of a pinned-pinned (simply supported) beam:
A D=0
3 = 23 l
B D=0
C D=0
D D =1
W2 ( x )
D3
D1
The normal modes:
W1 ( x )
Wn = Dn sin ( n x ) ,
n = n2
EI n
=
A L
Lecture 14
W3 ( x )
D2
z, w
EI
201
Lecture 14
202



and Normal Modes of a Clamped-Free Beam

Clamped-Free Beam: W ( 0 ) = W ( 0 ) = 0, W ( L ) = W ( L ) = 0
The normal modes:
cosh n x cos n x sinh n x sin n x
Wn ( x) = An
cosh n L + cos n L sinh n L + sin n L
The corresponding system of 4 algebraic equations:

1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
cosh( L ) sinh( L ) cos( L ) sin( L )
sinh( L ) cosh( L ) sin( L ) cos( L )
B
=0
Shapes of the first 3 modes of a clamped-free (cantilever) beam:
W2 ( x)
The frequency equation:

Frequency_Equation := 2 + 2 cosh( L ) cos( L )
cos ( L ) = 1 cosh ( L )
x
W3 ( x)
1 L 1.875, 2 L 4.694, 3 L 7.855...

n = n2
EI
z, w
Lecture 14
203
Lecture 14
W1 ( x)
204
53

and Normal Modes
Bending Vibrations of a Beam: Equivalent Mass
k* = 3
12 = n4
n =
Cn
L2
m =
EI
A
Lecture 14
205

12
EI
L3
EI
EI
= C1,2c c
12 = n4
A
AL4
EI
L3
EI
2
4 EI
= C1,2 p p
1 = n
A
AL4
EI
L3
k * = 192
k * = 48
EI
A
=
EI
= C1,2c f
AL4
3 A L
0.24 A L
C1,2c f
m =
k*
12
48 A L
0.5 A L
C1,2 p p
Lecture 14
2. Wave Mechanics: Vibrations versus Waves
192 A L
0.4 A L
C1,2c c
The Governing Equations:
206
2w
4w
+ EI 4 = 0,
2
t
x
Boundary Conditions:
4. Applications of the Wave Theory in Civil Engineering
P sin ( t )
Model:
Equation of Motion:
3. Waves around Us
w+
0 < x < L, x x0
, E , A, I
w
x
x = 0 : w = w x = 0
5. Classical Studies on Wave and Vibration Phenomena
x = L : w = w x = 0
6. Waves in Infinitely Long String
x0
Interface Conditions:
DAlembert Solution to the Wave Equation
Excitation of Waves by a Pulse Load
w x = w+ x
slope continuity
Excitation of Waves by an Initial Deflection
2 w x 2 = 2 w+ x 2
moment continuity
Lecture 15
The steady-state vibration of a simply supported

beam under a harmonic point force
1. Bending Vibrations of a Beam: The steady-state vibration of

a simply supported beam under a harmonic point load

k*
12

m =
x = x0 : w = w+
displacement continuity
EI ( 3 w+ x 3 3 w x 3 ) = P sin ( t ) ballance of shear forces

207
Lecture 15
208
54

The Steady-State Solution: w ( x, t ) = W ( x ) sin ( t )

The general solution of the equation of motion in the frequency domain:
The Governing Equations in the frequency domain:
Equation of Motion:
d 4W ( x )
4W ( x ) = 0,
dx 4
x = 0: W = 0
x = L: W+ = 0
4 =
A
EI
W + ( x ) = A+ cosh ( x ) + B + sinh ( x ) + C + cos ( x ) + D + sin ( x )

2 ,
Substitution of this solution into 4 boundary and 4 interface conditions yields a system of 8
inhomogeneous linear algebraic equations with respect to the 8 unknown constants:
0 < x < L, x x0
cosh ( x 0 )
sinh( x )
cosh ( x )
sinh( x ) 3
0
2W x 2 = 0
2W + x 2 = 0
Interface Conditions:
x = x0 : W = W + , W x = W + x ,
2W x 2 = 2W + x 2
EI ( 3W + x 3 3W x 3 ) = P
Lecture 15
x = L 2
w x
3
x = L 2
3
x = L 2
= w x
3
cos ( L )
cosh ( L )
sinh( L )
cos ( L )
sinh( x 0 )
cos ( x 0 )
sin( x 0 )
cosh ( x 0 )
sinh( x 0 )
cos ( x 0 )
cosh ( x 0 )
sin( x 0 )
cos ( x 0 )
sinh( x 0 )
cosh ( x 0 )
sin( x 0 )
sinh( x 0 )
cosh ( x 0 )
sin( x 0 )
cos ( x 0 )
3
sin( x 0 )
cos ( x 0 )
cosh ( x0 )
sinh( x0 )
cosh ( x 0 )
sinh( x 0 )
cos ( x0 )
3
sin( L )

D
sin( x 0 )
+
A
cos ( x 0 )
+
B
sin( x0 )
+
C
3 +
cos ( x 0 )
D

sin( L )
sin( x 0 )
EI
210
0< < L 2
"Interface" Conditions:
w
x
0
L 2
L 2
2 EI 3 w+ 3 = P sin ( t )
w
x
w+
, E , A, I
= 0 : w+ = 0
L 2
x = L 2 +
P sin ( t )
= L 2 : w+ = 2 w+ 2 = 0
Lecture 15
sinh( L )
2 w+
4 w+
= 0,
A 2 + EI
t
4
, E , A, I
x = L 2 +

cosh ( L )
Equation of Motion:
P sin ( t )
0< < L 2
x = L 2 +
= 2 w+ x 2
Thus, the original problem can be rewritten in terms of w+ only:
Let us consider a particular case that the load is applied to the midpoint of the beam.
In this case, using the symmetry of the problem:
2 w x 2

Solving the above system, one can find the unknown constants thereby completing
solution of the problem, see the first Maple file to this lecture for the amplitudefrequency response function and animations.
= w+ x


w x
1
-1
Lecture 15
209

w ( L 2 , t ) = w + ( L 2 + , t ) ,
0
0
L
211
Lecture 15
212
55

+
+
The Steady-State Solution: w ( , t ) = W ( ) sin ( t )
Equation of Motion:
d
4W + ( ) = 0, 4 =
A
EI
2 ,
Substitution of this solution into 2 boundary and 2 interface conditions yields the
following system of 4 algebraic equations:
0< < L 2
L
L
L
L
cosh
cos

sinh
sin
2
2
2
2
cosh L sinh L cos L sin L
2
2
2
2
0
1
0
1
3
3
0
0
= L 2 : W + = 2W + 2 = 0
"Interface" Conditions:
= 0 : W + = 0
A 0
0
B =
C 0
P
D 2 EI
Solving the above system, one can find the unknown constants thereby completing
solution of the problem, see the second Maple file to this lecture for the amplitudefrequency response function and animations.
2 EI 3W + 3 = P
Lecture 15
The general solution of the equation of motion in the frequency domain:
W + ( x ) = A+ cosh ( x ) + B + sinh ( x ) + C + cos ( x ) + D + sin ( x )
The Governing Equations in the frequency domain:
d 4W + ( )

213

Lecture 15

Vibrations
Wave
Mechanics
versus
Everywhere
Know everything about the boundaries
Do not transport energy

along the structure
Lecture 15
214
Wave Mechanics
215
Lecture 15
Waves
Somewhere
Do not know about boundaries
before collision
While propagating along the

structure transport energy
Vibrations versus Waves
216
56
Waves Around Us
sound, water waves, radio waves, earthquakes
Sound waves in the air
Estimation and reduction of vibrations due to piling, car and train

traffic, earthquakes, etc.
330 m/s
5000 m/s
3000 m/s
in steel
in concrete
Electromagnetic waves
Applications of the wave theory in civil engineering
300 000 000 m/s
(radio, light)
Waves on the water surface

Flexural waves in electric cables
100 m/s
Elastic waves in the ground
60 - 300 m/s
0.025 0.5 m/s
Lecture 15
Waves around us
Ground waves generated by piling

217

Lecture 15
Applications in Civil Engineering
218

Non-destructive testing (NDT)
Reduction of vibrations induced in the catenary and in the railway

track by a high-speed train
Receiver
Radiator
Crack
Steel plate
Crack inspection by acoustic waves

Lecture 15
Generation of waves by a high-speed train

219
Lecture 15
220
57
Ground vibrations from underground

trains
Dynamic response of an overhead

power line to a moving pantograph
Slow train
Lecture 15
221

Lecture 15
222


Rock-dumping-caused motion of a
fall-pipe
Ground vibrations induced by a train

in a tunnel
High-speed train
Fall-pipe without rock under current
Lecture 15
223
Lecture 15
224
58
Classical Studies on Wave and Vibration Phenomena

Sixth Century BC: Pythagoras studied the origin of musical sounds and the
vibrations of strings.
1636:
Mersenne presented the first correct published account on
the vibrations of strings.
1638:
Galileo described the vibrations of pendulums, the phenomenon
of resonance, and the factors influencing the vibrations of strings.
1678:
Robert Hooke formulated the law of proportionality between
stress and strain for elastic bodies. This law forms the basis for
the static and dynamic theory of elasticity.
1686:
Newton investigated the speed of water waves and the speed of
sound in air.
1700:
Sauveur calculated vibrational frequency of a stretched string.
Taylor worked out a complete, dynamical solution for the
1713:
vibrations of a string.
Lecture 15
Classical Studies on Vibrations and Waves
225

Classical Studies on Wave and Vibration Phenomena

1744:
1747:
1755:
1759:
1766:
1821:
1822:
Lecture 15
Classical Studies on Vibrations and Waves
226

Waves in an Infinitely Long String

2 w ( x, t )
2 w ( x, t )
Wave equation:
= c2
,
2
t
x 2
DAlembert solution:
Leonard Euler (1744) and Daniel Bernoulli (1751)

developed the equation for the vibrations of beams and
obtained the normal modes for various boundary conditions.
DAlembert derived the equation of motion of the string and
solved the initial-value problem.
Daniel Bernoulli developed the principle of superposition
and applied it to the vibrations of strings.
Lagrange analysed the string as a system of discrete mass
particles.
Euler attempted to analyse the vibrations of a bell on the
basis of the behaviour of curved bars.
Navier investigated the general equations of equilibrium
and vibration of elastic solids (not all of the developments
of the work met with complete acceptance).
Cauchy developed most of the aspects of the pure theory of
elasticity including dynamical equations of motion for a solid.
Waves in an Infinitely Long String:

Impact Excitation
w (x,t)
Initial conditions:
T
c =
A
2
w ( x, t ) t =0 = 0,
t=0
w ( x , t )
0, x > x
= v0
t
1, x < x
t =0
w ( x, t ) = f + ( x ct ) + f ( x + ct )
-x
w = 0.5 v0 c
t = x/2c
w = v0 c
Solution:
w ( x, t ) = ( x ct ) ( x + ct ) ,
x < x
0,
v
( x ) = 0 x + x , x < x
2c
x > x.
2 x ,
f +(x - ct) is a wave that travels rightwards;

f - (x + ct) is a wave that travels leftwards;
t = x/c
w = v0 c
t = 3x/2c
w = v0 c
both waves have an arbitrary form and travel with the wave speed c ;
the shape and the amplitude of both waves does not change.
c
t = 2x/c
c
Lecture 15
Waves in Infinitely Long String
227
Lecture 15
228
59
Waves in an Infinitely Long String:

Excitation by Initial Deflection
w (x,t)
1. Waves in infinitely long strings: DAlembert solution to the

wave equation; excitation of waves by a pulse load;
w0
Initial conditions:
0, x > x
w ( x, t ) t = 0 = w0
,
1, x < x
w ( x, t )
= 0.
t
t =0
t=0
excitation of waves by an initial deflection.
-x
2. Geometrical representation of wave propagation in the

characteristic plane.
w0
w0/2
t = x/2c
3. Waves in semi-infinite strings: wave reflection.

- Reflection from a fixed boundary: the method of the
Solution:
w ( x, t ) = ( x + ct ) + ( x ct ) ,
0, x > x
( x ) = w0
1, x < x
images; representation in the characteristic plane;

wave particle analogy.
t = x/c
- Reflection from a free end.

- Reflection from an elastic boundary.
- Reflection from a viscous boundary; non-reflective
boundary element.
t = 3x/2c
c
c
t = 2x/c
Lecture 15
229

Lecture 16
Waves in an Infinitely Long Strings

2 w ( x, t )
2 w ( x, t )
Wave equation:
= c2
,
2
t
x 2
DAlembert solution:
230
Waves in an Infinitely Long Strings:

Excitation by Impact
w (x,t)
Initial conditions:
T
c =
A
2
w ( x, t ) t =0 = 0,
t=0
w ( x , t )
0, x > x
= v0
t
1, x < x
t =0
w ( x, t ) = f + ( x ct ) + f ( x + ct )
-x
w = 0.5 v0 c
t = x/2c
w = v0 c
Solution:
w ( x, t ) = ( x ct ) ( x + ct ) ,
x < x
0,
v
( x ) = 0 x + x , x < x
2c
x > x.
2 x ,
f +(x - ct) is a wave that travels rightwards;

f - (x + ct) is a wave that travels leftwards;
t = x/c
w = v0 c
t = 3x/2c
w = v0 c
both waves have an arbitrary form and travel with the wave speed c ;
the shape and the amplitude of both waves does not change.
c
t = 2x/c
c
Lecture 16
Waves in Infinitely Long Strings
231
Lecture 17
232
60
Waves in an Infinitely Long Strings:

Excitation by Initial Deflection
Geometrical representation of wave propagation in the

characteristic plane
w (x,t)
w (x,t)
w0
Initial conditions:
w ( x, t ) t = 0
0, x > x
,
= w0
1, x < x
w ( x, t )
= 0.
t
t =0
w0
-x
t=0
-x
t=0
w0
w0/2
t = x/2c
w0
w0/2
t = x/2c
Solution:
w ( x, t ) = ( x + ct ) + ( x ct ) ,
0, x > x
( x ) = w0
1, x < x
t = x/c
t = x/c
= -x
t = 3x/2c
t = 3x/2c
Lecture 16
233

234

w (x,t)
+
1
c
x
t=0
2
x
Reflection from a fixed end. The method of the images.
x=0
c
Reflection in the characteristic plane.
t = x/2c
t = x/c
Wave particle analogy.
x
t
2c
x=0
c
t=0
3
t = 3x/2c
t=3x/2c
2
t = 2x/c
t = 5x/2c
String shapes at successive time

moments (fixed end).
x x
-3
t = 3x/c
x
c
Waves in Semi-Infinite Strings
235
t=5x/2c
Lecture 16
= x
opposite deflections.

= -x
= x ct = x
= x + ct = x
Propagation of initial displacement
t = 2x/c
Lecture 16
Reflection of a deflection
pulse from a fixed boundary
may be represented as a
superposition of two pulses with
t ( x 2 c )
The characteristic plane with four characteristics :

t = 2x/c
Reflection from a
fixed end.
The method of the
images
= x
-2
-1
Incident wave (
) and reflected wave (
the characteristic plane.
Lecture 16
) in
Reflection of a ball from a wall.

236
61
Reflection from a
free end.
w (x,t)
t=0
+
1
2x
x=0

moments (free end).
w (x,t)
+
1
t=0
c
x
2
x
x=0
+2
t = x/2c
Reflection from a free boundary

may be represented as a
superposition of two pulses with
deflections of the same sign.
Reflection from an
elastic boundary.
= 3.3
+1
t = x/c
t = x/c
t = 3x/2c
t = 2x/c
Reflection from an elastic

boundary changes shape of the
incident pulse completely.
+1
t = 2x/c

moments (elastic end).
+1
t = 3x/c
-1
t = 5x/2c
x
-2
Lecture 16
Lecture 16
237

Reflection from a
viscous boundary.
=1 3
(1- ) ( + 1) = 0.5
The damping coefficient is smaller
than the non-reflective one.
Reflection from a viscous

boundary (dashpot) does not
effect the pulse shape, but
reduces its amplitude.
238

w (x,t)
t=0
+
1
+1/
2
x=0
2
x
c
t = x/2c
t = x/c
t = 3x/2c
Reflection from a
viscous boundary.
=3
(1- ) ( + 1) = -0.5
The damping coefficient is grater
than the non-reflective one.
w (x,t)
+
1
t=0
x=0
2
x
x
c
t = x/2c
t = x/c
t = 3x/2c
t = 2x/c
t = 2x/c
t = 5x/2c

moments (viscous end).
Lecture 16
c
t = 5x/2c
239

moments (viscous end).
Lecture 16
t = 3x/c
c
240
62
Longitudinal waves in long thin rods (piles)
1. Longitudinal waves in long thin rods.

2. Wave reflection from a free and fixed ends of a thin rod.
3. Waves in a free-fixed rod: pulse load on a pile.
4. Waves in a free-free rod: how do we move things?
Longitudinal wave
in a pile
5. Reflection and transmission of waves at a junction of two

thin rods.
6. Local model of the dynamic pile-ground interaction.
Longitudinal wave in a pile induced by a falling weight.
Lecture 17
241

Lecture 17
Waves in Infinitely Long Thin Rods

Longitudinal waves in long thin rods (piles)
Wave reflection from a fixed end
c=
Equation of the longitudinal motion of a thin rod:
2 u 1 2u
=
,
x 2 c 2 t 2
242
the speed of longitudinal waves

Fixed end:
The DAlemberts solution:
The reflected stress pulse

is identical to the incident
pulse.
u = f + ( x ct ) + f ( x + ct ) or u = f + ( t x c ) + f ( t + x c )
The particle velocity and the wave speed:
Near the boundary the axial

stress doubles.
c
v ( x, t ) = u t v ( x, t ) = ( x, t )
E
(a)
Under elastic conditions ( x, t ) << E v ( x, t ) << c

Lecture 17
Waves in Infinitely Long Thin Rods
(b)
Reflection of (a) displacement pulse and (b) stress pulse

from a fixed end
243
Lecture 17
Waves in Semi-Infinite Thin Rods
244
63
Waves in a finitelength rod: freefixed rod (pulse

load on a pile)
Wave reflection from a free end
T+
0
2
T + 4 0
Free end:
The reflected stress pulse
is opposite to the incident
pulse.
Near the boundary the axial
displacement doubles.
2T +
l0
0
2
2T + 2 0
( 0, t )
3T +
T = l0 c
0
2
t
3T + 4 0
=T 6
(a)
2 0
(b)
4T + 2 0
Reflection of (a) displacement pulse and (b) stress pulse

from a free end
Lecture 17
Lecture 17
245

p (t )
x
Waves in a piece-wise homogeneous infinite thin rod:

reflection and transmission at junctions
l0
2
l0
t
A2 , 2 , E2
C
3
b g
246

Waves in a finite-length thin rod: free-free rod (how do

we move things?)
Waves in Finite-Length-Infinite Thin Rods
A1 , 1 , E1
B
0, t
T = l0 c
Incident, reflected and transmitted stress waves at a junction of two rods

A
=T 4
1/4
l0
c
i , r , t
are the stresses in the incedent, reflected and transmitted

pulses, respectively.
The response of three points along a rod that is

subjected to a stress pulse
Lecture 17
247
Lecture 17
Waves in Infinite Piece-Wise Homogeneous Thin Rods

248
64
Waves in a piece-wise homogeneous infinite thin rod:

reflection and transmission at junctions
Local model of the dynamic pile-ground interaction

k
f+
Interface conditions (equivalence of the driving force and particle velocity):
A1 ( i + r ) = A2 t , vi + vr = vt
2 ( Z 2 Z1 )( A1 A2 )
i,
1 + Z 2 Z1
r =
Z 2 Z1 1
i.
1 + Z 2 Z1
Boundary condition:
(0)
F A EA
=
=
= A E.
v
v
c
Lecture 17
Fd-p
x=0
Waves in Infinite Piece-Wise Homogeneous Thin Rods
A ( 0, t ) + Fsp + Fd p = 0
Fsp
The impedance (the ratio between the driving force and the resulting velocity):
Z=
x=0
The ground reaction is modelled by a spring-dashpot element that is attached to

the pile end
The reflection-transition rule:
t =
u(x,t)
249

Lecture 17
AE
u ( 0, t )
u ( 0, t )
ku ( 0, t ) cdp
=0
x
t
Local model of pile-ground interaction
250

Local model of the dynamic pile-ground interaction

If the incedent pulse is given as
1. Distributed model for dynamic pile-soil interaction.
ui = f + ( t x c ) = ( t x c )
then the reflection process is described by
2. Representation of a wave train as the superposition of

harmonic plane waves.
u ( x, t ) = ( t x c ) + f ( t + x c ) ,
3. Harmonic waves: the main characteristics, wave dispersion,
f (t + x c ) =
Z cdp
Z + cdp
(t )
Non-reflective element:
2 Zk
(Z + c )
dp
dispersion equation, dispersion plane, dispersion curve,

phase velocity, group velocity.
k ( t )
0 ( ) exp Z + cdp d
4. The steady-state response of a rod on elastic foundation to

a harmonic force applied at its end.
k = 0, cdp = Z
5. The effect of distributed viscosity on the steady-state

response of the rod.
The elegant form of the boundary condition for purely viscous boundary:
AE
u ( 0, t )
u ( 0, t )
cdp
=0
x
t
Lecture 17
6. Reflection of harmonic waves at boundaries.
A ( 0, t ) + c dp v ( 0, t ) = 0
Local model of pile-ground interaction
251
Lecture 18
252
65
Distributed model for pile-soil interaction
Fourier-representation of a wave (pulse)
d Ns m 2
u ( x, t )
Any wave (any function of spatial co-ordinate and time) can be

expressed as the superposition of harmonic waves:
kd N m 2
u ( x, t ) =
Distributed model for pile-soil interaction. The soil reaction is represented by

continuously distributed visco-elastic elements.
Equation of motion for the pile-ground system:
u
2u 2u k
c2 2 = 2 + d u + d
t
A
A t
14
4244
3 144244
3
pile
soil
1
2
This implies that the initial shape of a pulse changes during the
pulse propagation!
Lecture 18
Distributed model for pile-soil interaction
253

harmonic wave
U ( ) exp ( i t ) d
1442443
harmonic vibration
Lecture 18
A pulse as the superposition of harmonic waves
Harmonic waves
t1 t2 t3
Harmonic waves
u(x,t0)
u(x0,t)
A
cph
t1 t2 t3
Main characteristics of a harmonic wave:
cph
x0
A = amplitude of wave ( length )
x0
x
x
= radial frequency of wave ( radians/time )
u(x0,t)
f = 1 T = 2 = cyclic frequency of wave (1/time )
= 2 = wavelength of wave ( length )
A cos ( t x ) or A sin ( t x )
real
u ( x, t ) =
exp ( i ( t x ) ) = A ( cos ( t x ) + i sin ( t x ) ) complex
A
= t x = phase of wave ( dimensionless )
where i = 1

T = 2 = period of wave ( time )
= wavenumber of wave ( radians/length )
Possible descriptions of a harmonic wave:
Lecture 18
254

u(x,t0)
A
( , ) exp
( i ( t x ) ) d d
U1444
4244443
Just like any function of time can be expressed as the superposition of

harmonic vibrations:
u (t ) =
The DAlembert solution does not satisfy the equation of motion!
Harmonic waves
255
Lecture 18
Harmonic waves
256
66
Wave dispersion and dispersion curve
The phase velocity of a harmonic wave
Substituting u ( x, t ) = A exp ( i ( t x ) )
The phase velocity is the velocity

of a constant-phase surface of a
harmonic wave.
into equation of motion

c2
u
2 u 2u
, 0 =
=
+ 02u + d
A t
x 2 t 2
kd
,
A
c 2 2 = 2 + 02 + i
If
d
.
A
= t x = const
tan ( ) = c
Harmonic waves
257

If the phase velocity in a medium depends on frequency

(wavenumber), then the medium is called dispersive
Lecture 18
Harmonic waves
d
.
d
tan ( ) = c
tan ( ph ) = c ph
tan ( g ) = cgr
u
cgr
speed
0
x
cph
Propagation of two harmonic waves with close frequencies

Harmonic waves
gr
Lecture 18
258
The phase velocity and the group velocity in the

dispersion plane
Velocity of a group of harmonic waves is called the group velocity (this

velocity determines the speed of the energy propagation):

( t = t2 t1 )

The group velocity of a wave train
cgr =
t2
dx
= .
c ph =
dt
Dispersion plane and dispersion

curve
Lecture 18
t1
c ph = x t
d = 0, then = c 2 2 + 02
dx
= 0
=0
t
dt
the following dispersion equation is obtained:
u(x,t0)
cgr
ph
Phase and group velocity in the dispersion plane

259
Lecture 18
Harmonic waves
260
67
The steady-state motion of a semi-infinite rod on

elastic foundation subjected to a harmonic force

=
x=0
Equation of motion:
2u
2u
c 2 2 + 02 u = 0, 0 =
2
t
x
kd
u ( 0, t )
x = :
lim u ( x, t ) <
no energy propagation towards the load
and
Lecture 18
< 0
b) imaginary if < 0
A ( 0, t ) + F0 cos ( t ) = 0
> 0
2 02
a) real if > 0
x = 0:
AE
1
c
The wavenumber is
Boundary conditions:
The wavenumber of the forced

motion:
F = F0 cos ( t )
= F0 cos ( t )
Pile in soil under harmonic excitation
The dispersion curve and the

geometric analysis of wave radiation
261

0 is the cut-off frequency

Lecture 18
262


The effect of a distributed viscous damping on the

steady-state motion
d
The steady-state displacement of the rod:
1
x
sin t
2 02 ,
> 0
2
2
c
cF0 0
u=
EA
1
x
02 2 , < 0
cos ( t ) exp
2 2
c
F = F0 cos ( t )
= 0 resonance!
kd
Semi-infinite rod on visco-elastic foundation subjected to harmonic force
u
cph()
The effect of distributed viscosity may be

accounted for by the following replacement
x
(a)
2 02
(b)
2 02 i
d
A
The steady-state displacement (a) above and (b) below the cut-off frequency.
Lecture 18
263
Lecture 18
264
68

steady-state motion
d = 0
Equation
of motion
2u 2u
c
= 2 + 02 u
x 2
t
c = +
2
equation
d = 0
d 0
Dispersion
2u 2u
u
c
=
+ 02u + d
A t
x 2 t 2
2
Response
for
c = + + i d
A
2
2
0
d 0
2
0
Lecture 18
A =
1
2 02
c
Im ( ) < 0
u
265
Lecture 18
266

d = 0

steady-state motion
d 0
d = 0
u = Re A exp ( it x ) ,
u = Re A exp ( it x ) ,
F0
A =
,
AE
F0
,
A =
AE
1
02 2
c
< 0
u
Frequency
Response
Function
02 2 + i d
A
c
d 0
Re ( ) > 0
Lecture 18
2 02 i d ,
c
A

steady-state motion

F0
,
i AE
> 0

u = Re A exp ( it i x ) ,
F0
A =
,
i AE
= 2 02 i d
c
A
1
= 2 02
c
u = Re A exp ( it i x ) ,
Wavenumber
of the
perturbed
wave
Response
for

steady-state motion
267
Lecture 18
268
69
Reflection of harmonic waves from boundaries

k
Ai exp ( i ( t x ) )
Reflection of harmonic waves from boundaries

Substiting the solution into the boundary condition and then solving the
obtained algebraic equation with respect to Ar , we obtaine
cdp
A r =
Semi-infinite rod on elastic foundation with a boundary element
R eflected w ave:
A r exp ( i ( t + x ) )
The total rod displacement:
u ( x , t )
x
=m
x =0
2 u ( 0, t )
u ( 0, t )
+ ku ( 0, t ) + cdp
t 2
t
Lecture 18
m 2 + k + i ( cdp + AE )
A i
The non-reflective boundary element (frequency-dependent):
u = A i exp ( i ( t x ) ) + A r exp ( i ( t + x ) )
The boundary condition:
AE
m 2 k i ( cdp AE )
269

k = m 2
nr AE AE
1 02 2
=
cdp =
c
Lecture 18
270

Bending waves in a railway track

P
1. Bending waves in a railway track.

2. Euler-Bernoulli beam on elastic foundation as a simplistic
model of a railway track.
2a
3. The steady-state response of an Euler-Bernoulli beam on

elastic foundation to a point harmonic load.
2b
Three-dimensional model for a conventional railway track
Lecture 19
271
Lecture 19
272
70
Euler-Bernoulli beam on elastic foundation as a model

for the railway track
w (x,t)
E,I,A,
Beam
2 w ( x, t )
4 w ( x, t )
+ EI
+ k d w ( x, t ) = 0
2
t
x 4
Inertia
force
kd
Force
due to
bending
Elastic foundation
Foundation
reaction
b g
w x , t is the vertical displacement of the beam,
is the mass density of the beam material,

A
is the cross-sectional area of the beam,
EI
is the flexural rigidity (bending stiffness) of the beam,
kd
is the stiffness of the foundation per unit length.
Simplified one-dimensional model for a track.
Lecture 19
273

Lecture 19
274

The steady-state response of an Euler-Bernoulli beam

on elastic foundation to a harmonic point load

w (x,t)
F0 cos ( t )
2 w+ ( x , t )
4 w+ ( x , t )
+ EI
+ k d w + ( x, t ) = 0
2
t
x 4
2
4
w ( x, t )
w ( x, t )
+ EI
+ k d w ( x, t ) = 0
A
t 2
x 4
w+ ( x, t )
w ( x, t )
x=0
Boundary
conditions at the
loading point
Rail under harmonic loading
Lecture 19
w ( 0, t )
+
275
w ( 0, t )
x < 0,
w (x,t)
w+ ( 0, t ) = w ( 0, t ) ,
x > 0,
Lecture 19
w + ( x, t )
x
x
2 w+ ( 0, t ) 2 w ( 0, t )
=
,
x 2
x 2
3 +
3
w ( 0, t ) w ( 0, t )
EI
= F0 cos ( t ) .
x3
x 3

F0 cos ( t )
w ( x , t )
x
x=0
276
71

Using the problem symmetry, we simplify the problem to:
w ( x, t )
w ( x, t )
+ EI
+ k d w+ ( x, t ) = 0
t 2
x 4
+
w ( 0, t )
= 0,
x
3 +
w ( 0, t )
2 EI
= F0 cos ( t ) .
x3

Dispersion equation:
x > 0,
EI
4 + 02
A 2 + EI 4 + kd = 0
b
EI 4
2 +
+ 02 = 0
A
with 0 = kd A
The solution can be sought for in the following form:

w+ ( x, t ) = Re {W + ( x ) exp ( it )}
the cut-off frequency
Dispersion analysis
Lecture 19
277

The model is not satisfactory at the high-frequency band since for large
wavenumbers the following relationship holds
EI 4
+ 02 = 0
A
EI
c gr =
Lecture 19
278

A load with frequency excites four waves with wavenumbers determined by
4 =
A
EI
02 )
d
EI
= 2
A
d
Excitation above the cut-off frequency ( > 0):
The group velocity can be infinitely large, which implies

that the energy may propagate infinitely fast along the beam.
This is nonsense!

Dynamic drawback of the Euler-Bernoulli beam
2 +
Lecture 19
or may be not?
279
(1) = + 4
( 2) = 4
EI
EI
(3) = +i
( 4) = i
A
EI
A
EI
02 ) ,
02 ) ,
02 ) ,
02 ) .
Lecture 19
280
72


A solution that satisfies the conditions at the positive infinity:
Excitation below the cut-off frequency ( < 0):
(1)
1 i
=
2
( 2) =
( 3)
EI
1 + i
2
1+ i
=
2
( 4) =
2 ) ,
2
0
(
EI
2
0
(
EI
2
0
2 ) ,
),
A1 =
281

Excitation above the cut-off frequency ( > 0):

F0
A 2
4 EI
( 02 )
EI
EI
3/ 4
Condition of resonance:
= 0
02 ) cos ( t ) exp x
A
EI
Excitation below the cut-off frequency ( < 0):

w + ( x, t ) =
))}
1
4
iA1 ( ) iA 4 ( ) = 0
( )
1
iA1 ( )
02 )
Physical reason:
cgr ( = 0 ) = 0.
2 F0 cos ( t )
A 2
4
exp
(0 2 )
3/ 4
2 EI
A 2
2
4 EI
( 0 )
Energy does not travel
EI
away from the load!
x
A
x
A
4
4
02 2 ) + cos
02 2 )
sin
(
(
2 EI
2 EI
Lecture 19
iF0
(1)
( ) ( )
( 4)
2 EI
(1)
Lecture 19

( )
+ iA 4 ( )
4
= F0 ( 2 EI )
Complex amplitudes:
w+ ( 0, t )
=0
x
3 +
w ( 0, t )
= F0 exp ( it )
2 EI
x3
Lecture 19

sin t x

Substitution into the boundary conditions:
i 1 4 A 2
(0 2 ) ,
EI
2
w + ( x, t ) =
w+ ( x, t ) = Re exp ( it ) A1 exp i (1) x + A 4 exp i ( 4) x
283
A 4 =
iF0
( 4)
( ) ( ( ) )
2 EI ( )
282

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Section CM, Room 6.59, Tel.: 84749

1. General information about the course

2. Significance of dynamics for civil engineering

equation of motion, free vibration, the general solution of

CT 4140 Structural Mechanics

General information about the course

CT 4140 Structural Mechanics

Announcements Announcements will be downloaded to the Blackboard site

Contains the Meeting Times, Consulting Times and a file

Contains the following folders: Lecture Notes, Lecture Slides,

Will contain non-compulsory assignments, which will be given

Specifies Required, Recommended and Optional Reading

Contains a number of links to similar courses in world-famous

General information about the course

CT 4140 Structural Mechanics

The theory of vibrations of a one-degree-of-freedom systems: natural and

Equilibrium equations and boundary conditions for taut string, bar in

This course contains the above information.

General information about the course

CT 4140 Structural Mechanics

Earthquake-Induced Vibrations of Buildings

Main: Modelling of the dynamic behavior of civil engineering structures

Earthquakes are extremely dangerous for

General information about the course

CT 4140 Structural Mechanics

Significance of dynamics for civil engineering

Earthquake-Induced Vibrations of Buildings

Earthquakes are also dangerous because of possible liquefaction

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CT 4140 Structural Mechanics

Earthquake-Induced Vibrations of Buildings

CT 4140 Structural Mechanics

Banda Aceh (Indonesia 2004) Debris Detail

Significance of dynamics for civil engineering

CT 4140 Structural Mechanics

Wind-Induced Vibrations of Structures

Vibrating Tacoma Narrows Bridge

Bullet train in Kyoto City

Bullet train passing a bridge

High-speed trains cause significant amplification of the dynamic response of railways

Wind force: FWIND = f MEAN ( X ) + f FLUCT ( X , t )

Dynamic rail buckling

Wind can cause intense vibrations of relatively flexible

CT 4140 Structural Mechanics

Significance of dynamics for civil engineering

CT 4140 Structural Mechanics

Soil Vibration from a High-Speed Train

Significance of dynamics for civil engineering

CT 4140 Structural Mechanics

Significance of dynamics for civil engineering

CT 4140 Structural Mechanics

Construction- and Production-Induced Vibrations

Construction of a machine foundation

The vibration level in the surrounding buildings must be low!

Significance of dynamics for civil engineering

CT 4140 Structural Mechanics

Significance of dynamics for civil engineering

CT 4140 Structural Mechanics

Wave- and Flow-Induced Vibrations

Semi-submersible offshore platform

Mega-Float in Tokyo Bay

Waves and currents are capable

Significance of dynamics for civil engineering