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org/

GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 67, NO. 5 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2002); P. 15581563, 4 FIGS., 2 TABLES.

10.1190/1.1512801

Short Note
Centered and staggered Fourier derivatives and
Hilbert transforms

Gustavo J. P. Correa
, Marc Spiegelman , Suzanne Carbotte ,
and John C. Mutter
INTRODUCTION

Hence, these artifacts have quite strong amplitudes and can

be confused with genuine events. As a matter of fact, staggered derivatives also produce artifacts, but with amplitudes
more than 50 dB below the maximum amplitude of the wavefield. This level of accuracy is very close to the lowermost limit
of about 60 dB, imposed by the single-precision floating-point
arithmetic used in the modeling experiments discussed here.
Other authors (Witte, 1989; Witte and Richards, 1990;

Fornberg, 1990a; Ozdenvar

and McMechan, 1996) have
documented the same deleterious effects of ringing centered
derivatives in wave propagation modeling through the pseudospectral Fourier method. Nevertheless, to our knowledge,
the correct conditions that lead to ringing or compact Fourier
derivatives have not been systematically addressed.
In the next section, we show that, regardless of the grid size
parity (odd/even number of samples), staggered odd-order and
centered even-order Fourier derivatives are compact, whereas
centered odd-order and staggered even-order derivatives are
ringing. The third section of this article briefly discusses the
Hermitian symmetry of Fourier derivatives of real functions
and an efficient way to calculate staggered first-order derivatives. In the fourth section, we explore the connection between
Fourier derivatives and the Hilbert transform. We introduce
the staggered Hilbert transform kernel, which is smooth and
approximates the continuous kernel much better than its
centered counterpart. We also discuss the limitations of the
staggered Hilbert transform in practical calculations, such as
instantaneous attributes.

When ringing derivatives are used in seismic modeling, migration, and other wave propagation problems in heterogeneous media, they interact with boundaries of blocks or layers
of different physical properties, generating noncausal and nonphysical waves. These spurious waves can be as strong as reflected or converted waves and other legitimate physical events,
leading to errors and misinterpretations. Therefore, compact
(i.e., short and nonringing) derivatives should be used.
Figure 1 shows snapshots of the vertical component of a particle displacement field, modeled with the elastic wave equation, using the Fourier pseudospectral method (Kosloff et al.,
1984; Witte, 1989; Witte and Richards, 1990). The model is
composed of two half-spaces separated by a horizontal interface at 1.6 km depth. The P-wave and S-wave velocities and
densities of the upper and lower half-spaces are V P = 2.0 km/s,
VS = 0.8 km/s, = 2.4 g/cm3 , and V P = 4.0 km/s, VS = 2.3 km/s,
= 2.6 g/cm3 , respectively. There are 256 256 points in the
grid, spaced by 12.5 m in both horizontal x- and depth
z-directions. An explosive source is triggered at time t = 0 at
the point of coordinates x = 0 and z = 1.2 km. The snapshots
were taken at time t = 0.6 s. We used centered space derivatives to model the left panel, and staggered space derivatives
to model the right panel. Besides the derivatives, everything
else is the same in the algorithms used to produce both panels.
A number of noncausal and nonphysical waves (and other
artifacts) appear on the left panel of Figure 1 because of the
interaction of the ringing tail of the centered derivatives with
the horizontal interface at the center of the model and with the
grid boundaries. These artifacts are not present on the right
panel of Figure 1, which was modeled using staggered derivatives. The artifacts produced by the centered derivatives are
about 20 dB below the maximum amplitude of the wavefield.

CENTERED AND STAGGERED FOURIER DERIVATIVES

The nth-order derivative of a function p(t) of variable t,

discretized over a finite grid of N points, is given by (Witte,
1989; Witte and Richards, 1990)

Published on Geophysics Online May 23, 2002. Manuscript received by the Editor February 11, 2000; revised manuscript received January 14, 2002.

Formerly Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University, P.O. Box 1000, Palisades, New York 10964-8000; presently University of
Houston, Department of Geosciences, 312 Science & Research Building 1, Houston, Texas 77204-5007. E-mail: gus@uh.edu.
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University, P.O. Box 1000, Palisades, New York 10964-8000. E-mail: mspieg@ldeo.columbia.edu;
carbotte@ldeo.columbia.edu.

c 2002 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.

1558

Fourier Derivatives

(1)

where t = j1t, j = 0, . . . , N 1; 1t is the sampling interval;

is a discrete variable given by = k2/(N 1t); and k is an
integer number. For an even N , we can choose N /2 k <
N /2, where k = N /2 corresponds to the Nyquist frequency.
For an odd N , N /2 < k < N /2, and the Nyquist frequency is
not one of the grid points. The superscript c denotes a centered (i.e., not staggered, see below) derivative. Here DFT
and DFT 1 denote the forward and inverse discrete Fourier
transform (DFT). The definition of the DFT is standard and
can be found in textbooks (e.g., Bracewell, 1986; Press et al.,
1994). Computational efficiency is achieved by applying the
DFT through a fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm (Press
et al., 1994; Frigo, 1999). Although our definitions, notation,
and presentation concentrate on time derivatives, the results
apply to space derivatives as well.
Half-grid-spacing phase-shift operators are defined by
(Bracewell, 1986)

S () =
+

1t
ei 2

(2)

where S corresponds to a time advance, S a time delay, and

both are periodic functions of the discrete variable defined
above.
The staggered nth-order derivatives of p(t) are given by
(Witte, 1989; Witte and Richards, 1990)

d n() p(t)
= DFT 1 ((i)n S ()DFT ( p))(t).
dt n

(3)

Here the term staggered denotes the use of half-gridspacing phase-shift operators S in equation (3). However,
equation (3) is equivalent to the application of the centered
derivatives of equation (1) to p(t) discretized over the staggered grid t = ( j + 1/2)1t, j = 0, . . . , N 1. In other words,
staggered derivatives of grid-centered functions are the
same as centered derivatives of grid-staggered functions. We
call Fourier derivatives any derivatives calculated using
equations (1) or (3).
-1.6
0

Horizontal offset X (km)

-0.8
0
0.8

Figure 2 shows the result of applying the centered and staggered first- and second-order Fourier derivatives to a spike at
the center of grids of sizes N = 125 and N = 128 (impulse response). Observe in Figure 2 that first-order derivatives are
ringing when centered on the grid and compact when staggered, whereas second-order derivatives are compact when
centered on the grid and ringing when staggered. Figure 2 also
suggests that this behavior of derivatives does not depend on
the parity of the grid size (N ). To prove these conjectures, and
to generalize them to derivatives of higher order, we next analyze the spectra of centered and staggered derivatives of any
order.
In frequency domain, the centered first-order derivative of
equation (1) is obtained through multiplication by d (c) /dt =
i, which can be factored as the product d (c)/dt = ||Q(),
where

Q() = i sgn()

Q () = S ()Q().

1.6

-1.6
0

Depth Z (km)

2.4

Horizontal offset X (km)

-0.8
0
0.8

1.6

1.6

2.4

Centered

(5)

The spectra of the staggered first-order derivatives of equation (3) are given by d ()/dt = ||Q ().
Figure 3 shows the amplitude and phase spectra of Q(),
S (), and Q (), and their Fourier transforms in time domain. Analogous results apply to S + () and Q + (). These
functions are discrete and periodic beyond the interval
[ N , + N ]; hence, they wrap around the Nyquist frequency
N (Oppenheim and Schafer, 1975). Figure 3 also shows that
Q() has phase jumps of at = 0 and = N , S () has
a phase jump of at = N , and Q () has a phase jump
of at = 0. Functions that have large phase jumps at N
present ripples in the time domain due to Gibbs phenomenon
(Bracewell, 1986). By contrast, functions that have small phase
jumps at N do not show ripples in the time domain.

0.8

1.6

(4)

is called the quadrature function (Saito, 1974; Claerbout, 1976).

As usual, the sign function sgn() is 1 for < 0, +1 for > 0,
and zero for = 0. We define the staggered quadrature function by

0.8

Depth Z (km)

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d n(c) p(t)
= DFT 1 ((i)n DFT ( p))(t),
dt n

1559

Staggered

FIG. 1. Snapshots of the vertical component of a particle displacement field modeled using the elastic wave
equation. The space derivatives were calculated using Fourier transforms. The left panel was modeled with
centered derivatives, and presents visible artifacts due to the interaction of the ringing tail of the centered
derivative with a horizontal interface at the center of the model and with the grid boundaries. The compact
staggered derivatives on the right panel do not produce such artifacts. The amplitudes in both panels were
clipped at the same level. The small white square marks the source position.

1560

Correa
et al.
1

1st. derivative, centered

-1

-1
-60

-40

-20

20

40

60

80

1st. derivative, staggered

Non-dimensional values

-40

-20

20

40

60

80

2nd. derivative, centered

-80

0
-2

-60

-40

-20

20

40

60

80

2nd. derivative, staggered

-80
2

-2

-2

-80

-40

-20

20

40

60

80

1st. derivative, staggered

-1
-60

-2
-80

-60

-1
-80

-80
1

-60

-40

-20
0
20
Sample index

40

60

80

-80

-60

-40

-20

20

40

60

-60

-40

-20

20

40

60

-40

-20

80

2nd. derivative, staggered

-60

80

2nd. derivative, centered

N = 125

0
20
Sample index

40

60

80

N = 128

-5 N

N 5

10

-1
-5 N

N 5

10

1
0

-1
-2
-10

-5 N

N 5

Angular frequency (rad/s)

N 5

10

-20

20

0.5
0

-0.5

-5 N

N 5

10

1
0

-1
/2
-2
-10

10

2
/2

Phase of Q ()
(radians)

-2
-10

-5 N

-1
/2
-2
-10

0.5

-0.5

2
/2
1

-1
/2
-2
-10

Phase of S ()
(radians)

Amplitude of S ()
(arbitrary units)

-2
-10

Fourier Tr. of S ()
(arbitrary units)

-1

Fourier Tr. of Q()

(arbitrary units)

2
/2
1

-20

Fourier Tr. of Q ()
(arbitrary units)

Phase of Q()
(radians)

Amplitude of Q()
(arbitrary units)

FIG. 2. Fourier derivative impulse responses on grids of odd (left) and even (right) sizes (N ). The staggered
derivatives are time advanced (d + /dt), but similar results apply to time delayed derivatives (d /dt). First-order
derivatives are ringing when centered and compact when staggered, whereas second-order derivatives are compact when centered and ringing when staggered, regardless of the parity of N .

Amplitude of Q ()
(arbitrary units)

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-80

1st. derivative, centered

20

0.5
0

-0.5

-5 N

N 5

Angular frequency (rad/s)

10

-20

20

Time sample index

FIG. 3. Amplitude spectra (left), phase spectra (center), and the Fourier transform to time domain (right) of (ac) the centered
quadrature function Q(), (df) the time-delay phase-shift function S (), and (gi) the time-delayed quadrature function Q ().
All spectra are periodic functions of the angular frequency, and the graphs wrap around the Nyquist frequency ( N ). The functions
Q() and S () have a phase jump of and across N , respectively, whereas Q () does not have a noticeable phase jump there.
Spectra with large phase jumps across the Nyquist frequency correspond to ringing time-domain functions (Gibbs phenomenon),
whereas spectra with no apparent phase jumps correspond to compact time functions.

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Fourier Derivatives

The phase jump of Q() at = 0 is an essential feature of

the quadrature function, which leads to the doublet character of the first-order derivative in the time domain (Figure 2).
However, the additional phase jump of Q() at = N is imposed by the requisite of periodicity, and it is not an essential
feature. The phase jump at = N produces the ripples and
the ringing character of the centered first-order derivative impulse response shown in Figures 2a and 2b. Moreover, since
this large phase jump at the Nyquist frequency is present regardless of the grid size N being odd or even, the ripples of
the centered first-order derivative are present regardless of
the parity of N . Likewise, S () has a ringing time-domain impulse response. By contrast, Q () has a negligible phase jump
at = N ; hence, the associated impulse response of the staggered first order derivative is compact (as shown in Figures 2c
and 2d). In summary, if the spectrum of a derivative contains
Q() or S (), the derivative is ringing. If the spectrum contains Q (), the derivative is compact.
It is easy to show that for 6= 0, (Q())2 = 1, (Q())3 =
Q(), (Q())4 = +1, and (Q())n = (Q())n (mod 4) . These results lead to the spectra of all Fourier derivatives, summarized
in Table 1.
Table 1 shows that the odd-order derivatives are compact
in staggered grids and ringing in centered ones. The opposite
applies to the even-order derivatives. Grid-size parity plays
no role here. The ringing or compact character of the Fourier
derivatives is controlled only by their centered or staggered
nature, and by the parity of the derivative order, not by the
parity of the grid size.

1561

domain, and p( j) = p( j1t) in the time domain, where k and j

are integer numbers (Press et al., 1994).
Although the DFT of a real function is complex valued, the
DFT P(k) of a discrete real function p( j) is Hermitian, i.e.,
P(k) = P(k), for 0 k N /2, where the bar denotes complex conjugate (Press et al., 1994). Furthermore, the dc component P(0), and the Nyquist component P(N /2) (present in
the grid only if N is even), are real. The Hermitian symmetry is harnessed for efficiency by the real FFT (RFFT) algorithms, which handle real functions directly, avoiding the memory and computational overhead of complex functions (Press
et al., 1994).
To obtain centered and staggered first-order Fourier derivatives using equations (1) and (3), we evaluate the expressions
P(k)1|k|Q(k) or P(k)1|k|Q (k), respectively. To check if
the Fourier derivative of a real function is again a real function,
we need to determine if these two expressions have Hermitian
symmetry. It is easy to show that the product of Hermitian
functions is Hermitian. Hence, as P(k) and |k| are Hermitian,
Fourier derivatives of real functions are real if and only if Q(k)
and Q (k) are Hermitian.
Using equation (4), one can show that Q(k) = Q(k), for
0 k < N /2. However, if N is even, Q(N /2) = i/1t, which
is not real, violating the Hermitian symmetry and leading
to centered first-order derivatives with an imaginary part.
Using equations (2) and (5), one can show that S (k) =
S (k) and that Q (k) = Q (k) for 0 k < N /2. If N is
even, S (N /2) = i, which is imaginary. However, Q (N /2) =
/1t, which is real, maintaining the Hermitian symmetry,
and leading to real staggered first-order derivatives.
It is easy to generalize these results to derivatives of any order. When N is odd, all derivatives are Hermitian, regardless
of the derivative order and of their centered or staggered nature. When N is even, the rows of Table 1 containing Q() or
S () correspond to non-Hermitian derivatives. Hence, for

HERMITIAN SYMMETRY AND EFFICIENT CALCULATION

OF STAGGERED FIRST-ORDER FOURIER DERIVATIVES

Hereafter, we adopt the simplified notation traditionally

used for discrete functions: P(k) = P(k1) in the frequency

Table 1. The complex spectra of nth-order Fourier derivatives on centered and staggered grids of odd and even sizes (N). Any
spectrum can be factored using only the following terms: (1) the powers of the absolute value of the angular frequency ||n , (2) the
(centered) quadrature function Q(), (3) the half-grid-point phase-shift operator S (), and (4) the staggered quadrature function
Q (). Any compact derivative spectrum has a negligible phase jump at the Nyquist frequency; hence, it either contains the factor
Q () or it is simply ||n . Derivative spectra that contain either the factor Q() or S () have large phase jumps across the
Nyquist frequency; therefore, they present Gibbs ripples and are ringing. C = centered, S = staggered.
Grid Size N

Derivative Order n

Centered or Staggered

any

1 (mod 4)

any

1 (mod 4)

any

2 (mod 4)

any

2 (mod 4)

any

3 (mod 4)

any

3 (mod 4)

any

0 (mod 4)

any

0 (mod 4)

Derivative Spectrum
d n(c)
= +||n Q()
dt n
d n()
= +||n Q ()
dt n
d n(c)
= ||n
dt n
d n()
= ||n S ()
dt n
n(c)
d
= ||n Q()
dt n
d n()
= ||n Q ()
dt n
d n(c)
= +||n
dt n
d n()
= +||n S ()
dt n

Ringing?
ringing
compact
compact
ringing
ringing
compact
compact
ringing

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1562

Correa
et al.

even N , an inspection of Table 1 shows that centered derivatives of even order and staggered derivatives of odd order are
Hermitian, whereas centered derivatives of odd order and staggered derivatives of even order are not Hermitian. These results are summarized in Table 2. A comparison of Tables 1
and 2 shows that the parity of N does not control the ringing or
compact nature of derivatives, that N alone guarantees Hermitian derivatives only if it is odd, and that Hermitian derivatives
are not necessarily compact.
Rows 1 and 2 of Table 2 tell us that centered first-order
Fourier derivatives are Hermitian only when N is odd. Hence,
they can be calculated using RFFT algorithms only if N is odd,
but not if N is even. By contrast, rows 1 and 3 of Table 2 tell
us that staggered first-order Fourier derivatives are Hermitian
for all values of N . Hence, they can be calculated using the
efficient RFFT algorithms regardless of the parity of N (Witte
and Richards, 1990).
An alternative efficient technique to calculate first-order
Fourier derivatives was presented in the literature (Zhou,
1992). This technique also relies on the Hermitian symmetry
of the DFT of real functions. Therefore, its application to centered derivatives is restricted to odd N , but it can be applied
to staggered derivatives for any value of N .
The most efficient FFT and RFFT algorithms are still those
where N is a power of two (Press et al., 1994; Frigo, 1999),
though many algorithms have been developed in recent years
for other prime and composite numbers. We did a benchmark
test where derivatives were calculated 4000 times using the
RFFT routines of the prize-winning FFTW package (Frigo,
1999) in a 850-MHz Pentium III processor under the Linux
operational system. Centered derivatives calculated with
N = 125 = 53 and N = 127 (a prime number) took total CPU
times of 2.93 s and 43.24 s, respectively. Staggered derivatives
calculated with N = 128 = 27 took a total CPU time of 1.97 s,
which was about 1.5 times faster than the centered derivatives
with N = 125 and about 22 times faster than the centered
derivatives with N = 127. These tests suggest that, using
RFFT algorithms and choosing N a power of two, staggered
derivatives may be calculated more efficiently than centered
derivatives.
CENTERED AND STAGGERED HILBERT TRANSFORMS

The Hilbert transform is pervasive in signal processing

(Oppenheim and Schafer, 1975) and useful in geophysics
(Claerbout, 1976). In the continuous time domain, the Hilbert
transform kernel is q(t) = 1/(t). The Fourier transform of
this kernel is the quadrature function Q() of equation (4),
though the variable is continuous, rather than discrete. This

Table 2. Hermitian symmetry of nth-order Fourier derivatives on centered and staggered grids of odd and even sizes
(N). C = centered, S = staggered.
Grid Size N
odd
even
even
even
even

Derivative
Order n

Centered or
Staggered

Hermitian
Symmetry?

any
odd
odd
even
even

both
C
S
C
S

yes
no
yes
yes
no

establishes the connection between Hilbert transforms and

derivatives (Claerbout, 1976; Bracewell, 1986).
A common way to obtain the Hilbert transform of discrete
data of finite length is to Fourier-transform it to the frequency
domain, multiply the spectrum by the centered quadrature
function Q(), and then transform it back to the time domain.
An alternative way is to use the staggered quadrature function
Q ().
Figure 4 compares the continuous Hilbert transform kernel with the discrete kernels obtained by each of these procedures. The staggered version is smooth, whereas the centered version is ringing. The staggered version approximates
the continuous Hilbert kernel much better than the centered
one. However, the centered version leads to Hilbert transforms defined on the same grid points of the original function,
whereas the staggered version produces Hilbert transforms shifted by half a grid interval with respect to the original
function.
Applications of the Hilbert transform, as in the calculation
of instantaneous attributes, require the original function, its
Hilbert transform, and their derivatives at the same grid points
(Taner et al., 1979). Hence, when computing instantaneous attributes, the smoothness of the staggered Hilbert transform
and the compactness of the staggered derivatives cannot be
exploited, due to the grid shift just mentioned. In this case,
the use of the centered Hilbert transform is the method of
choice.
CONCLUSIONS

Ringing derivatives can produce nonphysical waves and

other artifacts in wave propagation problems such as forward
modeling and migration. Therefore, they should be avoided.
We characterized ringingness of the Fourier derivatives with
respect to the order of differentiation. Staggered odd-order and
centered even-order Fourier derivatives are compact; centered
odd-order and staggered even-order Fourier derivatives are
ringing. The ringing or compact character of the derivatives is
independent of the grid size (N ).
When N is odd, all Fourier derivatives have Hermitian spectra, and all derivatives are real. When N is even, only the spectra
of centered derivatives of even order and of staggered derivatives of odd order are Hermitian, and only the corresponding
derivatives are real. As a consequence, the efficient RFFT algorithms can be used in the calculation of centered first-order
derivatives only if N is odd, but they can be used to calculate
staggered first-order derivatives for any value of N . Our benchmark test suggests that, choosing N as a power of two and using
RFFT algorithms, staggered derivatives may be calculated with
more efficiency than centered ones.
The staggered Hilbert transform kernel is smooth and approximates the continuous kernel much better than its centered counterpart, although its usefulness is severely limited
because most applications require the Hilbert transform to be
defined on the same grid as the original function.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank John Diebold and Peter Buhl for useful discussions, and an anonymous reviewer for helpful suggestions
about the Hilbert transform. This research has been supported

Fourier Derivatives

1563

0.8

0.4
nondimensional value

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0.6

0.2
0.0

-0.2

continuous Hilbert kernel

staggered Hilbert kernel
centered Hilbert kernel

-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-20

-15

-10

-5

10

15

20

sample index
FIG. 4. The continuous Hilbert transform kernel sampled at the centered and staggered grids (circles, dotted
line, 64 samples shown), the staggered Hilbert transform kernel for N = 32 (squares, continuous line) and the
centered Hilbert transform kernel for N = 32 (diamonds, dashed line). Notice that the staggered kernel fits
almost perfectly to the continuous one, whereas the centered kernel does not.

in part by NSF grants OCE 98-11483 and 94-02172, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences of Columbia University, and Petrobras.
L.D.E.O. contribution 6287.
The following free software was used in the preparation of
this paper: SU, FFTW, Xgraphic, Linux, Gnu Gcc, Gnu Emacs,
and Latex.
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