STUDY OF STEAM GENERATORS & STEAM TURBINES

Exp. No.: 10
Date :
AIM:
To study the steam generators & Steam Turbines
THEORY AND DESCRIPTION:
Two important area of application of thermodynamics are power generation and
refrigeration. Both power generation and refrigeration are usually accomplished by
a system that operates on a thermodynamics cycle. Thermodynamics cycles can be
divided into two generation categories:
(a)
Power Cycles
(b)
Refrigeration Cycles
The devices or systems used to produce a net power output are often called engines
and the thermodynamics cycles they operate on are called power cycle. The devices or
systems use to produce refrigeration are called refrigerator, air conditioners or heat
pumps and the cycles they operates on are called refrigeration cycles.
Thermodynamic cycles can be categorized as :
(a)

Power cycles or Refrigeration cycles.

(b)
Gas Cycles or Vapor Cycles: In gas cycles, the working fluid remains in the
gaseous phase throughout the entire cycle, where as in vapor cycles the working fluid
exists in the vapor phase during one part of the cycle and in the liquid phase during
another part.
(c)
Closed Cycles or Open Cycles: In closed cycles, the working fluid is returned
to the initial state at the end of the cycle and is re-circulated. In open cycle, the
working fluid is renewed at the end of each cycle instead of being re-circulated.
Basic Consideration In The Analysis Of Power Cycles
Actual Cycle
The cycles encountered in actual devices are difficult to analyze because of the
presence of complicating effects, such as friction and the absence of sufficient time for
establishment of the equilibrium conditions during the cycle.
Ideal Cycle
When the actual cycle is stripped of all the internal irreversibilities and complexities,
we end up with a cycle that resembles the actual cycle closely but is made up totally of
internally reversible processes. Such a cycle is called an Ideal cycle.
The Idealization and Simplification
o
The cycle does not involve any friction.
o
All expansion and compression process take place in a quasi-equilibrium
manner.

o
The pipe connecting the various component of a system is well insulated and
heat transfer and pressure drop through them are negligible.
The Carnot cycle is composed of 4 totally reversible processes :
(a)Isothermal heat addition at high temperature (TH).
(b)Isentropic expansion from high temperature to low temperature.
(c)Isothermal heat rejection at low temperature (TL).
(d)Isentropic compression from low temperature to high temperature.
The Carnot Vapor Cycle
(a)A steady-flow Carnot cycle executed with the saturation dome of a pure substance is
shown in Figures 2.1(a) and (b). The fluid is heated reversibly and isothermally in a boiler
(process 1-2), expanded isentropically in a turbine (process 2-3), condensed reversibly and
isothermally in a condenser (process 3-4) and compressed isentropically by a compressor to
the initial state (process 4-1)
(b) Carnot cycle is not a suitable model for vapor power cycle because it
cannot be approximated in practice.
T

(a)
T

Rankine Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power Cycle

(a)
The impracticalities associated with Carnot cycle can be eliminated by superheating
the steam in the boiler and condensing it completely in the condenser. This cycle that results
is the Rankine cycle, which is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants. The construct of power
plant and T-s diagram
(b)

The Rankine cycle consists of the following four processes :

1-2 : Isentropic compression in pump (compressors)
2-3 : Constant pressure heat addition in boiler
3-4 : Isentropic expansion in turbine
4-1 : Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser
Process 1-2
Water enters the pump at state 1 as saturated liquid and is compressed isentropically
to the operating pressure of the boiler. The water temperature increases somewhat
during this isentropic compression process due to slight decrease in the specific
volume of the water. The vertical distance between state 1 and 2 on the T-s diagram is
greatly exaggerated for clarity.

Process 2-3
Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 2 and leaves as a superheated
vapor at state 3. The boiler is basically a large heat exchanger where the heat
originating from combustion gases, is transferred to the water essentially at constant
pressure. The boiler together with the section where the steam is superheated (the
superheater), is often called the steam generator.
Process 3-4
The superheated vapor at state 3 enters the turbine, where it expands isentropically
and produces work by rotating the shaft connected to an electric generator. The
pressure and the temperature of the steam drops during this process to the values at
state 4, where steam enters the condenser
Process 4-1
At this state, the steam is usually a saturated liquid-vapor mixture with a high quality.
Steam is condensed at constant pressure in the condenser which is basically a large
heat exchanger, by rejecting heat to a cooling medium from a lake, or a river. Steam
leaves the condenser as saturated liquid and enters the pump, completing the cycle.

How can we Increase the Efficiency of the Rankine cycle?

Than Rankine cycle efficiency can be increased by increasing average temperature at
which heat is transferred to the working fluid in the boiler or decreasing the average
temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the condenser. That is, the
average fluid temperature should be as high as possible during heat addition and as low as
possible during heat rejection.
(a)
(b)
(c)

The three ways by which efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be increased are :
Lowering the condenser pressure (Lowers Tlow, av).
Superheating the steam to high temperatures (Increases Thigh, av).
Increasing the boiler pressure (Increases Thigh, av).

STEAM GENERATOR
Steam is an important medium of producing mechanical energy. Steam has the
advantage that, it can be raised from water which is available in abundance it does not react
much with the materials of the equipment of power plant and is stable at the temperature
required in the plant. Steam is used to drive steam engines, steam turbines etc. Steam power
station is most suitable where coal is available in abundance.
Thermal electrical power generation is one of the major methods. Out of total power
developed in India about 60% is thermal. For a thermal power plant the range of pressure
may vary from 10 kg/cm2 to super critical pressures and the range of temperature may be
from 250C to 650C.
Essentials of Steam Power Plant Equipment
A steam power plant must have following equipment :
(a)
A furnace to burn the fuel.
(b)
Steam generator or boiler containing water. Heat generated in the furnace is utilized to
convert water into steam.
(c)
Main power unit such as an engine or turbine to use the heat energy of steam and
perform work.
(d)
Piping system to convey steam and water.
In addition to the above equipment the plant requires various auxiliaries and
accessories depending upon the availability of water, fuel and the service for which
the plant is intended.
The flow sheet of a thermal power plant consists of the following four main circuits :
1
2
3
4

Feed water and steam flow circuit.

Coal and ash circuit.
Air and gas circuit.
Cooling water circuit.
A steam power plant using steam as working substance works basically on Rankine cycle.
Steam is generated in a boiler, expanded in the prime mover and condensed in the
condenser and fed into the boiler again.
The different types of systems and components used in steam power plant are as
follows :

(a)

High pressure boiler

(b)

Prime mover

(c)

Condensers and cooling towers

(d)

Coal handling system

(e)

Ash and dust handling system

(f)

Draught system

(g)

Feed water purification plant

(h)

Pumping system

(i)

Air preheater, economizer, super heater, feed heaters.

Figure shows a schematic arrangement of equipment of a steam power station. Coal

received in coal storage yard of power station is transferred in the furnace by coal handling
unit. Heat produced due to burning of coal is utilized in converting water contained in boiler
drum into steam at suitable pressure and temperature. The steam generated is passed through
the super heater. Superheated steam then flows through the turbine. After doing work in the
turbine the pressure of steam is reduced. Steam leaving the turbine passes through the
condenser which is maintained the l w pressure of steam at the exhaust of turbine. Steam
pressure in the condenser depends upon flow rate and temperature of cooling water and on
effectiveness of air removal equipment. Water circulating through the condenser may be
taken from the various sources such as river, lake or sea. If sufficient quantity of water is not
available the hot water coming out of the condenser may be cooled in cooling towers and
circulated again through the condenser. Bled steam taken from the turbine at suitable
extraction points is sent to low pressure and high pressure water heaters.
Air taken from the atmosphere is first passed through the air pre-heater, where it is
heated by flue gases. The hot air then passes through the furnace. The flue gases after
passing over boiler and superheater tubes, flow through the dust collector and then through
economiser, air pre-heater and finally they are exhausted to the atmosphere through the
chimney.
Steam condensing system consists of the following :
(a)

Condenser

(b)

Cooling water

(c)

Cooling tower

(d)

Hot well

(e)

Condenser cooling water pump

(f)

Condensate air extraction pump

(g)

Air extraction pump

(h)

Boiler feed pump

(i)

Make up water pump.

Classification
Boiler is an apparatus to produce steam. Thermal energy released by combustion of
fuel is transferred to water, which vaporizes and gets converted into steam at the desired
temperature and pressure.
The steam produced is used for :
(a)

Producing mechanical work by expanding it in steam engine or steam turbine.

(b)

Heating the residential and industrial buildings.

(c)

Performing certain processes in the sugar mills, chemical and textile industries.
Boiler is a closed vessel in which water is converted into steam by the application of
heat. Usually boilers are coal or oil fired.
A boiler should fulfill the following requirements :

(a)

Safety : The boiler should be safe under operating conditions.

(b)
Accessibility : The various parts of the boiler should be accessible for repair and
maintenance.
(c)
Capacity : The boiler should be capable of supplying steam according to the
requirements.
(d)
Efficiency : To permit efficient operation, the boiler should be able to absorb a
maximum amount of heat produced due to burning of fuel in the furnace.
(e)

It should be simple in construction and its maintenance cost should be low.

(f)

Its initial cost should be low.

(g)

The boiler should have no joints exposed to flames.

(h)

The boiler should be capable of quick starting and loading.

2.3.3 Types of Boilers
The boilers can be classified according to the following criteria. According to flow of
water and hot gases :

Water tube
Fire tube.

In water tube boilers, water circulates through the tubes and hot products of
combustion flow over these tubes. In fire tube boiler the hot products of combustion

pass through the tubes, which are surrounded, by water. Fire tube boilers have low
initial cost, and are more compacts. But they are more likely to explosion, water
volume is large and due to poor circulation they cannot meet quickly the change in
steam demand. For the same output the outer shell of fire tube boilers is much larger
than the shell of water-tube boiler. Water tube boilers require less weight of metal for
a given size, are less liable to explosion, produce higher pressure, are accessible and
can respond quickly to change in steam demand. Tubes and drums of water-tube
boilers are smaller than that of fire-tube boilers and due to smaller size of drum higher
pressure can be used easily. Water-tube boilers require lesser floor space. The
efficiency of water-tube boilers is more.
Water tube boilers are classified as follows :
Horizontal Straight Tube Boilers
(a)

Longitudinal drum

(b)

Cross-drum.
Bent Tube Boilers

(a)

Two drum

(b)

Three drum

(c)

Low head three drum

(d)

Four drum.
Cyclone Fired Boilers
Various advantages of water tube boilers are as follows :

(a)

High pressure can be obtained.

(b)

Heating surface is large. Therefore steam can be generated easily.

(c)

Large heating surface can be obtained by use of large number of tubes.

(d)
Because of high movement of water in the tubes the rate of heat transfer becomes
large resulting into a greater efficiency.
Fire tube boilers are classified as follows :
External Furnace
(a)

Horizontal return tubular

(b)

Short fire box

(c)

Compact.

Internal Furnace
Horizontal Tubular
(a)

Short firebox

(b)

Locomotive

(c)

Compact

(d)

Scotch.
Vertical Tubular

(a)

Straight vertical shell, vertical tube

(b)

Cochran (vertical shell) horizontal tube.

Various advantages of fire tube boilers are as follows :

(a)

Low cost

(b)

Fluctuations of steam demand can be met easily

(c)

It is compact in size.
According to position of furnace :

(a)

Internally fired

(b)

Externally fired
In internally fired boilers the grate combustion chamber are enclosed within the boiler
shell whereas in case of extremely fired boilers and furnace and grate are separated
from the boiler shell.
According to the position of principle axis :

(a)

Vertical

(b)

Horizontal

(c)

Inclined. According to application :

(a)

Stationary

(b)

Mobile, (Marine, Locomotive).

According to the circulating water :

(a)

Natural circulation

(b)
(c)

Forced circulation.
According to steam pressure :

(a)

Low pressure

(b)

Medium pressure

(c)

Higher pressure.
Major Components and Their Functions

Economizer
The economizer is a feed water heater, deriving heat from the flue gases. The
justifiable cost of the economizer depends on the total gain in efficiency. In turn this
depends on the flue gas temperature leaving the boiler and the feed water inlet temperature.
A typical return bend type economizer is shown in the Figure
Air Pre-heater
The flue gases coming out of the economizer is used to preheat the air before
supplying it to the combustion chamber. An increase in air temperature of 20 degrees can be
achieved by this method. The pre heated air is used for combustion and also to dry the
crushed coal before pulverizing.
Soot Blowers
The fuel used in thermal power plants causes soot and this is deposited on the boiler
tubes, economizer tubes, air pre heaters, etc. This drastically reduces the amount of heat
transfer of the heat exchangers. Soot blowers control the formation of soot and reduce its
corrosive effects. The types of soot blowers are fixed type, which may be further classified
into lane type and mass type depending upon the type of spray and nozzle used. The other type
of soot blower is the retractable soot blower. The advantages are that they are placed far away
from the high temperature zone, they concentrate the cleaning through a single large nozzle
rather than many small nozzles and there is no concern of nozzle arrangement with respect to
the boiler tubes.
Condenser
The use of a condenser in a power plant is to improve the efficiency of the power
plant by decreasing the exhaust pressure of the steam below atmosphere. Another advantage
of the condenser is that the steam condensed may be recovered to provide a source of good
pure feed water to the boiler and reduce the water softening capacity to a considerable
extent. A condenser is one of the essential components of a power plant.
Cooling Tower
The importance of the cooling tower is felt when the cooling water from the
condenser has to be cooled. The cooling water after condensing the steam becomes hot and
it has to be cooled as it belongs to a closed system. The Cooling towers do the job of
decreasing the temperature of the cooling water after condensing the steam in the condenser.
The type of cooling tower used in the Columbia Power Plant was an Inline Induced Draft
Cross Flow Tower. This tower provides a horizontal air flow as the water falls down the

tower in the form of small droplets. The fan centered at the top of units draws air through
two cells that are paired to a suction chamber partitioned beneath the fan. The outstanding
feature of this tower is lower air static pressure loss as there is less resistance to air flow. The
evaporation and effective cooling of air is greater when the air outside is warmer and dryer
than when it is cold and already saturated.
Superheater
The superheater consists of a superheater header and superheater elements. Steam
from the main steam pipe arrives at the saturated steam chamber of the superheater header
and is fed into the superheater elements. Superheated steam arrives back at the superheated
steam chamber of the superheater header and is fed into the steam pipe to the cylinders.
Superheated steam is more expansive.
Reheater
The reheater functions similar to the super heater in that it serves to elevate the steam
temperature. Primary steam is supplied to the high pressure turbine. After passing through
the high pressure turbine, the steam is returned to the steam generator for reheating (in a
reheater) after which it is sent to the low pressure turbine. A second reheat cycle may also be
provided

RESULT: