INTRODUCTION.

A structure should be built to withstand the external forces acted on it or else the structure
would fail. Identifying, analyzing, and gauging the loadings is the first step in designing a structure.
One of these loadings is the wind load.

Wind is air in motion. Wind is air in motion. It has different velocities and has differences in pressure.
However, when averaged over time duration, a mean velocity of a certain location can be defined. When
a structure blocks the flow of the wind, the kinetic energy of the wind is converted into pressure, which is
converted into a wind loading. The loading would depend upon the density of the air, the velocity and
angle of the wind flow, the shape and stiffness of the structure and its surface.

Analyzing wind loads can be done by either of the two methods (ASEP, 2001): the wind-tunnel procedure
which uses simulation techniques to recreate both static and dynamic responses of buildings towards the
wind; and the analytical procedure which will be presented in this report. The National Structural Code of
the Philippines by ASEP will be utilized in this report for us to be acquainted with its minimum
requirements.

National Structural Code of the Philippines. The National Structural Code of the Philippines is a compilation
of structural codes produced by the Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, also known as
ASEP.

It serves as a guide in many aspects of design and construction and enhances not only the engineers’
but also the students’ knowledge in the minimum requirements and standards to safeguard life or limb,
property and public welfare by regulating and controlling the design, construction, quality of materials
pertaining to the structural aspects of all buildings and structures within this jurisdiction.

Occupancy Category
Occupancy
Occupancy or Functions of Structure
Category
Occupancies having surgery and emergency treatment areas,
Fire and Police stations,
Garages and shelters for emergency vehicles and emergency aircraft,
Structures and shelters in emergency preparedness centers,
Aviation control towers,
I. Essential Facilities
Structures and equipment in communication centers and other facilities required for emergency
response,
Standby power-generating equipment for Category 1 Facilities,
Tanks or other structures containing housing or supporting water or other fire-suppression material
or equipment required for the protection of Category 1, 2 or 3 structures
Occupancies and structure therein housing or supporting toxic or explosive chemicals or
II. Hazardous Facilities substances,
Non-building structures housing, supporting or containing quantities of toxic or explosive
substances.
Buildings with an assembly room with an occupant capacity of 1,000 or more,
Educational building with a capacity of 300 or more students,
Building used for college or adult education with a capacity of 500 or more students,
Institutional buildings with 50 or more incapacitated patients, but not included in category 1.
III. Special Occupancy Mental hospitals, sanitariums, jails, prison and other buildings where personal liberties of inmates
Structures are similarly restrained,
All structures with an occupancy of 5,000 or more persons,
Structures and equipment in power-generating stations, and other public utility facilities not
included in Category 1 or Category 2 above, and required for continued operation.
IV. Standard Occupancy All structures housing occupancies having functioned not listed in Category 1, 2, 3 above and
Structures category 5 below.
V. Miscellaneous
Private garages, carports, sheds, agricultural buildings, and fences over 1.8 meters high.
Structures

Wind Loads. The most common lateral force is the wind load. The
wind normal to the wall facing to it is termed as the
windward side. It creates a positive pressure while the same
wind creates a suction or negative pressure on the wall
facing away from the wind, termed as the leeward side .

The wind also creates an internal pressure –

either positive or negative, depending on
the openings of the building.
 Failures. Failure to design a building appropriate to its
wind load will result in uplifting, overturning, or sliding
(MNHS, 1998). Uplift of a building is a result of
aerodynamics influenced by Bernoulli’s Principle on Fluids.
Overturn happens when the supports are not strong
enough to withstand the force of the wind – or when
bracings are not properly placed. Shearing failure due to
the strength of the material will cause sliding of the
building.
Every structure and all of its portion should be
designed and constructed to resist the wind effects
determined in accordance with the requirements in the
NSCP. In the analytical procedure, the building should be
regular in shape and form, and should not have any
dynamic responses e.g. vortex shedding and resonance.
These usually occur in tall buildings (Yang, 2006).
Velocity Pressure (qz). The velocity pressure qz is
derived from the Bernoulli’s equation of fluid flow
(Hibbeler, 2006):
q= 12ρV2
where,
ρ = mass density of air = air density (1.30 kg/m3) divided by
gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/sec2)
V = basic wind speed in kph
So, considering other factors to velocity pressure qz, the following
equation is obtained (ASEP, 2001):

qz = 47.3X10-6 KzKztV2Iw
where,
qz = velocity pressure in kPa

V = basic wind speed in km/hr

Iw = importance factor

Kz = velocity pressure exposure coefficient

Kzt = topographic factor

Wind speed (V). Basic wind speed, V, is a 3-second gust speed

at 10 m above the ground in Exposure C and associated
with an annual probability of 0.02 of being equaled or
exceeded (50-yr mean recurrence interval) (ASEP, 2001).
The basic wind speed is obtained meteorologically and is
already predetermined for our use. The following map
shows the velocities of the wind according to its
geographical location.
 Importance factor (Iw)
Occupancy Iw
Description
Category
I Essential 1.15
II Hazardous 1.15
III Special Occupancy 1.15
IV Standard Occupancy 1.00
V Miscellaneous 0.87
Importance factor, Iw is a factor that accounts for
the degree of hazard to human life and damage to property (ASEP, 2001).
It is based on its Occupancy Category.

Wind Speed-up over Hills and Escarpments. Topographic Factor, Kzt, is the factor that accounts for wind
speed due to hills and escarpments (Hibbeler, 2006). This factor applies to isolated hills or escarpments
located in exposure B, C, or D where the upwind terrain is free of such topographic features for a
distance equal to 50H or 1km, whichever is smaller, as measured from the point at which H is
determined. Wind speed-up over isolated hills and escarpments that constitute abrupt changes in the
general topography (ASEP, 2001).

2
Kzt= (1 + K1K2K3)

where
K1 = factor to account for shape of topographic feature and maximum speed-up effect
K2 = factor to account for reduction in speed-up with distance upwind or downwind of crest
K3 = factor to account for reduction in speed-up with height above local terrain
Lh = distance upwind of crest to where the difference in ground elevation is half the height of hill or escarpment
H = height of hill or escarpment relative to the upwind terrain
X = distance from the crest to the building site
Z = height above local ground level

Topographic Multiplier for Exposure C

V(z)
K1 Multiplier K2 Multiplier K3 Multiplier
2-D 2-D 2-D x/Lh 2-D z/Lh 2-D 2-D 2-D
Z
H/Lh AoC's Speed-up
(R) (E) (AsH) (E) (R) (E) (AsH)
V(z)
0.2 0.29 0.17 0.21 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 x(Upwind) x(Downwind)

0.25 0.36 0.21 0.26 0.5 0.88 0.67 0.1 0.74 0.78 0.67 H/2
H
Lh H/2
0.3 0.43 0.26 0.32 1 0.75 0.33 0.2 0.55 0.61 0.45
0.35 0.51 0.3 0.37 1.5 0.63 0 0.3 0.41 0.47 0.3
ESCARPMENT
0.4 0.58 0.34 0.42 2 0.5 0 0.4 0.3 0.37 0.2
0.45 0.65 0.38 0.47 2.5 0.38 0 0.5 0.22 0.29 0.14
V(z)
0.5 0.72 0.43 0.53 3 0.25 0 0.6 0.17 0.22 0.09
Z
3.5 0.13 0.7 0.12 0.17 0.06
V(z) Speed-up
4 0 0 0.8 0.09 0.14 0.04
x(Upwind) x(Downwind)
0.9 0.07 0.11 0.03 H/2
H
1 0.05 0.08 0.02 H/2
Lh
1.5 0.01 0.02 0
2 0 0 0 2-D Ridge or 2-D Axisymmetrical Hill
(R)- Ridge;
(E) – Escarpment;
(AsH) – Axisymmetrical Hill;
 (AoC's) – All other Cases

Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient (Kz). Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient, Kz, is the velocity
pressure exposure coefficient. This is a function of height and depends upon the ground terrain.
Buildings are dependent on its location and what surrounds it. This is referred to as the exposure of the
building. The Exposure Category reflects the ground surface irregularities and roughness that came from
vegetation and other buildings.
Exposure A is a large city centre with at least 50% of the buildings 21 or more meters tall. Urban,
suburban and wooded areas are classified under Exposure B. Exposure C is an open terrain with
scattered obstructions having heights of 9 meters or less. Areas that are unobstructed and flat belongs
to Exposure D – usually near open water.

Table for Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient, Kz

Height above Exposure Category
ground level A B C D
0 – 4.5 0.32 0.57 0.85 1.03
6 0.36 0.62 0.9 1.08
7.5 0.39 0.66 0.94 1.12
9 0.42 0.7 0.98 1.16
12 0.47 0.76 1.04 1.22
15 0.51 0.81 1.09 1.27
18 0.55 0.85 1.13 1.31
21 0.59 0.89 1.17 1.34
24 0.62 0.92 1.2 1.37
27 0.65 0.95 1.23 1.4
30 0.68 0.98 1.26 1.43
36 0.73 1.04 1.31 1.48
42 0.77 1.08 1.35 1.52
48 0.82 1.12 1.39 1.55
54 0.86 1.16 1.43 1.58
60 0.89 1.2 1.46 1.61
75 0.98 1.28 1.53 1.68
90 1.05 1.35 1.59 1.73
105 1.12 1.41 1.64 1.78
120 1.18 1.46 1.69 1.82
135 1.23 1.51 1.73 1.86
150 1.29 1.56 1.77 1.89

Design Wind Pressure (p) and Force (F). The design wind pressure, p, is the equivalent static pressure to be
used in the determination of wind loads for buildings (ASEP, 2001). For building of all heights, the p is
determined by the equation:

p = qGCp – Where:

qh(GCpi) q = qz for windward wall at height z above ground

qh = for leeward wall, side walls and roof at mean roof height

G = wind-gust effect factor

Cp = a wall or roof pressure coefficient
 GCpi = internal pressure coefficient

The design wind force, F, is the equivalence static force to be used in the determination of wind loads for
open building and other structures. For open buildings and other structures is given the equation

Where:
qz = at height z above ground

F = qzGCfAf G = a wind-gust effect factor

Cf = force coefficient which depends upon the ratio of the large against the
small dimension
Af = projected area normal to wind

Gust Effect Factor (G). Gust is the positive or negative departure of wind speed from its mean value, lasting
for not more than 2 minutes with the peak occurring over a specified interval of time (Krishna, Kumar, &
Bhandari). The gust effect factor, G, is the coefficient that addresses the wind loading due to the
turbulence of the wind (Yang, 2006).
For main wind-force resisting systems of buildings and other structures, and for components and
cladding of open buildings and other structures, the value of the gust effect factor G shall be 0.80 for
exposures A and B, and 0.85 for exposures C and D.

Main Wind Force Resisting System – Method 2 All Heights

Figure 6-6 (con't) External Pressure Coefficent, Cp
Walls & Roofs
Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Building
Wall Pressure Coefficients, Cp
Surface L/B Cp Use With
Windward Wall All values 0.8 qz
0–1 -0.5
Leeward Wall 2 -0.3 qh
2–4 -0.2
Side Wall All values -0.7 qh

Roof Pressure Coefficients, Cp, for use of qh

Windward Leeward
Wind
Angle, Θ (degrees) Angle, Θ (degrees)
Direction
h/L 10 15 20 25 30 35 45 ≥60# 10 15 ≥20
-0.7 -0.5 -0.2 -0.2 -0.2 0.0*
≤0 .25 0.4 0.01 Θ -0.3 -0.5 -0.6
-0.18 0.0* 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4
Normal to
-0.9 -0.7 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.2 0.0*
ridge for Θ 0.5 0.01 Θ -0.5 -0.5 -0.6
-0.18 -0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.2 0.31 0.4
≥ 10°
≥ 1.0 -1.3** -1.0 -0.7 -0.5 -0.3 -0.2 0.0*
0.01 Θ -0.7 -0.6 -0.6
-0.18 -0.18 -0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.2 0.3
Horizontal distance
CP
from windward edge * Value is provided for
Normal to interpolation purposes.
ridge for 0 to h/2 -0.9, -0.18
Θ< 10° ≤ 0.5
H/2 to h -0.9, -0.18 ** Value can be reduced
and linearly with area over which it
parallel to h to 2h -0.5, -0.18
is applicable as follows
ridge for > 2h -0.3, -0.18
all Θ
≥ 1.0 0 to h/2 -1.3**, -0.18 Area (sq/ft) Reduction
Factor
 ≤ 100 (9.3 sq m) 1
200 (23.2 sq m) 0.9
> h/2 -0.7, -0.18
≥ 1000 (92.9 sq m) 0.8
External Pressure Coefficient (Cp). The External Pressure Coefficient, Cp, is the ratio of the difference
between the pressure acting at a point on a surface and the static pressure of the incident wind to the
design wind pressure, where the static and design wind pressures are determined at the height of the
point considered after taking into account the geographical location, terrain conditions and shielding
effect (Krishna, Kumar, & Bhandari).
Internal Pressure Coefficients (GCpi). Internal Pressure Coefficients, GCpi, is the internal pressure
coefficient that will depend upon the type of openings in the building. A positive value means that the
pressure is acting towards the wall surface, while a negative value is the pressure acting away from the
wall.
For,

Open Buildings = 0.00

Partially Enclosed Buildings = +0.80 or -0.30
Enclosed Buildings = +0.18 or -0.18

Interpolation is a mathematical tool that is useful in using the NSCP. Although

coefficients are already determined, it will be impractical to provide
coefficients for all situations. Instead, these values can be obtained
by using ratio and proportion.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

• ASEP. (2001). National Structural Code of the Philippines (Fifth Edition ed., Vols. 1 Buildings, Towers, and
Other Vertical Structures). Quezon City: Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP).
• Hibbeler, R. (2006). Structural Analysis (6th ed.). Singapore: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
• Krishna, P., Kumar, K., & Bhandari, N. (n.d.). IS: 875(Part3): Wind Loads on Buildings and Structures.
Retrieved August 7, 2009, from IITK: http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/IITK-GSDMA/W02.pdf
• Luebkeman, C. H., & Peting, D. (1996). Lateral Loads. Retrieved August 7, 2009, from University of
Oregon:
http://www.uoregon.edu/~struct/courseware/461/461_lectures/461_lecture18/461_lecture18.html
• Microsoft Corporation. (2006). Densities of Some Common Substances. Redmond, WA.
• MNHS. (1998). Thinking About the Unthinkable: Disaster Plan For Historic Properties in Minnesota.
Retrieved August 7, 2009, from MNHS: http://www.mnhs.org/preserve/shpo/disaster/disaster4.html
• Yang, T. (2006, September 5). Wind Loads. Retrieved August 7, 2009, from PEER:
http://peer.berkeley.edu/~yang/courses/ce248/CE248_LN_Wind_loads.pdf