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Unit Structure
13.0
Overview
13.1
Learning Objectives
13.2
13.3
The Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark Ignition Engines
13.3.1 Representation of the Otto Cycle on T-s diagram
13.3.2 Energy Analysis of Otto Cycle
13.4
13.5
Summary
13.6
Answers to Activities
13.0 OVERVIEW
In Unit 12, we have seen power generation cycles which are an important area of
application for thermodynamics. In this unit, you will study another important area of
application, namely gas power cycles which are the basis for the operation of
automobile engines. These cycles are open ones, since in automobile engines the
combustion gases are exhausted and replaced by fresh air-fuel mixture at the end of
each cycle. Also, automobile engines are internal combustion heat engines since the
heat is supplied by burning the fuel within the system boundary.
1.
Unit 13
2.
Model the spark ignition (Otto) engine and calculate its thermal efficiency.
3.
Air being
The gas power cycles are rather complex and certain approximations known as Air
Standard Assumptions are necessary to simplify the analysis.
1.
The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a closed loop and
always behaves as an ideal gas.
2.
All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
3.
4.
The exhaust process is replaced by a heat rejection process that restores the
working fluid to its initial state.
5.
Air has constant specific heats whose values are determined at room
temperature. When this assumption is made, the air standard assumptions are
known as cold air standard assumptions.
A cycle for which the air standard assumptions are applicable is called an Air
Standard Cycle.
Unit 13
13.2.1
Intake valve
Exhaust valve
TDC
Bore
Stroke
BDC
The distance between TDC and BDC is the largest distance the piston can travel in
one direction and is called stroke of engine.
Unit 13
The air fuel mixture is drawn through intake valve and combustion products are
purged through exhaust valve.
The minimum volume in the cylinder when the cylinder is at TDC, is called the
clearance volume.
The volume displaced by the piston as it moves between TDC and BDC is called
displacement volume.
The ratio of the maximum volume formed in the cylinder to the minimum is called
compression ratio, r. (a volume ratio not a pressure ratio).
r=
Vmax V BDC
=
Vmin VTDC
The larger the MEP, the greater the net work per cycle, therefore the better the
performance of the engine. It is a fictitious pressure which if acted on the piston
during the entire power stroke, would produce the same amount of net work as that
produced during the actual cycle.
MEP =
Unit 13
Wnet
(Vmax Vmin )
IDEAL
CYCLE
FOR
SPARK
The ideal cycle for spark ignition engines, the Otto cycle was first proposed by
Nikolaus Otto who built a successful four stroke engine in 1876.
In most Spark Ignition engines, the piston executes 4 complete strokes within the
cylinder (2 mechanical cycles). These engines are known as four stroke internal
combustion engines and are shown in Figure 13.2.
Unit 13
Unit 13
Initially, intake and exhaust valves are closed and piston is at BDC.
1
During compression stroke, the piston moves upwards, compressing air and
fuel.
Spark plug fires and mixture ignites increasing P and T of the system. The
high pressure forces the piston down, performing useful work during
expansion stoke (also power stroke)
Piston draws in fresh air fuel mixture during the intake stroke.
For analysis purposes, the actual four stroke cycle represented in Figure 13.2 is
simplified significantly by using the air standard assumptions. The resulting cycle
(Figure 13.3) which closely resembles the actual operating conditions is the ideal Otto
cycle. It consists of four internally reversible processes:
12: isentropic compression
23: constant volume heat addition
34: isentropic expansion
41: constant volume heat rejection
Note: There are 2 stroke engines which execute the 4 functions in the actual four
stroke SI engine in just 2 strokes; the power and compression strokes. They are less
efficient than the 4-stroke counterpart because of incomplete expulsion of exhaust
gases. However, they are relatively simple and inexpensive with high power to
weight and volume which make them suitable for motorcycles, lawn mowers.
13.3.1
On a T-s diagram, the four processes in the ideal Otto cycle will constitute a cycle
with two vertical lines for the isentropic processes and two constant volume lines as
follows:
Unit 13
T
qin
2
4
qout
1
s
Figure 13.4: Representation of Otto Cycle on T-s Diagram
Heat in, qin = Tds for process 2 - 3
Heat out, q out = Tds for process 4 - 1
V1
where V1 = volume before compression
V2
13.3.2
The Otto cycle is executed in a closed system and thus, the first law relation for any of
the processes is expressed, on a unit mass basis as:
q w = u
(kJ/kg)
T
v=cst
2
4
1
v=cst
s
Figure 13.5
Processes 2-3 and 4-1 are constant volume processes. Therefore, no work is involved.
Unit 13
q 23 = u 3 u 2 = CV ( T3 T2 ) = qin
q 41 = u1 u 4 = CV ( T1 T4 ) = q out
If we assume Cv to be independent of temperature, then
Thermal efficiency of Otto cycle:
nth, Otto =
q out
wnet
(T T1 )
T (T / T 1)
= 1
= 1 4
= 1 1 4 1
(T3 T2 )
qin
qin
T2 (T3 / T2 1)
T
T1 v 2
v
= = 3 = 4
T2 v1
v4
T3
1
442443 14
42443
isentropic
nth, Otto =
v
T
1 1 = 1 2
T2
v1
isentropic
= 1
1
v1
v2
= 1
1
r
V1
v
also equal to 1 since mass of air is
V2
v2
Note: In the thermodynamics analysis, the volumes of cylinder at TDC and BDC are
approximated by the volumes of gas inside the cylinder at states 1, 2, 3 and 4. So
specific volumes of gas are used.
Activity 1
(b)
(c)
Unit 13
(1)
Gasoline Engines
(2)
a temperature below
Spark plug
Air Fuel
Air
Figure 13.6(a)
Figure 13.6(b)
The diesel engine has some advantages over the spark ignition engine in that it is
designed to operate at high compression ratios (12~24) as only air is compressed
during the compression stroke and less refined fuels can be used.
The Diesel Cycle is composed of similar processes as for the Otto Cycle except that
the constant volume heat addition process is now replaced by a constant pressure
heat addition since the combustion process takes place longer and the heat of
combustion can be approximated as heat addition at constant pressure.
Unit 13
10
qin
qin
P=cst
3
4
qout
3
4
qout
v=cst
V
Figure 13.7(a)
S
Figure 13.7(b)
V1
same as in
V2
Otto cycles and the cut-off ratio denoted by rc which is the ratio of the cylinder
volumes,
13.4.2
V3
, after and before the combustion process.
V2
The diesel cycle, like the Otto cycle, is executed in a piston-cylinder device, forming
a closed system.
= (p 3 v3 + u 3 ) ( p 2 v 2 + u 2 )
= h 3 - h 2 = C p (T3 T2 )
q out = q 41 = u 41 = + u 4 u 1 = C v (T4 T1 )
Unit 13
11
nth Diesel =
(T T1 )C v
|qout|
1 T (T / T 1)
= 1 4
= 1 1 4 1
(T3 T2 )C p
| qin |
T2 T3 / T2 1
T1 V2
=
T2 V1
T1
1
= 1
T2 r
Equation 13.1
T1 V2
=
T2 V1
V
= 3
rcV4
1 V3
1 T
= 1 4
1
rc V4
Vc T3
144424
443
Equation 13.2
isentropic process
T1
1 T T
1 T
= 1 4 4 = rc 3
T2 rc T3 T1
T2
and
T3 V3
=
= rc , for a constant pressure process.
T2 V2
1 rc 1 rc 1
(r ) 1 rc 1
nth diesel =
rc 1
1
= 1
(r ) 1 rc 1
1
Activity 2
At the beginning of the compression process of a standard Diesel cycle operating with
a compression ratio of 18, the temperature is 300 K and the pressure is 0.1 MPa. The
cut-off ratio is 2.
Unit 13
12
Determine
(a)
(b)
(c)
Cp
Cv
13.5 SUMMARY
A cycle during which a net amount of work is produced is called a power cycle, and a
power cycle during which the working fluid remains a gas is called a GAS POWER
CYCLE.
The actual gas cycles are rather complex. The approximations used to simplify the
analysis are known as the air-standard assumptions. If in addition, air is assumed to
have constant specific heats at room temperature, the air standard assumptions are
called cold-air standard assumptions.
The Otto Cycle is the ideal cycle for the spark ignition reciprocating engines and it
consists of four internally reversible processes: isentropic compression, constant
volume heat addition, isentropic expansion and constant volume heat rejection.
The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for the compression ignition reciprocating engines.
It is very similar to the Otto cycle, except that the constant volume heat addition
process is replaced by a constant pressure heat addition process.
Unit 13
13
3
2
4
1
S
Figure 13.9
Activity 1(b)
r=8
P1 = 1 atm
T1 = 16 0 C
v1 = 0.817 m 3 / kg
From r = 8; v 2 = 0.1021 m 3 / kg
and since
T2 v1
=
T1 v 2
T2 = 663K
1.4
P2 v1
= P2 = 1.84 MPa
P1 v 2
Process 2 3 Qin = C v (T3 T2 ) = 1858 KJ / kg
1858
= 3177 K
0.739
v3 = v 2 = 0.1021m 3 / kg
T3 = T2 +
and P3 = 77.7 MPa
Unit 13
0.4
14
v
Figure 13.10
0.4
v
T
Process 3 - 4, 3 = 4 T4 = 1382.8 K
T4 v3
q L = cv (T1 T4 ) = 0.739 (289 1382.8) 808 KJ/kg
KJ / kg
n th =
1049.6
= 1468 KPa
(0.817 0.1021
Activity 2
State 1:
P1 = 0.1 MPa
T = 300k
1
v1 = 0.8596m 3 / kg
P
2
3
4
1
V
Figure 13.8
Compression ratio r =
Unit 13
V1 v1
= = 18
V2 v2
15
1049.6
= 0.565
1858
v2 =
0.8596
= 0.048m 3 / kg
18
V
1. 4
P2 = 1 P1 = (18) 0.1 = 5.72
V2
MPa T2 =
v
T2 can also be evaluated as T2 = T1 1
v2
P3 = 5.72 MPa
rc = 2 =
v3
v3 = 0.096m 3 / kg
v2
v
T3 = T2 3 = 2 958 = 1916 K
v2
3 4 : P3 v3 = P4 v 4 and v 4 = v1
1.4
0.096
P4 = 5.72
= 0.266 MPa
0.8596
0.266 0.8596 29.10 3
T4 =
= 798 K
8.31
= 1
nth
( c )MEP
C v (T4 T1 )
C P (T3 T2 )
= 0.629
C p (T3 T2 ) C v (T4 T1 )
=
V1 V2
= 0.696 MPa
with
Unit 13
Cp
= 1 .4
= 1 KJ / kg .k
Cv
= 0.739 KJ / Kg .K
16
P2 v 2 M
= 958 K
Ru