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Review
www.elsevier.com/locate/ijrefrig
Abstract
In absorption space-conditioning systems, the performance of the absorber is critical to the overall system performance, size, and rst-cost. The objective of this paper is to provide a comprehensive review of the signicant eorts
that researchers have made to mathematically model the coupled heat and mass transfer phenomena that occur during
falling-lm absorption. A detailed review of the governing equations, boundary conditions, assumptions, solution
methods, results, and validation of these investigations is presented. This review excludes experimental work in this
area, the eect of additives, and the eect of non-absorbable gases. It is shown that most work found in the literature
has focused on the particularly simplied case of absorption in laminar vertical lms of water-lithium bromide. Fewer
researchers have considered the important situations of wavy lms, turbulent lms, and lms on horizontal tubes.
Investigations of the ammonia-water uid pair have been generally more empirical in nature and/or restricted to vertical laminar lms. This review is used to highlight key areas which need attention such as lm and vapor hydrodynamics, especially the non-periodicity, instability, and recirculatory motion of waves in the vertical wall case and
droplets and waves in the horizontal tube case. Also the potential interaction of the heat and mass transfer process on
the lm hydrodynamics, surface wetting, heat transfer in the vapor phase, and common simplications to the governing equations should all be considered carefully. Finally, emphasis must be placed on experimental validation of the
local conditions and transfer processes within the absorber, not just overall transport values. # 2001 Elsevier Science
Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Refrigerating system; Absorption system; Absorber; Falling lm; Heat transfer; Mass transfer; Modelling survey
756
experimentaux dans ce domaine, l'eet des additifs, et les eets des gaz non absorbables. On montre que la plupart des
travaux publies est axee sur le cas simplie de l'absorption dans les lms laminaires verticaux a eau/bromure de lithium.
Peu de chercheurs ont examine les lms ondules, les lms turbulents, et les lms en ecoulement sur les tubes horizontaux.
Des etudes sur le couple actif ammoniac-eau sont en general de nature empirique et/ou limitees aux lms laminaires verticaux. Cet examen est destine a souligner les domaines cles sur lesquels il faudrait se concentrer tels que les dynamiques
des lms et de la vapeur, surtout en termes de non periodicite, de l'instabilite et l'eet de recirculation des ondes dans un
lm vertical, et des gouttelettes et des ondes dans le cas du tube horizontal. On doit egalement considerer l'interaction
potentielle entre le transfert de chaleur et de masse sur les dynamiques des lms, la mouillabilite supercielle, le transfert
de chaleur dans la phase vapeur, et les equations simpliees couramment utilisees. Enn, on doit mettre l'accent sur la
validation experimentale des conditions locales et les processus de transfert a l'interieur de l'absorbeur et non simplement
des valeurs globales de transmission. # 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
Mots cles : systeme frigorique ; systeme a absorption ; absorbeur ; lm tombant ; transfert de chaleur ; transfert de masse ;
modelisation - enquete
Nomenclature
a,b
CA
CP
DAB
ha
i
k
Le
:
:
m A ; mB
Pe
Pr
Re
Sc
t
T
u
v
x
XA
y
stream-wise coordinate
mole fraction of species A
transverse coordinate
Greek symbols
thermal diusivity=k/CP
lm thickness
"
turbulent eddy diusivity
kinematic viscosity
mass density
Subscripts/superscripts
A, B
species A, or B
e
equilibrium
i
interface
y
transverse direction
0
inlet
indicates mean value
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Problem description
3. Organization
4. Nonvolatile absorbent
4.1. Laminar lm ow assumptions for vertical or horizontal tubes
4.1.1. Nakoryakov and Grigor'eva 19771997 [17,1926]
4.1.2. Kholpanov, Malyusov, and Zhavoronkov 1982 [33]
4.1.3. Grossman 1983, 1987 [14,29]
4.1.4. Andberg and Vliet 19831987 [3741]
4.1.5. Le Go, Ramadane, Barkaoui, Chen, and Le Go 1986 [48]
4.1.6. Kawae, Shigechi, Kanemaru, and Yamada 1989 [51]
4.1.7. Brauner, Moalem Maron, and Meyerson 1989, 1991 [5254]
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
5. Volatile absorbent
5.1. Neglected vapor-phase mass transfer resistance
5.1.1. Ruhemann 1947 [16]
5.1.2. Briggs 1971 [129]
5.1.3. Stagnant lm models 19531975
5.2. Neglected liquid-phase mass transfer resistance
5.2.1. Colburn and Drew 1937 [134]
5.2.2. Price and Bell 1973
5.2.3. Kang and Christensen et al. 19931997 [125,136,141143]
5.2.4. Garrabrant and Christensen 1997 [147]
5.2.5. Garimella 1999 [127]
5.3. Mass transfer in both phases
5.3.1. Kholpanov, Kenig, and Malyusov 1985, [128,152]
5.3.2. Perez-Blanco 1988 [124]
5.3.3. Conlisk 1994b and Conlisk and Mao 1996 [64,72]
5.3.4. Potnis, Gomezplata, Papar, Anand, and Erickson 1997 [153]
757
758
1. Introduction
The absorber found in absorption heat pumps is
widely acknowledged as the most critical part of a heat
pump system, both in terms of cycle performance and
system cost. Consequently, the complex heat and mass
transfer phenomena occurring in the absorber have been
the subject of a great amount of research, especially
within the last 25 years. Creating useful mathematical
models of the absorber has proven to be a dicult
challenge due to the complex and coupled nature of the
transport phenomena. As absorption occurs, heat and
mass are transferred through and between the liquid and
vapor phases. The driving forces for these transport
phenomena change as the process progresses both due
to changes in the local temperature and concentration
gradients and due to changes in the liquid-vapor interface equilibrium condition. The governing equations are
thus mathematically coupled. In addition, the hydrodynamics within the absorber have a profound eect on
its performance; for example, turbulence, droplet phenomena, and wave formation all have the eect of
redistributing the species and energy within the absorber. In order to solve the transport equations, a detailed
understanding of two-phase, multi-component ow in
complex geometries is also required.
The objective of this paper is to review the signicant
eorts that have been made to develop mathematical
models of the coupled heat and mass transfer accompanying falling-lm absorption in heat-driven heat
pumps. The focus of this paper is primarily on analytical and numerical models and excludes experimental
work in this area. The most common absorber geometries involve a falling lm because of its potential for
high heat and mass transfer rates with minimal pressure
drops; bubble, spray and many other less widely used
geometries are not included in this review. The two most
common working uid pairs, water-lithium bromide
and ammonia-water, are considered; many other working uid pairs can be modeled using the solution methods established for these two pairs. The enhancing
eects of chemical reactions sometimes encountered
@i
@i
@i
@
@T
@
@T
u v
k
@t
@x
@y
@x
@x
@y
@y
759
@CA
@CA
@CA
@
@CA
u
v
DAB
@t
@x
@y
@x
@x
@
@CA
DAB
@y
@y
760
@T
@T
@2 T
@2 T
v
2 2
@x
@y
@x
@y
@CA
@CA
@2 CA
@2 C A
DAB
v
DAB
2
@x
@y
@x
@y2
. Diusion and thermal conduction in the streamwise direction are negligible. This common
assumption is well justied by comparing the rate
of diusion/conduction to the velocity in the
stream-wise direction. This yields the following
simplications:
@T
@T
@2 T
v
2
@x
@y
@y
@CA
@CA
@2 CA
v
DAB
@x
@y
@y2
. Due to the low velocity associated with absorption, the transverse velocity, v, is negligible,
therefore:
@T
@2 T
2
@x
@y
@CA
@2 C A
DAB
@x
@y2
:
mA
:
:
C A m A m B
DAB
@CA
@y
761
where component A corresponds to lithium bromide and B to water [12]. However, close examination of the equations reveals that Nakoryakov
and Grigor'eva apparently assume:
@CA
:
mB DAB
@y
10
:
:
which is only true if mA mB or if CA=1 and
:
:
CB=0. If mA mB , there is equal and opposite
mass ux of lithium bromide and water across the
interface, often described as counter- or equimolardiusion. If CA=1 and CB=0, the lm is composed of pure lithium bromide and innitely dilute
in water. Neither of these assumptions is well justied given the solubility limits and low volatility
of LiBr. Because of their equivalence, the terms
innite water dilution and equimolar diusion will be
used interchangeably in this review also see sections
4.1.7 [5254], and 4.4.8 [28] for further discussion.
. The velocity in the laminar lm is uniform. Also
see section 4.1.3 [29] for further discussion.
. The pressure is constant at all points within the
absorber; consequently the interface equilibrium
concentration in the lm is purely a function of
interface temperature. For the range of temperatures encountered, this relationship is approximately linear: Ci=aTi+b; where a and b are
constants also see sections 4.1.3 [29] and section
4.1.4 [31] for further discussion.
. Heat transfer to the vapor is negligible; all the
energy released during absorption goes into heating the liquid lm also see section 4.1.9 [32] for
further discussion. This assumption is questionable since the vapor enters the absorber at a much
lower temperature than the solution; however,
given the low heat capacity and typically low heat
transfer coecients of the vapor phase, the eect
of this assumption on the overall results is probably small.
. The inlet solution concentration and temperature
proles are uniform.
762
Noting the complexity of using the resulting analytical solution, Nakoryakov and Grigor'eva [17] also
develop approximate solutions. The basis for this
method is the use of two more simplifying assumptions.
First, it is assumed that the temperature prole in the
lm is linear, i.e. conduction dominates convection or
@2 T=@y2 0. Second, the concentration prole is
assumed based on an approximate boundary layer
solution. As a result, much simpler expressions for the
interface and average temperatures and concentrations,
and heat uxes are developed. These solutions are only
valid where the preceding two assumptions hold, which
is generally far downstream from the inlet, but not so
far that the concentration proles deviate from the
boundary layer solutions. A comparison of these solutions with the exact analytical solutions is presented as a
function of non-dimensional downstream position in
Grigor'eva and Nakoryakov [26]. It can be seen that
local absorption rates predicted using the approximate
method are generally lower than those from the exact
solution, and the predicted interface conditions become
increasingly divergent closer to the lm inlet.
Nakoryakov and Grigor'eva [19,20] also develop a
simplied solution that is appropriate for the region
near the inlets. The assumptions required are estimates
of the thicknesses of the developing thermal and concentration boundary layers. A slight modication to the
assumed velocity prole is also introduced. Within the
thermal boundary layer developing from the isothermal
wall, it is assumed that the velocity prole varies linearly. Within the thermal and concentration boundary
layers developing from the solution-vapor interface, the
velocity prole is considered uniform. Within these
developing boundary layers, similarity solutions for the
temperature and concentration proles are given. With
these assumptions Nakaryakov and Grigor'eva develop
expressions for temperatures, concentrations, and heat
and mass uxes throughout the lm from the inlet to the
point where the growing boundary layers meet. An
@T
@2 T
2
@x
@y
11
@CA
@2 C A
DAB
@x
@y2
12
763
3
y
uy u 2
2
y2
13
764
765
Fig. 6. Dimensionless interface temperature, i =(Ti T0)/(Te T0), and concentration,
i =(Ci C0)/(Ce C0), versus normalized
length, =x/(Pe) for Le 0:001 and normalized heat of absorption, l Leha Ce C0 =Cp (Te T0)), as indicated. Te corresponds
to equilibrium interface temperature at inlet concentration, C0; Ce corresponds to equilibrium interface concentration at inlet temperature, T0. Dashed lines correspond to an adiabatic wall, solid lines to isothermal wall. Lines labeled ``slug ow'' solution are from
Grigor'eva and Nakoryakov [26] (adapted from Grossman [29]).
Fig. 6. Temperature a l'interface adimensionnelle yi = (Ti T0) et concentration gi= (Ci C0)/(Ce C0) en fonction de la longueur .....
z= x/(Ped) pour Le = 0,001 et la chaleur d'absorption normalisee l = (Leh*a(Ce C0))/(C*p(Te T0), comme indique. Te correspond a
la temperature a l'equilibre a l'interface a la concentration d'entree, C0 ; Ce correspond a la concentration a l'equilibre a l'interface a la
temperature a l'entree, T0 ; les courbes hachurees representent un mur adiabatique et les courbes continues representent un mur isothermique. Les courbes designees slug ow solution sont fondees sur celles de Grigor'eva et Nakoryakov [26] (adaptees des travaux de
Grossman [29]).
Additionally, comparisons are made with the experimental data of Burdukov et al. [43]. Generally concentrations and temperatures agree within experimental
error except close to the solution inlet where the predicted heat and mass transfer rates are the highest. They
suggest that the isothermal wall assumption may be
inappropriate in this region: ``in reality, the heat transfer
resistance to the cooling water prevents this high heat
ux, and thus the absorption and the change in concentration near the inlet are much more gradual'' than
predicted.
Andberg and Vliet [38] utilize their earlier model [37]
to develop a relationship for absorber length based on
desired concentration change and operating conditions
such as solution mass ow rate, inlet concentration,
inlet temperature and wall temperature. By dening
absorption percentage as the predicted concentration
change compared to the concentration change that
could be achieved given an innitely long isothermal
wall, they nd that the only variable which has a signicant eect on the required length for a desired
absorption percentage is solution mass ow rate.
766
14
767
@T
@T
@2 T
v
2
@x
@y
@y
15
@CA
@CA
@2 C A
v
DAB
@x
@y
@y2
16
768
solution concentration, she demonstrates that the solutions for the lm temperature, concentration, heat and
mass uxes all change signicantly when the concentration of the lm is taken into account. Additionally by
examining the non-dimensional coecients of heat and
mass transfer, she shows that the heat transfer coecient
is unaected by the solution concentration and that the
modication to the predicted heat transfer is due to the
coupling of the heat and mass transfer problems.
4.1.8. van der Wekken and Wassenaar 1988 [55]
van der Wekken and Wassenaar [55] present an
extension to the problem solved by Grossman [29].
Instead of assuming either an adiabatic or isothermal
wall, they extend the heat transfer model to a constant
temperature cooling medium (representing the case of
cross-ow coolant) and use the coolant heat transfer
coecient as a variable for study. They do not assume
innite dilution of the water in the lm in their formulation of Fick's law. The rest of their assumptions
are identical to Grossman [29] including parabolic, fully
developed velocity prole, constant thermophysical
properties, constant lm thickness (transverse velocity is
zero), no heat transfer to the vapor, linearized equilibrium model, etc. The problem is solved using nite
dierence methods.
For values of the model parameters corresponding to
water-lithium bromide absorption, van der Wekken and
Wassenaar show the variation of temperatures and
concentrations against downstream position for four
values of non-dimensional coolant heat transfer coecient: 0, 0.1, 10, and 1. Plots of non-dimensional lm
heat and mass transfer coecients are also presented.
The authors note that the coecients may vary by up to
50% when a parameter such as the non-dimensionalized
heat of absorption, Lewis number, coolant temperature
or coolant heat transfer coecient is doubled or
increased by an order of magnitude, but that for any
given problem, the parameters would only vary by ``tens
of percent'' along the lm. This leads them to conclude
that curves of the transfer coecients predicted using
average values of the problem parameters would be
sucient for a design model.
4.1.9. Habib and Wood 1990 [32]
Habib and Wood [32] create a numerical model for
co-current absorption on a laminar, vertical lm that
includes heat and momentum transfer in the vapor
phase. Many typical assumptions are applied including
constant lm thickness, isothermal wall, and innite
dilution in Fick's Law. The authors include many of the
terms typically neglected by other authors in the governing equations [for example Eqs. (1) and (2) without
the transient terms]. They allow for pressure gradients
along the absorber and interfacial shear between the two
phases, although presumably these terms are very small
769
770
Conlisk [61] presents the results of the model in several ways. For both an isothermal and non-isothermal
wall, plots of temperature proles are given at various
downstream locations for two solution ow rates. Also
the leading order term for absorption rate (lm thickness variation) is plotted for the case of constant and
variable wall temperature and curve ts are given which
can be used to simplify subsequent analyses. Comparisons with experimental data are also presented for two
operating conditions. The total absorption rate predicted is within 20% of the experimental values, overpredicting the experimental data in both cases. The
author concludes that the potential of waves to aect
the results is small.
Conlisk [62] presents the results of varying other
parameters of the problem such as wall temperature,
solution ow rate, and tube length. An interesting conclusion of this work is that ``for tube lengths less than
about one meter, limited increases in the amount of
water absorbed may be expected beyond a solution ow
rate of about 0.6 kg/min,'' which tacitly assumes complete wetting. Conlisk [63] also concludes that the results
suggest ``that the use of long tubes to increase heat and
mass transfer area is not an ecient means to increase
the absorption rate to the tube surface'' primarily since
the highest absorption rates occur near the inlet. ``The
implication is that a bank of short tubes operating at
lower individual Reynolds numbers will be most ecient for the absorption process.''
Noting that the temperature proles predicted by the
above model become substantially conduction dominated
at a small downstream length, Conlisk [65] presents fully
analytical solutions for the problem by assuming that the
temperature prole within the lm must be linear. The
total absorption rate at the two operating conditions used
for comparison with experimental data in Conlisk [61] is
within 1% of the original model. It is shown that at positions very near the lm inlet, the prediction of local
absorption rate diers greatly between the two models.
But because this region is small compared to the length of
the tube (1.5 m in this case) the eect on overall model
performance is small. Based on the analytical expressions
developed, Conlisk [65] shows that as the initial thickness
of the lm is reduced, the heat transfer coecient increases
but the mass transfer coecient decreases, although no
further physical interpretation of why this happens is
given. Also, Conlisk notes that the total absorbed mass
ux is almost completely independent of the dierence
between the lm inlet and wall temperatures. Presumably
this is because the sensible heat load associated with inlet
temperature dierences is small compared to the heat load
of absorption for long absorbers. This conclusion is in
sharp contrast to the ndings of Andberg and Vliet [40] for
the horizontal tube case where the lm ow length is small.
Conlisk [66] extends his earlier model [65] to include
heat transfer to the coolant by assuming specic heat,
771
772
the ow over a smooth vertical tube. ``The basic physical eect of the utes is to induce the ow to vary on a
length scale much shorter than the length of the tube.''
The premise of the enhancement to heat and mass
transfer is that the surface tension of the lm interacting
with the periodic curvature of the utes tends to draw
the lm from the crests of the utes into the troughs
thus inducing a sideways velocity component and
maintaining a thin-lm situation on the ute crests (the
Gregorig [73] eect). Solutions for the hydrodynamics in
this situation are given in Johnson and Conlisk [74]. For
typical applications, these solutions are stated to be
valid up to some large distance down the lm where the
lm in the troughs becomes too thick. Except for the
dierent hydrodynamics, Conlisk [64] uses the same
assumptions as Conlisk [61]. He considers the problem
in three regions of boundary layer development as in
Conlisk and Mao [72] and develops solutions using the
Laplace transform for the region near the inlet and far
downstream for both the mass transfer and heat transfer
problems; the intermediate region requires a fully
numerical solution.
4.2.2. Yang and Jou 1995 [75]
Utilizing essentially the same assumptions as Grossman [29], Yang and Jou [75] model the absorption process for the case when the lm ow is contained within a
porous medium on the surface of an isothermal wall.
The hydrodynamics and eective thermal conductivity
of the uid-saturated porous material are based on
models developed in previous work. The system of
equations is solved numerically. Temperatures, concentrations and absorption rates are presented as a
function of downstream position for a baseline operating condition. By comparing the predictions to the
smooth lm model of Yang and Wood [57], the authors
show that absorption rates are enhanced especially for
lm Reynolds numbers greater than 60; this is without
considering the enhanced wetting characteristics of a
porous medium. Additionally, parameters describing
the porous medium including conductivity and porosity
are varied and the eect on absorption rate is shown.
4.2.3. Conlisk 1996a, 1996b [76,77]
Conlisk [76,77] analyzes the hydrodynamics and
absorption for a lm owing down a vertical tube with
spine ns. To simplify the solution for the hydrodynamics, surface tension eects are neglected. The
premise of spine-n tubes is similar to the uted tubes in
that the laminar ow is altered on a short length scale.
Eectively, the smooth tube model of Conlisk [66],
which assumes a linear temperature prole and mass
transfer conned to a thin boundary layer, is used in the
region between the spines. The model also includes heat
transfer to a cooling medium with constant heat transfer
coecient. Conlisk reports that some enhancement in
773
17
turbulent "
18
774
Table 1
Vertical wall, laminar water-lithium bromide lmsa
Tableau 1
Mur vertical, lms laminaires eau/bromure de lithiuma
Date
Solution type
Hydrodynamics
Domain
Wall
Other
Nakoryakov
and Grigor'eva
(1977) [17]
Analytical (SS)
Unrestricted
ISO
(1977) [26]
(1980) [19,20]
(1995) [24]
Analytical (ES)
Analytical (SS)
Analytical (SS)
ISO
ISO
ISO
(1997) [25]
Analytical (ES)
Unrestricted
Film inlet
Film inlet and
downstream
Unrestricted
ISO or adiabatic
Kholpanov et al.
(1982) [33]
Analytical (SS)
Film inlet
NA
Grossman
(1983) [29]
Numerical and
analytical (ES,
SS near lm inlet)
Analytical (SS)
Unrestricted
ISO or adiabatic
Film inlet
NA
(1987) [14]
Andberg and Vliet
(1983) [37]
(1983) [38]
Numerical
Approximate
correlation
Unrestricted
Unrestricted
ISO
ISO
(1988) [55]
Numerical
Unrestricted
Isothermal coolant
Kawae et al.
(1989) [51]
Numerical
Unrestricted
ISO
EMD, NVHT
Brauner et al.
Brauner
(1989) [52]
(1991) [54]
Analytical (SS)
Numerical (SS
near inlet)
Film inlet
Unrestricted
NA
ISO or adiabatic
(1990) [32]
Numerical
SFI, PSVP
Unrestricted
ISO
(1992) [57]
Numerical
Unrestricted
ISO or adiabatic
(1992) [58]
Analytical (ES)
Stagnant lm
NA
ISO or ux
Ramadane et al.
Conlisk
(1992) [62]
(1992,3,
1994) [6163]
Numerical
Analytical
(LaPlace integrals)
and numerical
Analytical
Analytical
Unrestricted
Moderate lengths
Coolant
Fixed temp. prole
SFI, PSVP
SFI, PSVP
Moderate lengths
Moderate lengths
(1995) [65]
(1995) [66]
Ibrahim and
Vinnecombe
(1993) [31]
Hybrid (analytical
and numerical)
Unrestricted
Jernqvist and
Kockum
(1996) [71]
Numerical
Unrestricted
ISO
NVHT
a
SS=similarity solution; ES=expansion series; SFI=smooth lm interface; USVP=uniform stream-wise velocity prole; PSVP=parabolic stream-wise velocity prole;
NTV=negligible transverse velocity; ISO=Isothermal wall; CFT=constant lm thickness; LIEM=linear interface equilibrium model; EMD=equimolar diusion at interface;
NVHT=negligible vapor-phase heat transfer; CTP=constant thermophysical properties; NIE=negligible interdiusion eects; LFTP=linear lm temperature prole.
Author
a
SS=similarity solution; ES=expansion series; SFI=Smooth lm interface; USVP=uniform stream-wise velocity prole; PSVP=parabolic stream-wise velocity prole;
NTV=negligible transverse velocity; CFT=constant lm thickness; LIEM=linear interface equilibrium model; EMD=equimolar diusion at interface; NVHT=negligible vaporphase heat transfer; CTP=constant thermophysical properties; NIE=negligible interdiusion eects; LFTP=linear lm temperature prole.
Isothermal
Film on tube
Sagging lm, SFI, PSVP
(1996) [72]
Conlisk and Mao
Analytical
(LaPlace integrals)
and numerical
Film on tube
Planar jet, SFI, no impact loss
(1996) [70]
Lu et al.
Numerical
Film on tube
(1993) [69]
Choudhury et al.
Numerical
Isothermal
coolant
NVHT, NIE
Isothermal
coolant
Isothermal
Film on tube
Planar jet, SFI, developing PSVP
(1986, 1987) [3941]
Andberg and Vliet
Numerical
Domain
Date
Author
Tableau 2
Tubes horizontaux, lms eau/bromure de lithiuma
Table 2
Horizontal tubes, water-lithium bromide lmsa
Solution type
Hydrodynamics
Wall
Other
775
776
Fig. 7. Dimensionless bulk concentration,
, versus normalized length, =(xPr)/(Pe), for Pr=10, Sc=2000, and Re as indicated.
Solid lines correspond to an isothermal wall prediction, dashed lines to an adiabatic wall (adapted from Grossman and Heath [79]).
Fig. 7. Concentration adimensionnelle, ... en fonction de la longueur normalisee, ..... (xPr)/(Ped) ou Pr = 10, Sc = 2000, et Re comme
indique. Les courbes continues correspondent a une prevision de mur isothermique, ; les courbes hachurees correspondent a un mur adiabatique (adaptes des travaux de Grossman et Heath [79]).
a
SS=similarity solution; ES=expansion series; SFI=smooth lm interface; USVP=uniform stream-wise velocity prole; PSVP=parabolic stream-wise velocity prole; NTV=negligible transverse velocity; CFT=constant lm thickness; LIEM=linear interface equilibrium model; EMD=equimolar diusion at interface; NVHT=negligible vapor-phase heat
transfer; CTP=constant thermophysical properties; NIE=negligible interdiusion eects; LFTP=linear lm temperature prole.
(1993) [91]
Kholpanov and Kenig
Numerical, multi-component
lm/vapor
SFI, NTV
Unrestricted
Adiabatic isothermal
wall/coolant
Isothermal or adiabatic
Unrestricted
SFI, vapor shear
Numerical
(1987) [86]
Yuksel and Schlunder
Isothermal or q=const.
Unrestricted
Numerical
(1989) [85]
SFI, NTV
Isothermal or q=const.
Away from inlet
(1988) [84]
Faghri and Seban
SFI, NTV
Isothermal or adiabatic
Unrestricted
Numerical
(SS near lm inlet)
Analytical
(1984,6) [79,80]
Grossman and Heath
Solution type
Date
Tableau 3
Mur vertical, lms turbulents eau/bromure de lithiuma
Table 3
Vertical wall, turbulent water-lithium bromide lmsa
4.4. Wavy lm ow
Author
Hydrodynamics
Domain
Wall
SFI, NTV
Other
777
778
779
780
781
a
SS=similarity solution; ES=expansion series; SFI=smooth lm interface; USVP=uniform stream-wise velocity prole; PSVP=parabolic stream-wise velocity prole;
NTV=negligible transverse velocity; CFT=constant lm thickness; LIEM=linear interface equilibrium model; EMD=equimolar diusion at interface; NVHT=negligible vaporphase heat transfer; CTP=constant thermophysical properties; NIE=negligible interdiusion eects; LFTP=linear lm temperature prole.
NA
NA
NA
Isothermal
Isothermal
Isothermal
Isothermal
Isothermal
From stability analysis
Near inlet
USVP
Near inlet
Sinusoidal, USVP
Near inlet
Brauner roll waves, PSVP, NTV
Unrestricted
Sinusoidal capillary waves, PSVP
Unrestricted
Capillary waves, PSVP
Unrestricted
Capillary waves, Penev et al. psuedo PSVP Unrestricted
Brauner roll waves, PSVP,
Unrestricted
(1987) [103]
(1989) [105]
(1990) [104]
(1988) [106]
(1991) [109]
(1991,3) [111,112]
(1996) [114]
(1996) [28]
Kholpanov
Tsvelodub
Kholpanov
Uddholm and Setterwall
Morioka and Kiyota
Yang and Jou
Sabir et al.
Patnaik and Perez-Blanco
Solution type
Date
Tableau 4
Mur vertical, lms ondules eau/bromure de lithiuma
Table 4
Vertical wall, wavy water-lithium bromide lmsa
Hydrodynamics
Domain
Wall
Other
Author
782
783
784
eectiveness, the ratio of the change in solution temperature to the temperature dierence between the
solution and coolant at the inlets; and a maximum sensible-to-latent heat load eectiveness, the maximum sensible heat load if the solution were to reach the coolant
temperature divided by the heat of absorption that
would be released given an innite absorber size. When
designing a new absorber, design targets may be used to
help determine these eectiveness ratios; however, they
are interrelated by the heat and mass transfer coecients, the interface equilibrium model, and the degree
of subcooling of the lm. Using parameters covering a
range of reasonable operating conditions for a waterlithium bromide absorber, the authors demonstrate the
potential usefulness and simplicity of the method in
determining absorber performance.
4.5.4. Kirby and Perez-Blanco 1994 [119]
Kirby and Perez-Blanco [119] consider the case of
absorption around horizontal tubes. Although their
model uses assumed heat and mass transfer coecients
to simplify the analysis, they are the rst to incorporate
the combined eects of lm ow, droplet formation and
droplet fall which are common features of absorbers
using horizontal tubes. The absorber is divided into
three regions: the lm ow region, the droplet formation
region, and the droplet fall region. In the droplet formation regime on the underside of the tubes, the average distance between droplets and the average volume
of the droplets when they fall are determined from
Taylor instability analysis of Taghavi-Tafhreshi and
Dhir [120]. The residence time of the liquid solution in
each regime can thus be calculated given an overall mass
ow rate. For the droplet fall regime, simple free-fall is
assumed, initially from rest. For the lm, the Nusselt
equations for lm thickness and velocity are used. One
key assumption about the droplet formation is that, as
liquid solution reaches the droplet, it is deposited as a
thin spherical shell on the surface of the old droplet
core. Thus the temperature of the liquid solution entering the forming droplet is used to set the driving force
for heat transfer and mass transfer (through the equilibrium condition) into the droplet. The authors suggest
that this is the ``fresh surface'' assumption described by
Clift et al. [121]. However, Clift et al. state that, in the
``fresh surface'' model, ``fresh uid elements are
assumed to arrive at the interface to provide the increase
in area.'' Therefore, the interpretation by Kirby and
Perez-Blanco seems somewhat questionable. Correlations for the mass transfer coecients in each of the
three regimes are taken from the literature. In the droplet formation region, the best correlation available is a
time-averaged empirical expression based upon work
with liquid-liquid extraction where droplet formation
occurs at the end of nozzles. One of the required parameters for this correlation is the velocity of the liquid in
785
786
787
788
789
790
He also concludes that ``the bulk motion of vapor controls the ammonia mass ux in the vapor mixture'' but
goes on to say ``the main mass transfer resistance lies in
the solution lm''. These results appear to be somewhat
divergent from similar types of models.
5.3.6. Gommed, Grossman and Koenig 1999, 2000
[15,154]
Gommed et al. [15] develop a model for ammoniawater absorption on a falling lm inside a vertical tube
with co-current vapor ow. The dierential equations of
momentum, heat, and mass transfer are solved simultaneously using an implicit nite-volume method. A
coordinate transformation is applied to the governing
equations which eliminates discontinuities and ensures a
rectangular solution domain in spite of the changing lm
thickness. The model allows for interfacial shear between
the two phases, and downstream pressure changes are
calculated; presumably the interface is smooth and ow
is laminar in both phases. Other assumptions the authors
use are that the pressure and thermophysical properties
are constant in the radial direction, interface equilibrium
holds, and the wall temperature is known (isothermal
wall is used for the results presented). The energy equation is formulated to allow for the ux of energy due to
interdiusion, although the authors conclude that this
eect is negligible except for a small region near the lm
inlet. After applying the coordinate transformation
which is based on the axisymmetric geometry and the
stream function, the three equations governing heat,
mass, and momentum transfer are presented in a single
general form; the generic variables in this expression are
then dened for each of the three transfer processes. The
authors outline the computational steps for the iterative
solution of the problem. For each iteration, either initial
guesses or results of a previous iteration are used to rst
iteratively solve the momentum equations in the two
phases, then the energy equations (note heat transfer in
the vapor phase is not neglected), and nally the mass
transfer equations. Results are presented for an operating condition dened by Kang and Christensen [136] for
the hydronically coupled absorber in a GAX system.
Gommed et al. illustrate that the interface temperature
remains virtually xed along the absorber as does the
temperature prole within the lm which is essentially
linear especially at greater downstream positions. Not
only does the bulk ammonia concentration in the liquid
lm increase with downstream position, but the ammonia concentration at the interface does as well presumably due to changing pressure. Both the absorption
rate and heat transfer coecient in the liquid lm are
relatively high near the inlet but reduce to relatively
constant values at greater downstream positions. It is
shown that decreasing the wall temperature, entrance
liquid bulk temperature, or entrance liquid bulk ammonia content increases the absorption rate. It is also
(1996) [72]
(1999) [15,154]
Gommed et al.
Conlisk
a
SS=similarity solution; ES=expansion series; SFI=smooth lm interface; USVP=uniform stream-wise velocity prole; PSVP=parabolic stream-wise velocity prole;
NTV=negligible transverse velocity; CFT=constant lm thickness; LIEM=linear interface equilibrium model; EMD=equimolar diusion at interface; NVHT=negligible vaporphase heat transfer; CTP=constant thermophysical properties; NIE=negligible interdiusion eects; LFTP=linear lm temperature prole.
Isothermal
Unrestricted
SFI, coupled, co-current shear
Isothermal
Horizontal tube
Sagging lm, SFI, PSVP
Analytical (SS)
Numerical
Analytical (LaPlace integrals)
and numerical
Analytical (LaPlace integrals)
and numerical
Numerical
Other
Wall
Date
Author
Tableau 5
Mur vertical, ammoniac-eau
Table 5
Vertical wall, ammonia-watera
Solution type
Hydrodynamics
Domain
791
coecients. It can be seen that recent models are eliminating many of the standard simplications; unfortunately the list of works in this area is quite short. And
conspicuously missing are models including wavy lms
and lms over horizontal tubes. As ammonia-water is a
viable and widely used working uid pair recognized as
a promising candidate for residential and light commercial applications where both heating and cooling are
required [15], the explanation for this void may be the
added complexity of the problem. Certainly, this is an
area that needs further investigation.
6. Conclusions
A large body of work exists in the eld of modeling
falling lm absorption; however, there appears to be a
lack of agreement among authors in several areas and,
furthermore, there are still some key deciencies that
can only be addressed through continued enhancement
of the existing modeling techniques. The key areas that
need further investigation are itemized below:
. Film hydrodynamics is an area that clearly needs
improved understanding. The often conicting
conclusions of many of the authors clearly show
that this key assumption has an extremely large
impact on the predicted results. The reasons for
adopting a laminar lm assumption for the initial
work in this area were clear. But given the inherent instability of falling lms and the fact that
absorbers are often designed specically to avoid
smooth laminar lm ow, continuing to use these
types of simplifying assumptions is not particularly useful.
. In most of the existing work, the hydrodynamics
are assumed a priori, but as was mentioned
before, experimental evidence suggests the heat
and mass transfer processes may signicantly
aect the hydrodynamics by altering the local
thermophysical properties and gradients, especially near the interface. This suggests that the
hydrodynamics should be considered simultaneously
in a coupled manner with the heat and mass transfer
processes, although this certainly adds signicant
complexity to the problem. The studies that have
attempted to do this have been for smooth-interface, laminar lms and may or may not allow for
property variation across the lm. None have
considered the case of a rippled or wavy lm
where the eects might be even more pronounced.
. Modeling absorption in the presence of wavy lm
ow is still an area where more work needs to be
done. The existing models make many simplifying
assumptions, have had little validation, and generally do not account for the development of the
792
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge support from the
National Science Foundation through Grant Number
9875010 for this research.
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