MEAT, POULTRY AND EGGS

Introduction
Humans are omnivorous. However, before animals can provide meat and eggs, their own
physiological requirements must be satisfied first. These requirements are satisfied from
plants that could support greater population.
Foods from animal products represent concentrated sources of many of the nutrients
consumed by human. Plants are not enough in supplying the nutrients to our body.
Meat and meat products
Meat products are understood to include the skeletal muscle of animals, senses and
organs.
Meat properly dressed, flesh/carcass edible tissue of animals
Meat Processing any chemical, mechanical or enzymatic treatment of meat which alters
the original form. It is the developments which involves changes on certain foods until it is
ready for consumption
Meat Science application of different theories and principles of meat technology
Meat Technology a study or applied science of how to process meat
Fresh meat a freshly slaughtered meat without any addition of any ingredients and
processes
Hot meat meat from illegal source
Cold meat a double dead meat
Fabrication process of cutting a properly chilled carcass into standard, wholesale, retail
cuts. It is then chilled to avoid leakage of juices
Meat also includes the flesh of the poultry and fish but is separated from red meat.
Meat products also include many by products from animal slaughter: animal intestine, for
sausage casing, fat which is rendered into tallow and lard; animal scrap, bone, blood used
in poultry and other feeds, gelatins and enzymes and hormones used by the food,
pharmaceutical
Kinds of Meat
Pork meat of pig
Pig are less than 4 months old, hogs are older than 4 months
Beef - > 1 year old cattle
Veal - < 1 year old cattle, between 3 weeks and 3 months
Venison dear meat
Lamb young sheep less than 14 months old
Mutton mature sheep, over 14 months
Horse meat horse
Carabeef carabao
Game meat wild animals
Chicken meat roosters or broilers
Chevon goat
Azucena dog
Lapon rabbit
Turkey
Duck meat
Classification of Cattles
Steers. Male cattle that are castrated while young so that they will gain weight quickly.
Bulls. Consumers often do not see the tougher meat from bulls. These older uncastrated
males that provide stag meat are usually used for breeding and then later for processed
meats and pet foods.
Heifers and cows. Heifers, females that have not borne a calf, are also used for meat. The
meat from cows, female cattle that have borne calves, is less desirable than that from
steers or heifers.
Calves. Calves 3 to 8 months old are too old for veal and too young for beef. If they go to
market between 8 and 12 months, their meat is referred to as baby beef

COMPOSITION OF MEAT
1. Muscle Tissue
The dark areas are principal muscles and the whiter areas are fat.
The muscle fibers are elongated cells that contain many smaller highly oriented fibrils. A
major protein muscle is called myosin.
Most of the protein in animals is found in their muscles, which serve as the main sources
of dietary meat. The characteristics of muscles are an important consideration in deciding
how the resulting meat should be prepared.
Muscles are made up of a collection of individual muscle cells, called muscle fibers, that
are each surrounded by an outer membrane called the sarcolemma. Each muscle fiber
is further filled with cell fluid (sarcoplasm) in which there are about 2,000 smaller muscle
fibrils serving as the contractile components of the muscle fiber.
If the muscle fibrils are small, the result is finer muscle bundles, which give the meat a
very delicate, velvety consistency
2. Connective tissue - a part of ligaments and tendons, and it also acts as the glue
that holds muscle cells together. It is composed primarily of a mixture of proteins and
mucopolysaccharides (a type of polysaccharide).
The most abundant protein in connective tissue is collagen . It is tough and fibrous,
but converts to a gel when exposed to moist heat.
The other two main types of connective tissue proteins are elastin and reticulin.
Elastin, as the name implies, has elastic qualities, and reticulin consists of very
small fibers of connective tissue that form a delicate interlace around muscle cells
Effect of Collagen on Tenderness
The type and amount of connective tissue found in a meat cut determines its tenderness
or toughness and the best type of cooking method.
Muscles used for movement, such as those found in the neck, shoulders, legs, and
flank, contain more collagen and tend to be tougher than muscles from the loin, or lower
back, and rib areas, which get less exercise
Effect of Age on Tenderness
Collagen concentration also increases as animals age, which is why meat from older animals
is tougher. These usually less expensive, tougher cuts re- quire slow, moist heating at low
temperatures to convert, or hydrolyze, the tough connective tissue to softer gelatin.
Conversely, the tougher cuts have more flavor than the more tender ones
Effect of Elastin on Tenderness
Elastin, which is yellowish, rubbery and often referred to as silver skin does not soften
with heating so it should be removed before preparation as possible There is very little
elastin in meats, except in cuts from the neck and shoulder, so it is less likely to affect
tenderness.
3. Adipose (Fatty) Tissue
Adipose tissue
is, simply, fat,
which serves as insulation under the skin
(subcutaneous) and as padding in the abdominal cavity for sensitive internal
organs. This fat when it appears on the outside of meat is known as cover fat.
Cover fat helps retain the moisture of meats, but this separable fat is often trimmed
from meats prior to preparation. Fat found within muscles is called intramuscular
fat or marbling. Fat content varies widely among meats and is dependent on the
source animals genetics, age, diet, and exercise, and on the cut of the meat.
Marbling streaks of lightning like a spider web which is the flecks /mottled of fat
Importance :
i. Contributes flavour and aroma
ii. Provides moist heat cooking
iii. Adds juiciness
iv. Promotes good flow of saliva

4. Bones
Bones are used as landmarks for identifying the various meat cuts from a carcass
Importance:
i. Serves as framework of the body
ii. Focal point for cutting
iii. For identification of cuts or parts
iv. Clue to meat tenderness
1. Extremeties tough
2. Support bones tender
v. Clue to the age of animals
vi. Attachment of muscle
Marrow is the soft, fatty material in the center of most large bones. The marrow
found within the bone will generally be of two different types: (1) yellow marrow,
found in the long bones, and (2) red marrowred because it is supplied with many
blood vesselsin the spongy center of other bones. Marrow is a valued food in
many cultures and can provide much of the flavor in soups
5. Pigments
Many people evaluate a meats color when deciding whether or not to pur- chase a
particular meat cut. The color of meat is derived from pigment- containing proteins,
chiefly myoglobin and, to a lesser extent, hemoglobin
Myoglobin receives oxygen from the blood and stores it in the muscles, whereas
hemo- globin transports oxygen throughout the body and is found primarily in the
bloodstream.
The higher that the concentration of myoglobin is in raw meat, the more intense is
its bright red color.
Factors that influence the concentration of myoglobin
Heavily exercised muscle has a higher demand for oxygen, so it is higher in
myoglobin
red color of meat also increases as the animal ages, which is why beef is redder than
veal, and mutton is darker than the pink hue of lamb
Meat color also varies from species to species. Beef is darker than lamb, which, in
turn, is darker than pork, a meat that is on the pink side with no visible red
Meat

pigments and color changes

Understanding meat pigments is very important.
Myoglobin is a protein and the chief muscle pigment.
The function of myoglobin is to store oxygen in live animals muscle.
The meat has purplish color when not transporting oxygen.
When exposed to oxygen, bright red cherry colored and is now called as oxymyoglobin.
Meat pigments and color changes
The first cut produces purple color but turns red when exposed to air.
Large cuts are red but purplish on inside due to lack of oxygen.
Prolonged exposure of meat into air shifts oxymyoglobin into metmyoglobin resulting
brown meat.
Protein pigments are denatured and produces brown color when cook
The pigment shifts are affected by oxygen, acidity of the meat, light exposure, domination
of pigments.
Nitrite helps remains the red color even after cooking.
Nitrite combines with myoglobin to produce nitric oxide myogobin which is pink in cured
meats.
Nitric oxide myoglobin on cooking is converted to nitrosohemochrome which is pink or red
in cooked ham, bacon and other processed meat

6. Extractives

Meat

Meat derives some of its flavor from ni- trogen compounds called extractives. The
most common extractives are creatine and creatinine, but urea, uric acid, and other
compounds also contribute to the flavor of meat. The meat from older animals
contains more connective tissue and extractives, and therefore yields more flavor
than that from younger livestock.
When an animal is well fed, fat penetrates between the muscle fiber bundles.
The composition of meat cuts will vary with the relative amount of fats and lean.
A typical cut contain 60% water, 21% fat, 18% protein, 1% ash.

importance in the diet

Contains the essential amino acids thus it is unexcelled source of protein
Good source of magnesium, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin
Gives a long lasting satisfaction since it is rich in fat which counteract gastric juices
Source of vitamins and minerals
Savor and satiety

Government Surveillance
Two surveillance: grading and meat inspection
Inspection is primarily concerned with health and safety matters.
Grading is voluntary and undertaken to inform the consumer about the quality of the
products.
The need for grading is clear.
Factors like sizes, breeds, varying ages, different feeds results in varying properties of
product like tenderness, flavor, cookout losses and overall quality.
Quality grades are based on subjective evaluations of three main factors: carcass
maturity, surface texture, color, degree of fat marbling and muscle firmness.
Beef grades in decreasing quality:
a. Prime
b. Choice
c. Select
d. Standard
e. Commercial
f. Utility
g. Cutter
h. Canner
Grading
However, the grades have a very little relationship in the nutritional value of the product.
Grades cannot be assigned not unless the animal is slaughtered.
Use of ultrasonic energy reveal the gross structure of the meat thus enhancing the grade
of the meat.
If animals are diseased, the meat carries pathogenic organisms to human. This may
results to tuberculosis, brucellosis, salmonellosis.
Inspection
Meat inspection encompasses nearly every aspect of processing.
Inspectors two classes: veterinary inspectors and lay inspectors. They superise the
curing, preparation and marketing of the meat and meat products.
Ante Mortem animals may be classified as passed for normal slaughter, labeled
suspect, or condemned
Post Mortem a routine inspection of the body parts at the time of slaughter under
normal conditions , then judged as suitable for food or not.
Sanitation
Meat Slaughtering Process
1. Shower and bath removal of dirt or any objectionable matter in the body
2. Restraining immobilization of animal

3. Stunning use of 380 volts, 1.3A unit held between the eye and the ear which last for 30
secs.
4. Shackling using a shackle, hogs are hanged on rails on one leg and conveyed to the
sticking area
5. Sticking done with a knife inserted just before the breast area through the heart
6. Bleeding carcass held on the buffer rail for 2 to 2.5 mins to ensure complete bleeding
7. Scalding scalding at 58 to 60C for 4.5 to 5 mins
8. Dehairing carcass tumbled by blunt steel claws to scratch off the hairs
9. Singeing flames fuelled by LPG are lit automatically and blown directly to the carcass
while being tumbled.
10.Detoeing/Gambrelling carcasses are detoed using steel claws, pulling of the hooves from
the front and hind legs
11.Polishing rub off the carcass tiny hairs and blemishes using rotating rubber strips/whips
and water sprinkles
12.Evisceration removal of internal organs
13. Splitting a circular saw is inserted in the open belly and cut onto the spinal column to
get a straight cut from the bottom of the pelvic bone to the nape portion
14.Final Washing of the carcass carcasses are washed with 100-200 ppm low acid for 5-15
sec. contact time
15.Carcass inspection final inspection of the whole carcass by NMIC
16.Weighing and labelling weighed and recorded carcasses are stamped according to the
prescribed series of carcass numbers.
Cuts of Meat
Classification of Cuts of Pork
Lean cuts ham, loin and shoulder
Primal Cuts ham, loin, belly and shoulder
Miscellaneous Cut pigs feet, tail, fat and lean trimmings
Cuts of Meat

Causes of spoilage
Biological involves microorganism
Chemical oxidation of fats cause rancidity
Physical oxidation of pigments
Principles of meat preservation
Prevention of microbial contamination
Prevention of chemical reactions and activity
Prevention of self-decomposition or self-deterioration
METHODS OF MEAT PRESERVATION
1. Drying
- reduction / removal of the original water content (70%) of the meat to about 15%
Sun Drying
Artificial drying with the use of chamber with heating elements maintained at 38 C and
relative humidity of 85 %
2. Smoking

of meats
Process meats are often smoked after curing.
It is a mild preservative and flavor contributor.
Smoking was done by hanging the meat over large burning logwood or wood
chips exposing it causing deposition of pyroligenous acid on the meat that act as
preservative
Hickory smoke was preferred.
The room should be about 57oC to give an internal temp to the meat of 52 oC.
In ready to eat product, internal temp of 58oC is needed.
Addition of smoke from special device without fire is used nowadays.

3. Salting
Done with application / rubbing of salt in the meat or injecting salt solution

4. Refrigeration
exposure of meat to the temperature range of 2.2 to 10 C to retard mold and bacterial
growth
5. Freezing of meat
o In pork and other meat, in can be frozen for months and for beef, it can be frozen for
years. Subjecting the meat to temperature range of -18 to 0 C resulting to
crystallization of the water in the tissues
o Oxidation of fats affects the time of storage of pork, etc.
o This helps in avoiding the excessive bleeding and drip in the final product.
o Few cured meats are commercially frozen since their salt concentrations increasingly
oxidizes the fat.
o Freezing temperature can be used to destroy the trichinosis parasite in pork.
o
6. Freeze drying
Removal of moisture from the tissues by sublimation of the transformation of the
moisture content into ice and gas without passing the liquid state
7. Canning
The hermetic or airtight sealing of meat in cans or jars at 100C and at 10-15 pounds
pressure for specific period of time
8. Curing
o Application of salt, sugar, salitre (potassium nitrate) and other preservatives
o Three ways : with salt alone, with salt and sugar, with salt, sugar and saltpeter

o
o
o
o
o
o

Curing refers to modifications of the meat that affect the preservation, flavor,
tenderness due to curing agents.
This is designed to grossly alter the nature of the meat thus producing different
products.
Curing was designed in preserving meat before the days of refrigeration began.
The prime purpose of curing is to produce unique flavored meat products.
Prime ingredients: sodium chloride, sodium nitrate, sugar, spices
Curing is maybe applied by rubbing it into the surface, soaking the meat in vats,
injection.

Curing Ingredients for Heat Processing

a. Salt
Most commonly used preservative and makes up the bulk for curing meat
Functions:
Act as preservative and provides the most desirable flavor
Causes the dehydration of the tissues through osmosis and at the same time withdraws
water from the spoilage organisms thus shriveling and inactivating their cells
b. Sugar
Secondary ingredient and does the following function:
o Counteracts the astringent quality of the salt
o Enhances the flavor of the product
o Aids in lowering the pH of the cure
c. Potassium Nitrate (genuine saltpeter)/ sodium nitrate (chile saltpeter)
Nitrates and nitrites are color fixation agents or substances responsible for the
development of the proper color in cured meats
Functions:
Improve/affect the flavor by acting as powerful antioxidants
Effective inhibitor of the growth of clostridium botulinum
Changes the anaerobic condition of the meat to aerobic one so that Clostridium
botulinum and other putrefactive bacteria cannot grow
d. Ascorbic Acid / ascorbates/ erythorbate does the following functions:
Speed up curing reaction
Ascorbates accelerate the conversion of metmyoglobin and nitrite to myoglobin and
niric oxide and suppresses the reverse reaction
Add stability to the cured meat pigment giving the color a longer shelf life
e. Phosphates functions:
Increase water holding and binding capacity of cured products
Reduce oxidative rancidity
Increase product yield with the increased water holding capacity
Makes the product surfaces drier and firmer and emulsion are more stable at higher
temperatures
f. Vinegar
Adds flavor
Aids in prolonging shelf life as it has some antiseptic value
g. Spices aromatic vegetable substances used for seasoning which consist of leaves.
Flowers, buds, fruit seeds, barks, rhizomes or other plant parts which have been dried and
are used either in entire form or grinding to a powder
Enhances palatability of meat products
Aids in digestion as it stimulates the flow of digestion secretions.
h. Binders, fillers, emulsifiers
Functions:
Improve its characteristics such as texture, appearance and plumpness
Prevent shriveling/shrinkage to a certain extent

Binder one that binds meat particles together and hold moisture during processing and/or
subsequent reheating
Fillers additives that are not soluble and do not contain water soluble protein but only serve as
fillers or added weight
Emulsifiers contain water soluble protein in varying amounts which improve volume and texture
i.
j.

Coloring agents added to impart / improve the color of the meat products. it may be
natural or synthetic
Other ingredients anisado wine, monosodium glutamate (MSG) and soy sauce are added
to improve flavor

Ageing of meat
9. Ageing of meat
Factors affecting Meat Tenderness
Natural Tenderness
a. Cut
b. Animals age
c. Heredity
d. Diet
e. Marbling
f. Slaughtering conditions
g. Rigor mortis

Within 6 to 24 hours after slaughter, the muscles of livestock enter the state
of rigor mortis. This condition reverses naturally one or two days after
slaughter.
During rigor mortis, the oxygen- deprived cells switch to glycogen as an
energy source, converting it to lactic acid, the buildup of which causes the
pH to fall from approximately 7.0 to 5.8. The perception of a meats
juiciness or dryness depends on the binding of water to muscle proteins, and
this is influenced by pH. Water-holding capacity is best in meats with a pH of
5.8

h. Aging
After an animal is killed, rigor mortis sets in with the contraction of muscle fibers and
increasing toughness of the meat. This is correlated with the loss of glycogen and
disappearance of ATP .
If the meat is cooled, rigor mortis is subside in 2 days, the muscle became soft again.
The tenderization is believed to be due principally to natural proteolytic enzymes in the
meat, which slowly break down the connective tissue between the muscle fibers.
Humidity must be controlled and the meat maybe covered with wrappings to minimize
drying and weight loss.
Costs involved with ageing, not all meat specially beef is not deliberately aged.
Problems with Improperly Handled Meat
Dark-cutting beef. If glycogen stores are depleted before death because the animal is
exercised or stressed, insufficient lactic acid will be produced during rigor mortis. The
resulting higher pH (above 5.8) of the meat will result in a deep-purple brown meat known
as dark-cutting beef, which has a sticky texture that is unacceptable to consumers (38).
PSE pork. Pale, soft, and exudative (PSE) pork results if the pH drops too low, and therefore
the meat becomes very dry when cooked. A low pHunder 5.1, or even up to 5.4can
cause the pork to become extremely pale, mushy, slimy, flavorless, and full of excess drip
Thaw rigor. Freezing meat before it undergoes rigor mortis can cause thaw rigor, a
phenomenon in which the meat shrinks violently by almost 50 percent when thawed.
Cold shortening. A kind of thaw rigor occurs, although to a lesser degree, when meat has
been chilled too rapidly before rigor mortis, called cold shortening. In both cases, the meat

will be tougher. Neither thaw rigor nor cold shortening meat is allowed to be sold at the
consumer level.
Also, meat that is cooked while in a state of rigor mortis, called green meat or cooked rigor,
will be tough. If it is prepared before stiffening begins, however, it can be quite tender
Artificial tenderizing
There are several artificial means of tenderizing meat.
Meat maybe tenderize by mechanical means. In a cold room, meat is hung and therefore,
the muscle is elongated and stretched. Meat cuts are also tenderize using ultrasonic
vibration.
Using low level of salt. This solubilizes the meat proteins. If salt is placed within the meat,
it holds water within the mass, if in the surface, it draws out the water.
Phosphate salts are better than table salt. This help in retaining the natural juices of the
meat and minimizes the bleeding.
Use of enzymes, salts, acids and mechanical methods
Another method is the addition of proteolytic enzymes, e.g bromelin from pineapple, ficin
from figs, trypsin from pancreas, papain from papaya.
The penetration is low, ageing time is markedly reduced and helps in the cooking
operation
The newest commercial method is the electrical stimulation of the carcasses.
This involves the application of enough voltage to cause rapid muscle contraction that
cause biochemical changes in the tissue. It is reported that this increase the tenderness,
the color, texture, flavor, and ageing.
Cooking of meat
Cooking can make meat more or less tender than the original raw cut.
Three tenderizing influences: fat melts and contributes to the tenderness, collagen
dissolves, muscle fibers separate.
Two toughening influences: overheating and evaporation of moisture.
Relationship of temperature and tenderness is very complicated especially in the ewer
method of cooking.
Normal cooking do little changes in the nutritional value of the meat.
Determining the Doneness of Meat
Internal Temperature
Using a meat thermometer is the most accurate method of determining the doneness of
meat. the internal cooking temperatures in- dicating doneness for various meats. The final
internal temperatures according to the USDA for beef are as follows:
Rare:
136F140F (58C60C)
Medium: 160F167F (71C75C)
Well done: 172F180F (78C82C)
Most other meats are expected to reach an internal temperature of at least 140F
(60C). When measuring internal temperature, it is important to adjust for carryover
cooking. Carryover cooking is the phenomenon in which food continues to cook after it
has been removed from the heat source as the heat is distributed more evenly from the
outer to the inner portion of the food This can result in an average temperature increase
of 10F to 15F (6C to 8C) for average- size roasts. Very large roasts can have as much
as a 25F (14C) increase in temperature, whereas small cuts may rise only 5F (3C) in
temperature.
Time/Weight Charts.
Time/weight charts are useful in estimating roughly how long it will take to cook a piece of
meat, but are unreliable if used alone because of the many factors that can affect
doneness.
Color Changes
Meat pigments change color as the meat is cooked. Doneness can be determined by
observing the following colors in red meats:

Rare. Strong red interior. Rare meat does not reach a final internal temperature
considered microbiologically safe.
Medium. Rosy pink interior and not quite as juicy as a rare piece of meat
Well done. Brown interior. No traces of red or pink left. Moist, but no longer juicy
Veal and pork are known as white meats, in part because they change from a
pinkish to a whiter color as they are heated to the well-done stage.
Touch
Doneness can be determined by the firmness of the meat.

Types of Processed Meat

Ham Ham is cured pork, and accord- ing to USDA standards, only meat from the hind
leg of a hog can be labeled ham. Several types of cooked ham products are available for
purchase:

Canned ham. Boneless, fully cooked ham that can be served cold or heated. Most
are cooked only to pasteurization temperatures, so they must be refrigerated.
Sterilized hams are usually available only in cans of under 3 pounds. Gelatin is often
added in dry form to absorb the natural juices of the ham as it cooks.
Water-added ham. Contains no more than 10 percent by weight of water added. The
added moisture contributes to a moist, juicy, and tender texture.
Imitation ham. Ham that retains more than 10 percent moisture after curing.
Country ham. Ham cured by the dry salt method and usually hickory smoked to
develop a dis- tinctive flavor.
Picnic ham. Cured pork that comes from the front leg instead of back leg of the hog,
and therefore cannot be labeled simply ham. This cut is less tender and higher in fat
than regular ham.
Bacon
Bacon is cured and smoked meat from the side of a hog. It should be
balanced in its proportion of fat to lean. When cooked, bacon with too much lean will be
less tender, whereas bacon with too high a proportion of fat will shrink too much.

Sausage
Sausage is meat that has been finely chopped or ground and blended
with various ingredients, seasonings, and spices. It is then stuffed into casings or skins.
Traditionally, the casings were made of the intestines of pigs or sheep, but now they are
often manufactured from cellulose or colla- gen. Beef and pork, or a combination of the
two, are the usual main ingredients. Other meats and meat combi- nations may be used,
including veal, chicken, turkey, lamb, duck, rabbit, venison, and liver from any of several
animals. Other ingredients that may be added include eggs, cream, oatmeal,
breadcrumbs, potato flour, tripe, wine, and beer. Pork and/or beef fat are often added to
boost the moisture content and enhance the texture.

Lower-Fat Processed Meats Many processed meats contain 30 to 50 per- cent fat.
Consumers have challenged processed meat product manufacturers by demanding
foods that are lower in fat and cholesterol. Lower-fat processed meat products are
produced by using leaner cuts of meat, adding more water, and/or including ingredients
such as fiber, gums, modified starches, and whey protein concentrate.

POULTRY
The principal types of poultry are chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese.
In other countries, emu and ostrich are eaten.
Poultry is raised for meat and eggs.
Product consideration
Most chicken meat came from egg laying birds.
Special genetic strains are produced that exhibit rapid growth, disease resistance, good
meat qualities.
The white feathered type are favored for broiler meat.
Broiler farms raise several million of birds per year.
Due to technology it is common to raise a 2.3 kg broiler in just 6 weeks. This is the reason
why chicken maybe purchased at lower price.

Poultry is sufficiently cooked when the internal temperature reaches a minimum of 165F
(74C) for at least 15 seconds

Product consideration
Age and liveweight are the market classification of poultry.
Going from smaller to older birds, the following designations are given to chickens: broiler,
roaster, capon, stag, stewing chicken, old rooster.
Standards for quality of individual birds based on feathering, shape, fleshing, fat and
freedom from defects.
Birds are purchased from the processor from the grower depending on the type of
products to be manufactured.
Processing Plant Operation
Plants for dressing poultry vary in size. The largest could be around 10, 000 birds per hour.
Live birds are shackled, bled, scalded, inspected, washed, dried, packaged and chilled.
To ensure high quality uniform birds, large processors generally contract with growers.
Slaughter and bleeding
Birds are not fed for 12 hr before being slaughtered to ensure that the caps are empty.
Bleeding time depends on efficiency of the cut, type of bird, if the bird is stunned or not.
This may take from 1 3 min.
Scalding
Birds are conveyed on the scalding tank.
This loosens the feather for easy removal.
Scalding should only take for 45 secs.
Defeathering
Done mechanically by having many rotating fingers.
Eviscerating
This is done in a separate cool room.
This includes the inspection of the viscera by a vet.
Birds passing the inspection are thoroughly washed.
Chilling and packaging
Chilling is done with ice slush and the birds absorb moisture in small amount. After chilling,
birds are drained for excess moisture and then graded.
After chilling, it is packaged in box surrounded with ice. The meat must be kept below 4 OC.
Shelf life depends on the bacterial load.
To prolong the storage life, some are wrapped in low moisture low oxygen transmission
films.
Nutritive value
the composition of the edible parts of chicken depends on the cut and the method of
cooking.
Roasted white meat without skin contains 64% water, 32 protein and 3.5% fat.
The skin is higher in fat. Chicken flesh contains more proteins, less fat, less cholesterol
than red meat.
Because of high protein to fat ratio, it is favored to people restricted to fat intake and
patients with sclerotic tendencies.
Storage of Poultry
Precautions should be taken in the handling of poultry, because of the possibility of bacteria
contamination. Campylobacter and Salmonella are two of the most common causes of foodborne illness.
Refrigerated
Fresh, ready-to-cook poultry can be kept safely in the refrigerator at 40F (4C) or below for up to
3 days. It should be stored in the vapor-proof wrapping in which it is purchased, because
repackaging in- creases the risk of bacterial contamination. It is best kept in the bottom portion
of the refrigerator to prevent its drippings from contaminating other foods. Chickens labeled

fresh should not have been exposed to temperatures below 26F (23C), the temperature at
which chickens freeze.
Frozen
Frozen whole poultry can be stored from 6 to 12 months at 0F (218C), whereas leftover
cooked poultry can be frozen for up to 4 months. The meat will decline in moistness and eating
quality if it is kept frozen beyond these recommended times. Breaded or fried poultry should
never be thawed and refrozen
EGGS
Special strain of chicken are bred for large scale production of eggs.
A hen lays 260 eggs per year.
Egg formation and structure
Egg production is an integral part of the reproductive cycle in poultry.
Yolks
Yolks containing the female germ cells are contained in the ovary.
The sunny yellow yolk situated in the center of the egg constitutes about a third (30
percent) of the eggs weight. Dense in nutrients, the yolk serves to nourish the chick. A
white, pinhead-sized germinal disc sits on the surface of the yolk. This appears darker if
the egg has been fertilized, but has no effect on the taste, functional properties, or
nutritional value of the egg.
Its color depends on the hens diet. Pigments in the chicken feed, such as betacarotene, cause col- ors ranging from pale yellow to deep red.
Albumen
The albumen, or egg white, accounts for almost three-fifths (58 percent) of an eggs
weight and is made up largely of water and protein.
Around the yolk is a layer of thick protein called albumin. The chalazae (ka-lay-zee) at
the top and bottom of the egg anchor the egg yolk in the thick egg white surrounding it.
They also secure the yolk to its vitelline membrane so it stays neatly centered in the
middle of the egg
Shell Membranes
Between the egg white and the shell are two membranes, an inner and outer shell
membrane. These press up against the shell and protect the egg against bacterial
invasion
Air Cell

Between the two shell membranes at the larger end of the egg is a pocket of air known
as the air cell. As a freshly laid egg cools, its contents contract, causing the inner
shell membrane to separate from the outer shell membrane, forming the air cell.

Shell
Natures way of protecting the delicate internal contents of an egg is to surround it with
a hard calcium carbonate shell (12 percent of an eggs weight). Eggshells are not solid
but contain thousands of small pores, allowing an exchange of gases between the
inner egg and the surrounding air. Shell color indicates the breed of the hen, but has no
bearing on the nutrient content or taste of the egg. Brown eggs tend to cost more because
they usually come from larger hens, which require more food and produce fewer eggs.
The shell is protected by the cuticle or bloom. Commercially sold eggs are washed, which
removes this protective cuticle.
Composition
Eggs contain about two parts white to one part yolk by weight.
65% water, 12% protein, 11% fat
Virtually, all the fat is in the yolk.

The yolk is rich in vit A D E K.

Eggs contain 240 mg of cholesterol that is contained in the yolk.

Quality factors
Eggs may range from Peewee to jumbo classifications
Quality grades are independent of sizes.
Candling is the most common method of grading eggs in which the egg is held up to a
light source.
Fresh eggs have a thick and high yolk.
Egg quality grades are based on freshness.
Feeds high in carotenoids produces darker yolk.
Shell color does not affect the nutritional value of the eggs.
Functions of Eggs in Foods
Emulsifying
o Lecithin found in the egg yolks is a natural emulsifying agent: one end of the
molecule attracts water, while the other end is drawn to fat. Eggs thus help keep fat
and water or other liquid com- pounds from separating, so they are of- ten used to
thicken and stabilize foods such as salad dressings, hollandaise and barnaise
sauces, mayonnaise, ice cream, cream puffs, and certain cakes.
Binder
o The high protein content of eggs makes them excellent binders. Dur- ing cooking,
heat coagulates the eggs protein, which then acts as an adhe- sive, binding the
other ingredients to the surfaces of the cooked material
Foaming
o The capacity of egg whites to be beaten into a foam that increases to six or eight
times its original volume is in- valuable in food preparation. Egg- white foams are
used to aerate and leaven a number of food products, such as puffy omelets,
souffls, angel food cake, sponge cake, and meringues.
o The best eggs to use for an egg-white foam are fresh eggs because they have thick
egg whites, which contribute to a stable foam. Older eggs have thinner whites,
which beat to a larger volume but are less stable and may collapse during
heating.
Interfering
o Eggs are often used in the preparation of frozen desserts such as ice cream,
because they interfere with the formation of ice crystals. Similarly, in some candies,
eggs are used to block the formation of large sugar crystals to create a smoother,
more velvety texture.
Clarifying
o Egg whites are often used to clarify liquids. This is done by dissolving egg
proteins, especially egg whites in cold liquid, which is then heated. This causes the
proteins to solidify, to attract other particles that may be clouding the liquid, and
to rise with them to the surface for removal. This food preparation technique is used
to make clear soups.
Color
o An eggs yolk contributes a golden brown color to yellow cakes, cookies, pastries,
and even rolls, breads, and egg-containing noodles
Egg storage
Eggs begin to deteriorate as soon as they are laid and lose quality very rap- idly at room
temperature. In fact, an egg will age more in one day at room temperature than in one
week in the refrigerator. To ensure the freshness of whole or liquid eggs, they may be
refrigerated, frozen, or dried.
A temperature of -1oC is ideal in warehouses.
RH of 80% to prevent the loss of moisture
Before storing some eggs are sprayed with mineral oil.
Thermostabilization is used to prolong the life of the egg. This kills the bacteria.

Bacterial infection and pasteurization

The shell surface contains lots of bacteria. Even if the shell is not crack, bacteria may still
go inside the shell.
Typical bacteria is the salmonella.
Pasteurization is done in the killing of bacteria. And this process may vary.
Egg substitutes
The high level of cholesterol in egg yolk has caused many consumers to cut down the
consumption of eggs.
Different assumptions are down to lower this value.
One supplier formulates the yolk from corn oil, milk solids, emulsifiers, vitamins.
FISH

and SHELLFISH
Foods derived from salt water are considered seafoods.
Marine foods are called to those whose foods are from either slat or fresh water.
the principal marine foods are saltwater fish, crustaceans and shellfish.
Seafood also includes other sea animals and sea plants.
Most seafoods are frozen and canned.

Classification of Fish

Lean or Fat
Fish are sometimes identified by their fat content, but in this case, fat is a relative term. Fish are
not very fatty compared to most other meats. Fat content in a 3-ounce cooked portion is less
than 2.5 grams in lean fish (less than 5 percent fat), which includes cod, pike, haddock, flounder,
sole, whiting, red snapper, halibut, and bass.The same portion of fatty fish (more than 5
percent fat) yields 5 to 10+ grams of fat. Examples include salmon, mackerel, lake trout,
tuna, butterfish, whitefish, and herring
Composition of Fish
Structure of Finfish
Collagen
o When compared with meat or poultry, fish muscle has lower amounts of collagen.
The bodies of land animals average 15 percent connective tissues by weight while
fish is only 3 percent.
Amino acid content
o Another reason why fish is tender is that there is less of a certain amino acid
(hydroxyproline) in the connective tissue. When fish is cooked, collagen breaks
down more easily at low temperature and converts to gelatin
Muscle structure

The muscles of fish are shorter and arranged into myotomes which are separated by
connective tissues myocommata
Pigments
o When fish flesh is exposed to air during preparation, it will vary in color as a
result of the presence of white, pink, or red pigments.
o The color of a fishs flesh depends on whether that fish relied predominantly on
quick or slow movements to stay alive. Red, or darker colored flesh, such as that
seen in salmon, has a higher concentration of the slow-twitch fibers needed for
long-distance swimming and endurance. White meat, like that of the sole, has
more fast-twitch fibers, which are designed for quick bursts of speed of brief
duration between long periods on cruise control. Some fish, such as tuna, are
composed of both fast-twitch and slow-twitch fibers, giving them dark, light, and
white meat.
o A higher fat content will also darken the color of the flesh, as seen in fatty fish
such as in mackerel and tuna
o The concentration of myoglobin contributes to the overall color of fish flesh. The
more oxygen required by the muscle, the more myoglobin proteins are necessary,
because they carry the oxygen. Unfortunately, a higher myo- globin concentration
results in quicker rancidity because the iron in myo- globin accelerates the oxidation
of fat found in the muscle
o

Fish procurement
The usual method of procuring fish are different from other food method.
Most fish are pursued and hunted and maybe caught in the wild from a great distance in
processing facilities.
Oysters, lobsters, salmon, trout are commonly farmed.
Farming fish is called aquaculture.
Improved methods of locating fish use sonar and helicopters to find fish.
How to distinguish fresh fish from stale fish?
Fresh fish
Odor
Meaty and sweet
Eyes
Bright or wrinkled, slightly protruding
Gills
Bright red covered with clear slime;
fishy little or no blood staining
Color
bright
Flesh
Firm, the body is stiff
Belly walls
Intact
Muscle tissue
White
vent
Pink, not protruding

Stale fish
Stale, sour
Dull, wrinkled
Dull brown or gray, slime cloudy,
odor under the gill covers sour
Faded
Soft and flabby
Often ruptured
Pinkish
brown

Marine fish
The depth of water determines fat content of the fish.
Pelagic fish are found in middle and surface water. Contains 20% fat.
demersal fish are found near or at the bottom of the sea. Contains 5% fat.
Composition and nutrition
This properties are quite variable, depending on the season of the year, degree of maturity
and other factors.
Fish proteins are highly digestible and as good as red meat w/ respect to amino acid.
Fish are rich in vitamins.
Also, these are good source of minerals and iodine, calcium and phosphorus.
Spoilage factors
Fish tissue is more perishable than animal tissue.
Fresh fish held at 16oC is good only for 1 day.
Fish at 0oC is good for 14 days.
Heavy salting and drying preserve fish for more periods.

Reasons like microbiological, physiological and chemical factors affect the spoilage rate of
the meat.

Microbiological factor
Live fish is bacteriologically sterile.
When fished is killed, the bacteria in the digestive tract rapidly attack all constituents of
the tissues.
Since fish are cold blooded, the attack is not inhibited by cold temperature.
Physiological and chemical factor
Fish struggle when caught causing them to use all the glycogen in their muscles so little
glycogen left to convert to lactic acid and when killed reduces the activity of muscle lactic
acid to slow bacterial growth is limited.
Fat of fish is rich in trimethylamine. Trimethylamine split from phospholipids y bacteria and
natural enzyme has a strong characteristic fishy odor. This is the reason for sting fishy
odor.
Preservation methods
Because of great tendency to spoil, a lot of methods were devised.
The most basic method is smoking and salting. This is effective but not accepted in all
cultures.
Use of chemical preservatives liken sodium benzoate or sorbic acid can prolong storage
life.
Irradiation with gamma rays to pasteurize also help in preserving the meat.
refrigeration., canning and freezing
Shipboard operations
Freezing can give excellent or poor quality results depending on how quickly the freezing
is done after the fish is caught.
Ideally, fish should be gutted and frozen into -30 oC within 2 h of being caught.
When fish are not processed, they are stacked with crushed ice.
Processing plant operation
Freezing
Canning
Inspection and grading
Canning Process
a. Transport during transport to the canning factory, the fish should be stored at a
temperature approaching zero which can be achieved by using ice or combination of
ice and water or refrigerated sea water.
b. Reception and Testing the temperature of fish from various position in the load
should be checked to ensure specifications. Typical temperature of 0C for fresh fish
and -18C for frozen fish
c. Storage storage should be in a clean plastic box held in an insulated chilled room
operating at a temperature between 1 and 2C to maintain quality and freshness
d. Defrosting Frozen Fish ( thawing) careful thawing is essential if product quality is
to be retained.
Thawing methods:
Air thawing which is the simplest using a temperature of the air between 15 20
C
Water thawing is simple and inexpensive
Vacuum thawing uses air-tight chambers into which the fish is loaded using
trolleys
e. Fish preparation before canning
Heading involves removing the head of the fish from the body
Filleting removal of the complete musculature from each side of the fish
Skinning necessary for fish with hard scales. For fish with soft skins, caustic
peeling is preferable

Smoking its objective is to increase its shelf life either by cold smoking with
temperature of 30C or by hot smoking with temperature of 80C
Pre-cooking necessary to make the fish palatable
f. Packing in cans / filling operation placing of pre-cooked fish in cans then adding
of packing media
g. Exhausting removal of air and other entrapped gases
h. Can seaming the hermetic seal formed between the can body and the can end is
referred to as double seam.
i. Retorting at 121C, 10 psi, 60 100 mins.
j. Cooling
k. Labeling
Quality Control
Several considerations that affect the quality ;
Components of the product
Degree of contamination with undesirable materials
Nutritive value
Degree of spoilage
Damage
Deterioration during processing storage and distribution
Sale and presentation to customer
Danger to health
Satisfaction in buying and eating
Aesthetic considerations
Yield and profitability to processors
Different kinds of testing done:
Analytical testing
Microbiological testing
Analyses recommended for cannery water and retort cooling water color, taste, odor,
turbdity, pH, hardness, free-residual chlorine, suspended solids, total aerobic plate counts
and total coliforms
Swab testing this is done to confirm that the surfaces are adequately cleaned and
sanitized
Incubation test test for the overall quality and sterility of aseptic products. at the end of
incubation period, the samples are examined for swells and contents are examined for pH,
direct microbiological smear and staining, smell and appearance, and nitrite level if
appropriate
Causes of spoilage in canned foods:
Microbiological caused by underprocessing, inadequate cooling, infection resulting from
leakage through seams
Physical faulty technique in retort operation, under-exhausting, over-filling, paneling,
metal plate faults, seam defects, contamination
Handling corrosion and denting

SHELLFISH
The term shellfish is referred to a true shellfish. E.g. oysters, clams
The high degree of perishability of finfish is shared by shellfish, except that most of it are
more perishable.
Lobster and crab are best kept alive up to their point of cooking.
shrimp
Some shrimp are aquaculture.
After capture, heads are removed, the sooner, the better the quality.
This often is done on shrimp boats.
Shrimp should be consumed or processed within 5 days of being caught.
Shrimp has a high bacterial activity. And this is very pH sensitive. pH of above 7.9 the
shrimp is spoiled
Oysters and clams
They are harvested by raking the bottom or digging the mud close to shore.

crabs

This are removed from the shell by hand, washed, sorted for size and further process.
This are also canned and sterilized and sometimes frozen.
The condition of water from where the clams are harvested is important.
Meat of crabs are moved through water jets and rubber rollers squeezing the meat.
The yield of meat from crab is low, only 12 % and 20% for king crab.
Disposal of shellfish waste became a problem because dumping of untreated shell is
prohibited.

Contaminants in fish
Human activity has resulted in the pollution of many marine environments.
It is not surprising anymore that harvested seafood are contaminated.
Mercury is an example of contaminant concentrated in seafood.
Other toxins like dioxin, pesticides, DDT, endrin and diedrin leach from soils can became
pollutants.
Seafood can be contaminated from natural origin. From protozoa gymnocardium brevis.
Some fish contain toxins after death like puffer fish.
Also, parasitic worms and tapeworms contribute to the infections dealt to humans.