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Chapter 4 Introduction to structural steel

4.1 Methods of Analysis
4.1.1 Introduction to frame behaviour
Global frame analysis aims at determining the distribution of the internal forces and the
corresponding deformations in a structure subjected to a specified loading.
Achieving this purpose requires the adoption of adequate models which incorporate
assumptions about the behaviour of the structure and in particular of its component
members and joints. The main purpose of this sub-chapter is to address the question of
modelling and analysis of structural behaviour for practical design purposes.
4.1.2 Load displacement relationship of frames
The response of a structure to loading applied to it can be expressed by the relationship
between a load parameter and a significant displacement parameter. An example of the
behaviour of a typical sway frame under increasing load is shown in Figure 4.1.
The resulting curve for a load parameter and horizontal (lateral) displacement parameter
can be considered to characterise the overall structural behaviour. In this case, the slope
of the curve is a measure of the lateral stiffness of the frame structure.
Load parameter

Linear elastic response

Displacement

Load

Peak load

Frame
Linear limit where geometric and/or joint
and/or material non-linearities become apparent

Displacement parameter

Figure 4.1 - Load displacement response of a framed structure

One observes that the response of the structure is quasi-linear up to a certain point (the
linear limit). Once the linear limit is reached, the positive slope of the rising part of the
curve gradually reduces due to a combination of three kinds of non-linearity: geometrical
non-linearity, joint non-linearity and material non-linearity. Joint non-linearity usually
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manifests itself at relatively low levels of load. Geometrical non-linearity expresses the
influence of the actual deformed shape of the structure on the distribution of the internal
forces. Typically it becomes evident well before the onset of material yielding, i.e.
material non-linearity. Beyond the latter, the response becomes progressively non-linear
as the load increases up to a maximum. Once the maximum load is reached, equilibrium
would require a decrease in the magnitude of the loads as deformations increase. The
slope of the curve (i.e., the stiffness) is zero at the peak load and then it becomes negative
indicating that the structure is henceforward unstable. The peak load, often termed the
ultimate load, is the point of imminent structural collapse in the absence of the possibility
of load shedding.
4.1.3 Modelling of building structures for analysis
Global analysis of frames is conducted on a model based on many assumptions including
those for the structural model, the geometric behaviour of the structure and of its
members and the behaviour of the sections and of the joints.
Once the analysis is achieved, a number of design checks of the frame and its
components (members and joints) must be performed. These checks depend on the type
of analysis performed and the type of cross-section verification (i.e. ultimate limit state
criteria) used.
4.1.4 Global elastic frame analysis
Linear-elastic analysis implies an indefinite linear response of sections and joints (see
Figure 2). Equilibrium is expressed with reference to the non-deformed configuration of
the structure in a first-order analysis.
M

Mj

Elastic

Elastic

Mj
M

Moment rotation characteristic of the section

Moment rotation characteristic of the joint

Figure 4.2 - Moment rotation characteristics of member and joint

A priori, no requirements related to the ability of sections and joints to exhibit ductile
behaviour (class of member cross-section, ductility class of joint) are imposed. However
the class of member cross-section to be finally adopted depends on the type of crosssection verification (ultimate resistance criteria) used.
Frame analysis
Elastic global analysis with linear member and joint behaviour results in a linear load
deflection curve (see Figure 3).
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Load parameter

1st order elastic analysis

linear member and joint behaviour

Displacement parameter

Figure 4.3 - Load displacement response: First-order elastic analysis

Designers are quite familiar with first-order elastic analysis which is the simplest of all
possible types of analysis. Over the years, a variety of methods have been developed
aimed at hand calculation such as the slope-deflection method, the moment-distribution
method as well as analytical formulae (sometimes presented in non-dimensional
graphical form) for rapid analysis. They can be generalised so as to include the joint
behaviour. The same applies to procedures based on matrix formulation, which have now
almost entirely supplanted the hand methods, as computer use has become common
practice in design offices.
4.1.5 Methods of global plastic frame analysis
Plastic methods of analysis are permitted only when certain minimum requirements on
steel ductility, member cross-section ductility, joint ductility and lateral support at hinges
locations are met. These are needed in order to guarantee that sections and joints, at least
at the locations at which the plastic hinges may form, have sufficient rotation capacity to
permit all the plastic hinges to develop throughout the structure.
4.1.5.1 Elastic-perfectly plastic analysis (Second-order theory)
In the elastic-perfectly plastic analysis, it is assumed that any section and/or joint remains
elastic up to the attainment of the plastic moment resistance, at which point it becomes
ideally plastic. Plastic deformations are assumed to be concentrated at the plastic hinge
locations which are assumed to have an infinite rotational capacity. That actual rotation
capacities are sufficient to meet what is required must usually be checked later.
Figure 4 shows the elastic-perfectly plastic behaviour of a section and a joint. The
influence of the normal force and/or the shear force on the plastic moment resistance of
the sections may either be accounted for directly or be checked later at the design
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verification stage. (Note: The plastic hinge moment resistance to be adopted is the design
value Mpl,Rd.)
The load displacement curve of the frame can be determined. Computation of the plastic
rotations at the plastic hinges may also be carried out so as to permit the check that the
required rotation capacity is available.
Elastic
perfectly plastic

Elastic
perfectly plastic

M j.Rd

Mj

M pl.Rd

M pl.Rd
M j.Rd

M pl.Rd

Plastic hinge

Plastic hinge

Moment rotation characteristcs of the cross section

Moment rotation characteristics of the joint

Figure 4.4 - Behaviour of members and joints

4.1.5.2 Elasto-plastic analysis (second-order theory)
Using a second-order elasto-plastic analysis a better estimation of the structural response
can be obtained (relative to that provided by a first-order or even a second-order elasticperfectly plastic analysis for instance).
Elasto - plastic

Elasto - plastic

Mj

M
M

Mj
p

M pl

M j.R

M el

M jel.R

Moment rotation characteristcs of the member

Moment rotation characteristics of the joint

Figure 4.5 - Moment rotation characteristics of member and joint

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Yielding of members and joints is a progressive process and so the transition from elastic
behaviour to a plastic one is a gradual phenomenon. Once yielding commences, as the
moment in the member cross section continues to increases, the plastic zone extends
partially along the member as well as through the depth of the cross-section. This
behaviour is considered by the plastic zone theory.
Figure 5 shows the moment rotation characteristics of members and joints which are
usually adopted in this type of analysis. The beneficial effects of material strain
hardening or membrane action in joints have not been included in these models.
The ductility requirements for the members and joints, and the procedure for analysis and
for checks are the same as those outlined for second-order elastic-perfectly plastic
analysis.
The elasto-plastic method, because of its complexity, is not used for practical design
purposes and is restricted to computer research applications.
4.1.5.3 Rigid-plastic analysis (first-order theory)
Contrary to the elastic-plastic analysis, the elastic deformations (of members, joints and
foundations), being small compared to the plastic deformations, are ignored in the rigidplastic analysis. As for the elastic-perfectly plastic analysis, the plastic deformations are
concentrated in sections and joints where plastic hinges are likely to occur. These sections
and joints are assumed to have an infinite rotational capacity.
Figure 6 shows the idealised rigid-plastic response of the sections and the joints which
are adopted for this type of analysis. As a result, the values of the design moment
resistance for sections and joints as well as the structural configuration and the loading
are the only parameters that affect rigid-plastic analysis.
Rigid plastic
Mpl.Rd

Rigid plastic

Mpl.Rd

Mj

M j,Rd

M pl.Rd
Plastic hinge
Mj,Rd

Plastic hinge

p
Moment rotation characteristics of the member

Moment rotation characteristics of the joint

Figure 4.6 - Moment rotation characteristics of member and joint

The ductility requirements for the members and the joints are the same as that for the
elastic-perfectly plastic analysis. Rigid-plastic methods are not usually suited for secondorder analysis.
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4.2 STRUCTURAL JOINTS

The rotational behaviour of actual joints is well recognised as being often intermediate
between the two extreme situations, i.e. rigid or pinned.
Consider now the bending moments and the related rotations at a joint (Figure 4.7):

(a) Rigid joint

(b) Pinned joint

(c) Semi-rigid joint

Figure 4.7 Classification of joints according to stiffness

When all the different parts in the joint are sufficiently stiff (i.e. ideally infinitely stiff),
the joint is rigid, and there is no difference between the respective rotations at the ends of
the members connected at this joint (Figure 4.77.a). The joint experiences a single global
rigid-body rotation which is the nodal rotation in the commonly used analysis methods
for framed structures.
Should the joint be without any stiffness, then the beam will behave just as simply
supported whatever the behaviour of the other connected member(s) (Figure 4.77.b). This
is a pinned joint.
For intermediate cases (non zero and non infinite stiffness), the transmitted moment will
result in there being a difference between the absolute rotations of the two connected
members (Figure 4.77.c). The joint is semi-rigid in these cases.
The simplest means for representing the concept is a rotational (spiral) spring between
the ends of the two connected members. The rotational stiffness S of this spring is the
parameter that links the transmitted moment Mj to the relative rotation which is the
difference between the absolute rotations of the two connected members.
When this rotational stiffness S is zero, or when it is relatively small, the joint falls back
into the pinned joint class. In contrast, when the rotational stiffness S is infinite, or when
it is relatively high, the joint falls into the rigid joint class. In all the intermediate cases,
the joint belongs to the semi-rigid joint class.
For semi-rigid joints the loads will result in both a bending moment Mj and a relative
rotation between the connected members. The moment and the relative rotation are
related through a constitutive law which depends on the joint properties. This is
illustrated in Figure 8, where, for the sake of simplicity, the global analysis is assumed to
be performed with linear elastic assumptions.
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At the global analysis stage, the effect of having semi-rigid joints instead of rigid or
pinned joints is to modify not only the displacements, but also the distribution and
magnitude of the internal forces throughout the structure.
As an example, the bending moment diagrams in a fixed-base simple portal frame
subjected to a uniformly distributed load are given in Figure 9 for two situations, where
the beam-to-column joints are respectively either pinned or semi-rigid. The same kind of
consideration holds for deflections.
Mj

Mj

(a) Rigid joint

( = 0)

Mj

(b) Pinned joint

(Mj = 0)

(c) Semi-rigid joint

(Mj and 0)

Figure 4.8 Modelling of joints (case of elastic global analysis)

(a) Pinned joints

(b) Semi-rigid joints

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Figure 4.9 Elastic distribution of bending moments in a simple

portal frame
4.3 THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
Hot Rolling Process
Liquid steel is cast into ingots [Fig.(23(d)], which after soaking at 1280-1300 0 C in the
soaking pits [(Fig.23(e)] are rolled in the blooming and billet mill into blooms/billets
[(Fig.23(f)] or in slabbing mill into slabs. The basic shapes such as ingots, cast slabs,
bloom and billets are shown in Fig.24. The blooms are further heated in the reheating
furnaces at 1250-12800 C and rolled into billets or to large structurals[(Fig.23(h)]. The
slabs after heating to similar temperature are rolled into plates in the plate mill. Even
though the chemical composition of steel dictates the mechanical properties, its final
mechanical properties are strongly influenced by rolling practice, finishing temperature,
and cooling rate and subsequent heat treatment.

Ingot

Slab

Bloom

Billet

Basic shapes and their relative proportions

The slabs or blooms or the billets can directly be continuously cast from the liquid state
and thereafter are subjected to further rolling after heating in the reheating furnaces.
In the hot rolling operation the material passes through two rolls where the gap between
rolls is lower than the thickness of the input material. The material would be repeatedly
passed back and forth through the same rolls several times by reducing the gap between
them during each pass. Plain rolls (Fig.25) are used for flat products such as plate, strip
and sheet, while grooved rolls (Fig. 26) are used in the production of structural sections,
rails, rounded and special shapes. The rolling process, in addition to shaping the steel into
the required size, improves the mechanical properties by refining the grain size of the
material.
Final rolling of structurals, bars/rods and HRC/CRC or sheet product is done in
respective mills. In case of cold rolled sheets/coils, the material is annealed and skin
passed to provide it the necessary ductility and surface finish

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Cold rolling and cold forming

Cold rolling, as the term implies involves reducing the thickness of unheated material
into thin sheets by applying rolling pressure at ambient temperature. The common cold
rolled products are coils and sheets. Cold rolling results in smoother surface and
improved mechanical properties. Cold rolled sheets could be made as thin as 0.3 mm.
Cold forming is a process by which the sheets (hot rolled / cold rolled) are folded in to
desired section profile by a series of forming rolls in a continuous train of roller sets.
Such thin shapes are impossible to be produced by hot rolling. The main advantage of
cold-formed sheets in structural application is that any desired shape can be produced. In
other words it can be tailor-made into a particular section for a desired member
performance. These cold formed sheet steels are basically low carbon steels (<0.1 %
carbon) and after rolling these steel are reheated to about 6500-7230C and at this stage
ferrite is recrystalised and also result in finer grain size. Because of the presence of
ferrite, the ductility is enhanced.
4.4 DESIGN PRINCIPLE EBCS 3 PROVISIONS

The design of any structure will be assessed by safety economy and appearance
Safety is assessed by considering the strength of the structure relative to the loads
which it is expected to carry. Safety assessment is applied to each structural
element and overall framework
Economic design result from finding the smallest structural size and weight with
the consideration of fabrication and erection process
The appearance of the finished structure is generally of great importance owing to
the very size and impact of frames in structures

Partial safety factors

Safety factors are used in all designs to allow for variabilities of load, material,
workmanship and soon, which cant be assessed with absolute certainty. They must be
sufficient to cover:
i. Load variations
ii. Load combinations
iii.
Design and detailing procedures
iv. Fabrication and erection procedures
v. Material variations
Partial safety factor of steels, m=1.1
Resistance of class 1,2or 3 cross-section: mo=1.1
Resistance of class 4 cross-section: m1=1.1
Resistance of member to buckling: m1=1.1
Resistance of net section at bolt holes: m2=1.25
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Partial safety factor for loads

Loading

Load factor

Dead load

1.3

Live ( Imposed) load

1.6

Design assumptions
1) Simple Framing
i) In simple framing the connection between the members may be assumed not to develop
moments. In global analysis, members may be assumed to be effectively pin connected.
ii) The connection should satisfy the requirements for nominally pinned connections, as
given section 6.1.3 of EBCS-3.
2) Continuous Framing
Elastic analysis, rigid-plastic analysis and elastic-plastic analysis should be based on the
assumption for full continuity, with rigid connections which satisfy the requirements
given in section6.1.4 of EBCS-3.
3) Semi-continuous Framing
i) Elastic analysis should be based on reliably predicated design moment-rotation or
force-displacement
characteristics for the connections used.
ii) Rigid-plastic analysis should be based on the design moment resistance of connections
which have been demonstrated to have sufficient rotation capacity
iii) Elastic-plastic analysis should be based on the design moment-rotation characteristics
of the connections.
Material properties for hot rolled steel
The nominal values of the yield strength fy and the ultimate tensile strength fu for hot
rolled steel are given in Tabel3.1 of EBCS-3 for grade Fe 360, Fe 430 and Fe 510

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Classification of cross-sections
Depending on the width to thickness ratio of the elements of a cross-section, under
compression, EBCS-3 defines in section 4.3.2, four different classes of cross-sections.
These are:
Class1 Plastic cross-sections:- Those which can form a plastic hinge with the rotation
capacity required for plastic analysis
Class2 Compact cross-sections:- Those which can develop their plastic moment
resistance, but have limited rotation capacity
Class3 Semi-compact cross-sections:- Those in which the calculated stress in the
extreme compression fiber of the member can be its yield strength, but local buckling is
liable to prevent development of the full plastic moment resistance
Class4 Thin-walled cross-sections:- Those in which it is necessary to make explicit
allowances for the effects of local buckling. Yield in extreme fibers cant be attained
because of premature local buckling in elastic range
The classification of compression elements include every element of cross-section which
is either totally or partially under compression, due to axial force, bending moment, and
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under combination of loads considered. A cross-section is classified by quoting the least

favorable class of its compression element. Alternatively, the classification of a crosssection may be defined by quoting both the flange classification and the web
classification. The limiting proportion of class1,2 and 3 compression elements are
obtained from Table4.1 of EBCS-3. An element which fails to satisfy the limits of class-3
are taken as class-4.
Thin walled sections
Where a thin walled section element is in compression the yield stress fy shall be reduced
by the factor given in tabel4.2 page-43. Alternatively the effective cross-sectional
properties for class-4 may be determined based on effective area of compression element
as described in section 4.3.4 (page-45)
A reduction factor is to be determined for finding effective width of element.

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Effective cross-section for class 4 in compression and bending

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Examples

Example1
Determine the classification of 305X102X28UB of grade Fe430if the sections is used as;(a)column under
axial compression load, and (b) Flexural member bending about its major axis
Solution
Relevant cross-section properties
h=308.9mm
tf=8.9mm
b=101.9mm
tw=6.1mm
r=7.6mm
For Fe430steel grade fy=2754N/mm2, thus =
a) Section used as column under axial compression load
i) Outstand element of compression flange (Table4.1 of EBCS-3)
c/tf=(b/2)/tf=(101.9/2)/8.9=5.73<8.5=8.5*0.92=7.82
Hence, based on flange classification the cross-section is classified as class-1
ii) Web where whole section is subject to compression (Table4.1 of EBCS-3)
d=h-2tf-2r=308.9-2(8.9)-2(7.6)=275.9mm
d/tw=275.9/6.1=42.23 > 44=44*0.92=40.48 for class-2
< 51=51*0.92=46.92 for class-3
Hence, based on web classification, the cross-section is classified as class-3
The whole cross-section has to be classified as class-3
b) Section used as flexural member bending about major axis
i) Outstand element of compression flange
As the flange of this cross section is under compression it will same as in part(a) above, thus the section is
class-1.
ii) Web with neutral axis at mid-height
d/tw=275.9/6.1=42.23 < 79=79*0.92=72.68
Hence the cross-section is classified as class-1
The whole cross section has to be
classified as class-1
Example 2
Determine the effective area of 406X140X39UB of Fe430 grade if the section is used as a centrally loaded
column.
Solution
Relevant cross-section properties
h= 397.3mm
r=10.2mm
b=141.8mm
A=4940mm2
tw=6.3mm
tf=8.6mm
For Fe430steel grade fy=2754N/mm2, thus =
i) Outstand element of compression flange
c/tf=(b/2)/tf=(141.8/2)/8.6=8.2 >8.5=8.5*0.92=7.82
< 9.5=9.5*0.92=8.74
Hence, the flange is class-2 and is fully effective
ii) Web, where whole section is subject to compression
d/tw=359.7/6.3=57.1 > 51=51*0.92=46.92
Hence, the web is considered as class-4
Stress distribution: since the column is axially loaded, the stress distribution is uniform (i.e. 1=2). Table
4.3 of EBCS-3 is used to calculate the effective width. For

.0, the corresponding value of K=4

According to section 4.3.4 of EBCS-3

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Substituting,
(359.7/6.3) /(28.4X0.92*

)=1.09 >0.673

= (0.22)/ 2= (1.090.22)/1.092=0732
beff=b=0.732*359.7=263.4mm
Therefore, the area that should be ignored at center of the web is
A=(b-beff)tw=(359.7263.3)*6.3=607mm2
The effective area becomes
Aeff=AA=4940607=4333mm2
Example 3
Classify the sections: ISA (Indian Standard Angle) 200X200X12 with steel grade of Fe360

fy for Fe360=235MPa

=
8.5=8.5*1=8.5
9.5=9.5*1=9.5
15=15 and 23=23

The element fails to satisfy the limits of class-3; therefore the section is classified as class-4(Thin walled
section)
Example 4 classify the section ISA 75X50X8Grade 430
h=75mm
fy=275MPa
b=80mm

t=8mm

b/t=50/8=6.25
8.5=8.5*0.92=7.82
h/t=75/8=9.375
9.5=9.5*0.92=8.74
(h+b)/8=15.625
15=15*0.92=13.8 and 23=23*0.92=21.16
Short leg: - b/t=6.25 < 7.82(i.e. 8.5) It is clas-1(plastic section)
Long leg:- h/t=9.375> 9.5<15 and (h+b)/t=15.625<23 It is class-3( Semi compact section)
The section is said to be a semi compact sections
4.2 Deign of tension and compression members
1) Tension members

Tension members are efficient carries of axial load and are used in
many types of structures

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The form of tension member is governed to a large extent by the type

of structure, which is it part and by the method of jointing it to
connecting portions of structure.

The simplest tension members are made of wire rope or cable, round and square bars, and
rectangular bars or plate. Single shapes, such as angle, the plate, the W and S shapes, and
the T may be used as tension members. However two or more shapes are often combined
to form a Built-up member
I) Axially loaded tension members

Where Npl,Rd and Nu,Rd =Design plastic &Design ultimate resistance respectively
A and Aeff = Gross and Effective areas respectively
M1 and M2 =safety factors at solid and hole sections respectively
fy and fu = Yield and Ultimate tensile strengths of steel.
Failure of tension member is considered to occur either when the gross section has
reached the yield strength, or when the net cross-section (where holes occur at
connections) reaches the ultimate strength.
Example 1 Determine the design strength of an angle, ISA 90X90X10, is grade of Fe360
used as welded bracing members under tension
Solution
The gross area of the section is A= 17.03cm2=1703mm2(it is taken from ISA table for
that section)
The yield strength for Fe360 steel grade is, fy=235MPa
The partial safety factor for the section (section 4.1.1(2)) is m1=1.1
The design plastic resistance is:
Npl,Rd=Afy/ m1=(1703mm2*235N/mm2)/1.1=363822.73N=363.82KN

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Example 2 Determine the design strength of an angle, ISA 80X50X6 is grade of Fe430
used as a welded bracing members, connected by its smaller leg. The member is under
tension.
Solution
As per specification in page129, of EBCS-3
For an unequal angle, connected by its smaller leg, effective area is equal to the cross
section area of equal angel with leg length equal to the smaller leg.
Therefore area of cross section = Area of cross section of ISA 50X50X6
=5.68cm2=568mm2
The yield strength for Fe430 steel grade is, fy=275MPa
The partial safety factor for the section is m1=1.1
The design plastic resistance is:
Npl,Rd=Afy/ m1=(568mm2*275N/mm2)/1.1=142000N=142KN
Example 3
Determine the design strength of an angle 100X100X10 in grade Fe430 used as a bolted
bracing member with single row of 16.5mm holes at each leg of the angle.
Solution
The gross area of the section is A= 19.2cm2=1920mm2
The net area of the section is
Aeff=1920-2X16.5X10=1590mm2
The ultimate strength for grade Fe430 is, fu=430N/mm2
The partial safety factor for the net section (section4.1.1(2)) is m2=1.25
The design ultimate resistance of the net section is:
Nu, Rd=0.9Aefffu/ m2=0.9*1590*430/1.25=492KN
The yield strength for Fe430steel grade is, fy=275MPa
The partial safety factor for the section (section 4.1.1(2)) is m1=1.1
The design plastic resistance is:
Npl,Rd=Afy/ m1=(1920mm2*275N/mm2)/1.1=480000N=480KN
Nu, Rd=492KN > Npl,Rd=480KN the design strength of the bolted bracing members is
controlled by the yield strength of full section.
II) Tension members with moment
Members subjected to axial tensile force and bending moments do not occur frequently in
reality, while members subjected to axial compression force and bending moment are
quite common and are dealt with great detail in next chapter.
To design members subjected to axial tensile force and moment the following steps
should be followed:
1. Determine the tensile axial force and bending moment applied to the member
2. Select a trial section
3. Check the section for local buckling under moment alone
4. Determine the design plastic resistance of the gross section or the design ultimate
resistance of the net section
5. Determine the resistance moment about one or both axes as required
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6. Check the interaction expression given by Eq.4.25 of EBCS-3 to determine whether

the cross section is adequate for the applied tensile axial force and the moments
Eq. 4.25 of EBCS-3
Example 1 A tension members have to resist a load 600KN. Select suitable angle
sections if the connection is made by welding to gusset plate and the steel grade is Fe360.
Solution: The design plastic resistance of the gross c/s
Npl,Rd=Afy/ m1=(A*235N/mm2)/1.1=600000N
A=600000/235=2808.5mm2
If it is a single angle, try 130X130X12mm Area=2918mm2
If it is double angle, try 80X80X10mm-(2numbers) A=2*15.05mm2=30.1mm2
Example 2 A 406 X178 X67 UB grade Fe430 beam is laterally restrained against lateral
buckling subjected to a factored bending moment of 120KNm about the major axis and
20KNm about the minor axis. Determine the maximum axial force the beam can carry
Solution: Relevant cross-section properties
h= 409.4mm
r=10.2mm
b=141.8mm
A=8550mm2
tw=8.8mm
d=360.5mm
tf=14.3mm
Plastic section modulus
Elastic section modulus
3
Wpl,y=1350cm
Wel,y=1190cm3
Wpl,z=237cm3
Wel,z=153cm3
Step1 and Step 2: the loads and the section is already given no need the deal these steps
Step 3: check for local buckling
For Fe430steel grade fy=275 N/mm2, thus =
i) Outstand element of compression flange (Table4.1 of EBCS-3)
c/tf=(b/2)/tf=(178.8/2)/14.3=6.25<8.5=8.5*0.92=7.82
Hence, based on flange classification the cross-section is classified as class-1
:- No local buckling will take place
ii) Web with neutral axis at mid height
d/tw=360.5/8.8=40.97< 79=79*0.92=72.68 for class-1
This element also is class-1; no local buckling takes place in whole section
Step 4: calculation the plastic resistance of the gross section
Npl,Rd=Afy/ m1=(1350 X 103 mm2*275N/mm2)/1.1=2351000N/1.1=2137.27KN
Step 5: calculation the resistance moment about both axes
(a) Major axis bending for class 1 section
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My,Rd=Wpl,y fy/m1=(1350 X 10 3 X 275 X10 -6)/1.1=337.5KNm

(b) Minor axis bending for class 1 section
Mz Rd= Wpl,zfy/m1=(237 X 10 3 X 275 X 10-6 )/1.1= 59.3KNm
Step 6: check for combined effect:
According to equation 4.25 of EBCS-3

Nsd=656.5KN

Example 3 Find the adequacy of the section 457 X 152 X 82 UB of grade to act as a
member subjected to an axial load of 550KN and a biaxial bending about its major axis of
150KNm and minor axis of 25KNm
Solution: Relevant cross-section properties
h= 409.4mm
b=153.5mm
A=10400mm2
tw=10.7mm
d=406.9mm
tf=18.7mm
Plastic section modulus
Elastic section modulus
3
Wpl,y=1800cm
Wel,y=1560cm3
3
Wpl,z=235cm
Wel,z=149cm3
Check for local bucking
For Fe430, fy=275MPa and =0.92
(i) Outstand element of compression flange (Table4.1 of EBCS-3)
c/tf=(b/2)/tf=(153.5/2)/18.9=4.06<8.5=8.5*0.92=7.82
Hence, based on flange classification the cross-section is classified as class-1
:- No local buckling will take place
ii) Web with neutral axis at mid height
d/tw=406.9/10.7=38.02< 79=79*0.92=72.68 for class-1
This element also is class-1; no local buckling takes place in whole section
Plastic resistance of gross section
Npl,Rd=Afy/ m1=(10400 mm2*275N/mm2)/1.1=2600KN
Calculation for resistance moment about major and minor axes
Major axis: My,Rd=Wpl,y fy/m1=(1800X 10 3 X 275 X10 -6)/1.1=450KNm
Manor axis: Mz Rd= Wpl,zfy/m1=(235 X 10 3 X 275 X 10-6 )/1.1= 58.75KNm
Check for combined effect

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0.2115 + 0.3333 +0.4255 <1.0

0.97< 1 hence ok
2) Design of compression members
Compression members are usually given names given names which identify them as
particular members in structure

In building frames are called columns

Compression members in truss are known according to their position as chord
members or web members
The principal compression member in crane is called a boom
Some types of compression member are called struts
They are sometimes called posts in bridge structure

Test on axially loaded, pin-ended struts show that their behavior can be represented by a
number of curves which relate to the type of section and the axis of buckling. These
curves are dependent on material strength and initial imperfection, which affect the
inelastic behavior and the inelastic buckling load.
Axially loaded compression members should be designed for the following limit states:
(1) yield strength, (2) overall column buckling (flexure buckling, torsional buckling, or
torsional-flexural bucking) and (3) local buckling of individual elements (class 4 crosssection). The governing failure mode depends on the configuration of cross-section,
thickness of material, unbraced length, and end restraint.

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Hawassa University

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Hawassa University

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Hawassa University

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Hawassa University

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Hawassa University

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Design steps for buckling resistance of axially loaded compression members

1. Determine the axial load in the compression member
2. Determine the buckling length Leff. In EBCS-3 section 4.5.2.1(page 48-51), it is
given the definition for buckling length Leff is given as

Also is given that in the absence of better information the theoretical buckling length for
elastic critical buckling may conservatively be adapted
3. Select a trial section
4. Determine the class of the cross section
5. Determine the non-dimensional slenderness ratio
from section 4.5.4.3 of
EBCS-3
Where

A=defined already
6. Using table 4.11 of EBCS-3, determine the appropriate buckling curve
7. Using table 4.9 find the value of . interpolation shall be used for more exact
values.
8. Calculate the design buckling resistance Nb,RD of the member

9. Check the computed buckling resistance against the applied load. If the calculated
value is inadequate or is too high, select another section and back to step-4.

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