Aerospace materials

Titanium support structure for a jet engine thrust reverser

Asp materials are materials, frequently metal alloys, that have either been developed for, or
have come to prominence through, their use foraerospace purposes.
These uses often require exceptional performance, strength or heat resistance, even at the cost of
considerable expense in their production or machining. Others are chosen for their long-term
reliability in this safety-conscious field, particularly for their resistance to fatigue.
The field of materials engineering is an important one within aerospace engineering. Its practice
is defined by the international standards bodies[1]who maintain standards for the materials and
processes involved.[2] Engineers in this field may often have studied for degrees or postgraduatequalifications in it as a speciality.[3]

Scope:
The objective of the Aerospace Materials Division (AMD) is to coordinate and utilize the
knowledge, expertise, and skills of its members in promulgating and maintaining materials and
process specifications conforming to sound, established engineering and materials practices in
the aerospace industry.

Technical documents include:

Aerospace Materials Specifications (AMS and metric version MAM)

Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP)

Aerospace Information Reports (AIR)

Aerospace Standards (AS)

Key References:

AMD Organization and Operating Guide*

Aerospace Council Organization Chart*

AMS Document Process Chart*

Editorial Style Manual for the Preparation of Aerospace Material Specifications - Metals
and Processes

FTP area
Organization:
The Aerospace Materials Division (AMD) is comprised of 3 groups:
Metals Group

Committee B (Processes)

Committee D (Aluminum, Magnesium, Copper)

Committee E (Carbon and Low Alloy Steels)

Committee F (Corrosion and Heat Resistant Alloys)

Committee G (Titanium and Refractory Alloys)

AMEC (Aerospace Metals Engineering Committee)

NonDestructive Testing Group

Committee K (NonDestructive Testing)

materials, frequently metal alloys, that have either been developed for, or have come to
prominence through, their use foraerospace purposes.

These uses often require exceptional performance, strength or heat resistance, even at the
cost of considerable expense in their production or machining. Others are chosen for their
long-term reliability in this safety-conscious field, particularly for their resistance
to fatigue.

The field of materials engineering is an important one within aerospace engineering. Its practice
is defined by the international standards bodies[1]who maintain standards for the materials and
processes involved.[2] Engineers in this field may often have studied for degrees or postgraduatequalifications in it as a speciality.[3]

Non-Metals Group

Committee CE (Elastomers)

Committee G-8 (Organic Coatings)

Committee G9 (Sealants)

Committee J (Aircraft Maintenance Chemicals and Materials)

Committee P (Polymers and Composites)

CACRC Commercial Aircraft Composite Repair Committee

Committee M (Greases)

Government Specification Conversion

Gasrohr (exhaust pipe)

usually stainless steel
1.Ferritic stainless steel
2.austeritic stainless steel
1)Tensile Strength (58-1.19e3)yield strength (39.9-608)
2)Fatigue strength (31.9-905)fracture toughness(30.9-856)
3)Elongation (%strain) (20-257)Hardness(150-7.33e3)
4)Youngs modulus(26.1-500)compressive strength(29-3.57e3)
7)Thermal conductivity(11.6-395) thermal expansion coefficient(0.556-6.67)
8)Tree = process universe = shaping, deformation = forging/rolling (1403)
9)Process universe=joining=thermalWelding-2468
10)p.u=shaping=machining 2411
11)Density(0.0291-1.25)price(0.0133-0.606)

TiN-coateddrill bit
The +4 oxidation state dominates titanium chemistry,[22] but compounds in the +3 oxidation
state are also common.[23] Commonly, titanium adopts an octahedral coordination geometry in its
complexes, but tetrahedral TiCl4 is a notable exception. Because of its high oxidation state,
titanium(IV) compounds exhibit a high degree of covalent bonding. Unlike most other transition
metals, simple aquo Ti(IV) complexes are unknown.
Oxides, sulfides, and alkoxides
The most important oxide is TiO2, which exists in three important polymorphs; anatase, brookite,
and rutile. All of these are white diamagnetic solids, although mineral samples can appear dark
(see rutile). They adopt polymeric structures in which Ti is surrounded by six oxide ligands that
link to other Ti centers.
Titanates usually refer to titanium(IV) compounds, as represented barium titanate (BaTiO3). With
a perovskite structure, this material exhibits piezoelectric properties and is used as a transducer
in the interconversion of sound and electricity.[8] Many minerals are titanates,
e.g. ilmenite (FeTiO3). Star sapphires and rubies get their asterism (star-forming shine) from the
presence of titanium dioxide impurities.[15]
A variety of reduced oxides of titanium are known. Ti3O5, described as a Ti(IV)-Ti(III) species, is
a purple semiconductor produced by reduction of TiO2 with hydrogen at high temperatures,
[24]

and is used industrially when surfaces need to be vapour-coated with titanium dioxide: it

evaporates as pure TiO, whereas TiO2 evaporates as a mixture of oxides and deposits coatings
with variable refractive index.[25] Also known is Ti2O3, with the carborundum structure, and TiO,
with the rock salt structure, although often nonstoichiometric.[26]
The alkoxides of titanium(IV), prepared by reacting TiCl4 with alcohols, are colourless
compounds that convert to the dioxide on reaction with water. They are industrially useful for
depositing solid TiO2 via the sol-gel process. Titanium isopropoxide is used in the synthesis of
chiral organic compounds via the Sharpless epoxidation.
Titanium forms a variety of sulfides, but only TiS2 has attracted significant interest. It adopts a
layered structure and was used as a cathode in the development of lithium batteries. Because

Ti(IV) is a"hard cation", the sulfides of titanium are unstable and tend to hydrolyze to the oxide
with release of hydrogen sulfide.
Nitrides, carbides
Titanium nitride (TiN), having a hardness equivalent to sapphire and carborundum (9.0 on
the Mohs Scale),[27] is often used to coat cutting tools, such as drill bits.[28] It also finds use as a
gold-colored decorative finish, and as a barrier metal in semiconductor fabrication.[29] Titanium
carbide, which is also very hard, is found in high-temperature cutting tools and coatings.

Titanium(III) compounds are characteristically violet, illustrated by this aqueous solution

oftitanium trichloride.
Halides
Titanium tetrachloride (titanium(IV) chloride, TiCl4[30]) is a colorless volatile liquid (commercial
samples are yellowish) that in air hydrolyzes with spectacular emission of white clouds. Via
the Kroll process, TiCl4 is produced in the conversion of titanium ores to titanium dioxide, e.g.,
for use in white paint.[31] It is widely used in organic chemistry as a Lewis acid, for example in
the Mukaiyama aldol condensation.[32] In the van Arkel process, titanium tetraiodide (TiI4) is
generated in the production of high purity titanium metal.
Titanium(III) and titanium(II) also form stable chlorides. A notable example is titanium(III)
chloride (TiCl3), which is used as a catalyst for production of polyolefins (see Ziegler-Natta
catalyst) and a reducing agent in organic chemistry.
Organometallic complexes
Main article: Organotitanium chemistry

Owing to the important role of titanium compounds as polymerization catalyst, compounds with
Ti-C bonds have been intensively studied. The most common organotitanium complex
is titanocene dichloride ((C5H5)2TiCl2). Related compounds include Tebbe's reagent and Petasis
reagent. Titaniu

Flugzeug rumpf ( aircraft body) (usually alumminium)

1. Tensile Strength(29-1.62e3)elongation(10-1.99e3)
2.fatigue strength(10.2-539)fracture toughness(24.6-596)
3.hardness(100-3.53e3)

yield strength(11.6-712)

4.fresh water , salt, weak acids and alkalines

5.pu=shaping=deform=forging/rolling 1403
6.pu=joining=fasteness=rivert &stapels
7.max service temperature(32-392)thermal conductivity(17.3-713)
8.price(0.0556-9.83)density (lb/in^3)( 0.0361-0.198)

Marketing outside aerospace[edit]

Carbon fibre money clip

The term "aerospace grade" has come to be a fashionable marketing slogan for luxury goods,
particularly for cars and sporting goods. Bicycles, golf clubs, sailing yachts and even torches are
all sold on the basis of their high-performance materials, whether these are relevant or not. Since
their appearance in 1979, Maglite have advertised their use of 6061 aluminium for their torch
bodies, one of the first to make a deliberate feature of aerospace materials for a non-performance
reason.
Some sporting uses have been for the material's actual qualities. Many ski makers have produced
skis wholly from cloth and resin composite materials, using the tailorability of such construction
to vary the stiffness, damping and torsional stiffness of a ski along its length. Hexcel, a
manufacturer of aluminium honeycomb sheet, became well known for its branded skis, using this
same advanced material.
Sporting uses may be every bit as demanding as aerospace needs. Particularly in cycling,
materials may be loaded more highly than in aerospace use, the risk of possible failure being
seen as more acceptable than for aircraft.
Many uses of aerospace materials for sporting goods have been as the result of a 'peace
dividend'. After World War II, Hiduminium alloy appeared in bicycle brake components[8] as its
maker sought to expand new markets to replace their previous military aircraft. In the 1990s,
both smelters and recyclers of titanium sought new non-military markets after the end of
the Cold War, finding them in both bicycle frames and golf clubs.
Carbon fibre composite, and its distinctive weave pattern, has become a popular decorative
choice on cars and motorbikes, even in purely decorative contexts such as dashboards. This has
extended to the use of flexible stick-on patterned vinyl to reproduce the appearance, without any
of the physical properties.

Galette
1.T.S(43.5-1.46e3)Y.S(36.3-687)
2.hard viscous(200-1.31e4)elongation(1-25)
3.Fatigue strength(29-707)fracture toughness(31.9-698)
4. fresh water , organic solvents, weak acids and weak alkalines

5. pu=shaping=deform=forging/rolling
6.pu=joining=thermal welding 2468
7. Thermal conductivity

(5.78-452)thermal expansion coefficient(0.556-11.1)

8.price(0.175-3.03)density (lb/in^3)( 0.0605-1.04)

Government Specification Conversion

A key activity of AMD is the transition from government specifications to industry specifications
in support of the "Perry Directive." In June of 1994, Secretary of Defense William Perry signed a
memorandum directing a new way of doing business with specifications and standards. One of
the cornerstones of Mil-Spec reform efforts is to replace military/federal specifications and
standards with non-government standards. The Department of Defense has reached out to SAE
as a partner in this change. In a spirit of cooperation the AMS technical committees have
responded by working to convert the many military/federal specifications and standards that have
been identified as suitable candidates for conversion. The AMS Cumulative Index lists these
converted government documents.

MetalsGroup Committees
AMS Committee B
Scope
The committee of Finishes, Processes, and Fluids, AMS Committee B, shall prepare, coordinate,
and revise documents related to processing technology, such as plating, brazing, coatings and
compounds, through the participation of process suppliers, users, and interested government
agencies. Committee activities shall provide a forum for the cooperative interchange of ideas and
experience of the participants, resulting in the publication of specifications that embody sound,
established aerospace industry practices and requirements to serve the suppliers and customers of
aerospace processes.
Metals Division Public Forum
Document List
Works In Progress List

AMS Committee D
Scope
The committee of Nonferrous Alloys, AMS Committee D, shall prepare, coordinate, and revise
documents related to nonferrous metals technology, such as aluminum, magnesium, and copper,
through the participation of metals suppliers, users, and interested government agencies.
Committee activities shall provide a forum for the cooperative interchange of ideas and
experience of the participants, resulting in the publication of specifications that embody sound,
established aerospace industry practices and requirements to serve the suppliers and customers of
aerospace materials.
Metals Division Public Forum
Document List
Works In Progress List
AMS Committee E
Scope
The committee of Carbon and Low Alloy Steels, AMS Committee E, shall prepare, coordinate,
and revise documents related to carbon and low alloy steels technology, such as steel cleanliness
and steel quality assurance sampling, through the participation of metals suppliers, users, and
interested government agencies. Committee activities shall provide a forum for the cooperative
interchange of ideas and experience of the participants, resulting in the publication of
specifications that embody sound, established aerospace industry practices and requirements to
serve the suppliers and customers of aerospace materials.
Metals Division Public Forum
Document List
Works In Progress List
AMS Committee F
Scope
The committee of Corrosion and Heat Resistant Steels and Alloys and Specialty Steels and
Alloys, AMS Committee F, will prepare, coordinate, and revise documents related to corrosion
and heat resistant steels and alloys and specialty steels and alloys technology, such as stainless
steels and nickel and cobalt base alloys, through the participation of metals suppliers, users, and

interested government agencies. Committee activities shall provide a forum for the cooperative
interchange of ideas and experience of the participants, resulting in the publication of
specifications that embody sound, established aerospace industry practices and requirements to
serve the suppliers and customers of aerospace materials.
Metals Division Public Forum
Document List
Works In Progress List

Turbine schaufeln (turbine blade)(usually titanium)

Modern days = co,ni based super alloys that incorporate
Chromium, cobalt, rhenium
(jet engine blades are never made of titanium . only blades of compressor made of this material)
Tensile strength

(87-1.08e3)yield strength elastic limits(43.5-529)

HardnessV(200-1.31e4)

elongation(10-423)

Fatigue strength(36.3-1e3)fracture toughness(68.3-883)

Oxidation of 500c = excellent
Max. service temp(1.47e3-6.3e3)
Production and fabrication

Titanium (mineral concentrate)

Basic titanium products: plate, tube, rods and powder

The processing of titanium metal occurs in 4 major steps:[47] reduction of titanium ore into
"sponge", a porous form; melting of sponge, or sponge plus a master alloy to form an ingot;
primary fabrication, where an ingot is converted into general mill products such as billet,
bar,plate, sheet, strip, and tube; and secondary fabrication of finished shapes from mill products.
Because it cannot be readily produced by reduction of its dioxide,[10] titanium metal is obtained
by reduction of TiCl4 with magnesium metal, the Kroll Process. The complexity of this batch
processexplains the relatively high market value of titanium.[48] To produce the TiCl4 required by
the Kroll process, the dioxide is subjected to carbothermic reduction in the presence of chlorine.
In this process, the chlorine gas is passed over a red-hot mixture of rutile or ilmenite in the
presence of carbon. After extensive purification by fractional distillation, the TiCl4
is reduced with 800 C molten magnesium in an argon atmosphere.[8] Titanium metal can be
further purified by the van Arkelde Boer process, which involves thermal decomposition of
titanium tetraiodide.
A more recently developed method, the FFC Cambridge process,[49] converts titanium dioxide
powder (a refined form of rutile) as feedstock to make Ti metal, either a powder or sponge. If
mixed oxide powders are used, the product is an alloy.
Common titanium alloys are made by reduction. For example, cuprotitanium (rutile
with copperadded is reduced), ferrocarbon titanium (ilmenite reduced with coke in an electric
furnace), and manganotitanium (rutile with manganese or manganese oxides) are reduced.[50]
2 FeTiO3 + 7 Cl2 + 6 C 2 TiCl4 + 2 FeCl3 + 6 CO (900 C)
TiCl4 + 2 Mg 2 MgCl2 + Ti (1100 C)

About 50 grades of titanium and titanium alloys are designated and currently used,
although only a couple of dozen are readily available commercially.[51] The ASTM
International recognizes 31 Grades of titanium metal and alloys, of which Grades 1
through 4 are commercially pure (unalloyed). These four are distinguished by their
varying degrees of tensile strength, as a function of oxygen content, with Grade 1 being
the most ductile (lowest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.18%), and Grade 4
the least (highest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.40%).[15] The remaining
grades are alloys, each designed for specific purposes, be it ductility, strength, hardness,
electrical resistivity, creep resistance, resistance to corrosion from specific media, or a
combination thereof.[52]
The grades covered by ASTM and other alloys are also produced to meet Aerospace and
Military specifications (SAE-AMS, MIL-T), ISO standards, and country-specific
specifications, as well as proprietary end-user specifications for aerospace, military,
medical, and industrial applications.[53]
In terms of fabrication, all welding of titanium must be done in an inert atmosphere
of argon or helium in order to shield it from contamination with atmospheric gases such
as oxygen, nitrogen, or hydrogen.[12] Contamination will cause a variety of conditions,
such as embrittlement, which will reduce the integrity of the assembly welds and lead to
joint failure.
Commercially pure flat product (sheet, plate) can be formed readily, but processing must
take into account the fact that the metal has a "memory" and tends to spring back. This is
especially true of certain high-strength alloys.[54][55] Titanium cannot be soldered without
first pre-plating it in a metal that is solderable.[56] The metal can be machined using the
same equipment and via the same processes asstainless steel.[12]

Verdchtor schantel (compressor vane)( usually made of alumminium carbide)

Yield strength(23.2-1.21e3)tensile strength(29-1.49e3)
Elongation(5-3.52e3)HadnessV(200-8.828e3)

Fatigue strength(0.45-862)fracture toughness(27.3-829)

Max. service temp(1.11e3-4.5e3)
Water(fresh,salt) , weak acid, alkalines,oxidation
Density graph(3.61e^(-4)-0.217)
Pu=shaping=deformation=forging/rolling
Pu=shaping=machining

Physical properties
A metallic element, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio.[8] It is a strong
metal with low density that is quite ductile (especially in an oxygen-free environment),
[3]

lustrous, and metallic-white in color.[10] The relatively high melting point (more than 1,650 C

or 3,000 F) makes it useful as a refractory metal. It isparamagnetic and has fairly

low electrical and thermal conductivity.[3]
Commercial (99.2% pure) grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about
434 MPa (63,000 psi), equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, but are less dense.
Titanium is 60% more dense than aluminium, but more than twice as strong[7]as the most
commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys (e.g.,Beta C) achieve tensile
strengths of over 1400 MPa (200000 psi).[11] However, titanium loses strength when heated above
430 C (806 F).[12]
Titanium is fairly hard (although not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel), non-magnetic
and a poor conductor of heat and electricity. Machining requires precautions, as the material will
soften and gall if sharp tools and proper cooling methods are not used. Like those made from
steel, titanium structures have a fatigue limit which guarantees longevity in some applications.
[10]

Titanium alloys have lowerspecific stiffnesses than in many other structural materials such as

aluminium alloys and carbon fiber.

The metal is a dimorphic allotrope whose hexagonal alpha form changes into a body-centered
cubic (lattice) form at 882 C (1,620 F).[12] The specific heat of the alpha form increases
dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then falls and remains fairly
constant for the form regardless of temperature.[12] Similar to zirconium and hafnium, an

additional omega phase exists, which is thermodynamically stable at high pressures, but is
metastable at ambient pressures. This phase is usually hexagonal (ideal) or trigonal (distorted)
and can be viewed as being due to a soft longitudinal acoustic phonon of the phase causing
collapse of (111) planes of atoms.[13]
Chemical properties

The Pourbaix diagram for titanium in pure water, perchloric acid or sodium hydroxide[14]
Like aluminium and magnesium metal surfaces, titanium metal and its
alloys oxidize immediately upon exposure to air. Nitrogen acts similarly to give a coating of the
nitride. Titanium readily reacts with oxygen1,200 C (2,190 F) in air, and at 610 C (1,130 F)
in pure oxygen, formingtitanium dioxide.[8] It is, however, slow to react with water and air, as it
forms a passive and oxide coating that protects the bulk metal from further oxidation.[3] When it
first forms, this protective layer is only 12 nm thick but continues to slowly grow; reaching a
thickness of 25 nm in four years.[15]
Related to its tendency to form a passivating layer, titanium exhibits excellent resistance to
corrosion. It is almost as resistant as platinum, capable of withstanding attack by
dilute sulfuricand hydrochloric acids as well as chloride solutions, and most organic acids.
[4]

However, it is attacked by concentrated acids.[16] As indicated by its negative redox potential,

titanium is thermodynamically a very reactive metal. One indication is that the metal burns
before its melting point is reached. Melting is only possible in an inert atmosphere or in a
vacuum. At 550 C (1,022 F), it combines with chlorine.[4] It also reacts with the other halogens
and absorbs hydrogen.[5]

Titanium is one of the few elements that burns in pure nitrogen gas, reacting at 800 C (1,470 F)
to form titanium nitride, which causes embrittlement.[17] Because of its high reactivity toward
oxygen, nitrogen and some other gases, titanium filaments are applied in titanium sublimation
pumps as scavengers for these gases. Such pumps inexpensively and reliably produce extremely
low pressures in ultra-high vacuum systems.
Occurrence
2011 production of rutile and ilmenite[18]

Country

thousand
tonnes

% of total

Australia

1300

19.4

South Africa

1160

17.3

Canada

700

10.4

India

574

8.6

Mozambique

516

7.7

China

500

7.5

Vietnam

490

7.3

Ukraine

357

5.3

World

6700

100

Titanium is always bonded to other elements in nature. It i

Kondensatableiter-selbst (steam trap) ( usually made of stainless steel/carbon st/ductile cast

iron)

Yield strength(21.8-936)tensile strength(29-1.38e3)

Elongation(0.1-1.35e3)HardnessV(200-6.14e3)
Fatigue strength(11.6-566)fracture toughness(24.6-753)
Max. service temp(1.02e3-5.83e3)compressive strength(29-1.9e3)
Water(fresh), oxidation
Pu=shaping 671
Pu=shaping=machining 2963
Price(0.0537-1.82)

The first aerospace materials were those long-established and often naturally occurring materials
used to construct the first aircraft. These included such mundane materials as timber for wing
structures andfabric and dope to cover them. Their quality was of utmost importance and so the
timber would be of carefully selected sitka spruce and the covering of irish linen. Standards were
required for the selection, manufacture, and use of these materials. These standards were
developed informally by manufacturers or government groups such as HM Balloon Factory, later
to become RAE Farnborough, often with the assistance of university engineering departments.
The next in the development of aerospace materials was to adopt newly developed materials,
such as Duralumin the first age hardening aluminium alloy. These offered attributes not
previously available. Many of these new materials also required study to determine the extent of
these new properties, their behaviour and how to make the best use of them. This work was often
carried out through the new government-funded national laboratories, such as
the Reichsanstalt (German Imperial Institute)[4] or the British National Physical
Laboratory (NPL).
World War I

The NPL was also responsible for perhaps the first deliberately engineered aerospace material, Y
alloy.[5]This first of the nickel-aluminium alloys was discovered after a series of
experiments[6] during World War I, deliberately setting out to find a better material for the
manufacture of pistons for aircraft engines.
Interwar period
Between the wars, many aerospace innovations were in the field of manufacturing processes,
rather than just an inherently stronger material, although these too benefited from improved
materials. One of the R.R. alloys, R.R.53B, had added silicon which improved its fluidity when
molten. This allowed its use for die casting as well as the previous sand casting, a means of
making parts that were both far cheaper and also more accurate in shape and finish. Better
control of their shape allowed designers to shape them more precisely to their tasks, leading to
parts that were also thinner and lighter.
Many interwar developments were to aircraft engines, which benefited from the vast
improvements being made for the growing car industry. Although not strictly an 'aerospace'
innovation, the use of refractory alloys like Stellite and Brightray for the hard-facing ofexhaust
valves offered huge gains in the reliability of aircraft engines.[7] This itself encouraged longrange commercial flights, as the new engines were reliable enough to be considered safe for long
flights across oceans or mountain ranges.

Noche zusammen
Fatigue strength(72.5-883)fracture toughness(36.4-687)
Tensile strength

(94.3-2.04e3)compressive strength(94.3-2.72e3)

Elongation(7-131)youngs modulus(14.5-281)
HardnessV(400-7.2e3)fracture toughness(45.5-635)
Price(0.00909-6.06)density (lb/in^3)( 0.064-0.944)
Pu=shaping=machining 2963

References
1.

up^ Standard Atomic Weights 2013. Commission on Isotopic Abundances and

Atomic Weights

2.

up^ Andersson, N. et al. (2003). "Emission spectra of TiH and TiD near 938
nm". J. Chem. Phys. 118:
10543.Bibcode:2003JChPh.118.3543A. doi:10.1063/1.1539848.

3.

^ up to:a b c d e f g h i "Titanium". Encyclopdia Britannica. 2006. Retrieved 29

December 2006.

4.

^ up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry

and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press.ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.

5.

^ up to:a b c d e f g h i Krebs, Robert E. (2006). The History and Use of Our Earth's
Chemical Elements: A Reference Guide (2nd edition).Westport, CT: Greenwood
Press. ISBN 0-313-33438-2.

6.

up^ Donachie, Matthew J., Jr. (1988). TITANIUM: A Technical Guide. Metals
Park, OH: ASM International. p. 11. ISBN 0-87170-309-2.

7.

^ up to:a b Barksdale 1968, p. 738

8.

^ up to:a b c d e f "Titanium". Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). New

York: Columbia University Press. 20002006. ISBN 0-7876-5015-3.

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^ up to:a b c Barbalace, Kenneth L. (2006). "Periodic Table of Elements: Ti

Titanium". Retrieved 26 December 2006.

10.

^ up to:a b c d e Stwertka, Albert (1998). "Titanium". Guide to the

Elements(Revised ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 8182. ISBN 0-19-508083-1.

11.

up^ Matthew J. Donachie, Jr. (1988). Titanium: A Technical Guide. Metals Park,
OH: ASM International. Appendix J, Table J.2. ISBN 0-87170-309-2.

12.

^ up to:a b c d e Barksdale 1968, p. 734

13.

up^ Sikka, S. K.; Vohra, Y. K.; Chidambaram, R. (1982). "Omega phase in

materials". Progress in Materials Science 27 (34): 245310. doi:10.1016/00796425(82)90002-0.

14.

up^ Puigdomenech, Ignasi (2004) Hydra/Medusa Chemical Equilibrium

Database and Plotting Software, KTH Royal Institute of Technology.

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^ up to:a b c d e Emsley 2001, p. 453

up^ Casillas, N.; Charlebois, S.; Smyrl, W. H.; White, H. S. (1994). "Pitting
Corrosion of Titanium". J. Electrochem. Soc. 141 (3): 636642. doi:10.1149/1.2054783.

17.

up^ Forrest, A. L. (1981). "Effects of Metal Chemistry on Behavior of Titanium

in Industrial Applications". Industrial Applications of Titanium and Zirconium. p. 112.

18.

^ up to:a b c d United States Geological Survey. "USGS Minerals Information:

Titanium".

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^ up to:a b c Barksdale 1968, p. 732

up^ Buettner, K. M.; Valentine, A. M. (2012). "Bioinorganic Chemistry of
Titanium". Chemical Reviews 112 (3): 1863.doi:10.1021/cr1002886. edit

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^ up to:a b c d e Emsley 2001, p. 451

22.

up^ Greenwood 1997, p. 958

23.

up^ Greenwood 1997, p. 970

24.

up^ Liu, Gang; Huang, Wan-Xia; Yi, Yong (26 June 2013). "Preparation and
Optical Storage Properties of Ti3O5 Powder".Journal of Inorganic Materials (in
Chinese) 28 (4): 425430.doi:10.3724/SP.J.1077.2013.12309.

25.

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