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Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Power Engineering Department
Second Year
Course Title: MEP 281 Measurements
Flow Measurements
Prepared by :
3/23/2014
Table of Contents
Conversion Factors
Flow Rate Measurement
1. Constant Area, Variable Pressure Drop Meters. [ obstruction Meters ]
1.1. The Sharp Edge Orifice.
1.1.1. Orifice Disadvantages and Advantages.
1.2. The Nozzle Flow Meter and The Venturi Flow meter.
1.2.1. Effect of Compressibility.
1.2.2. Expansion Factor for Compressible Flow.
1.3. The Sonic Nozzle.
1.4. The Laminar Flow Element ( LFE).
1.5. Factors Affecting Obstruction Meter Selection.
2. Constant Pressure Drop, Variable area Meters.
2.2. Rotameters.
3. Turbine Flow Meters.
4. Electromagnetic Flow Meters.
5. Positive Displacement Meters.
5.1. The Rotary Vane Flow Meter.
5.2. The Lobed Impeller Flow Meter.
5.3. Domestic Water Flow Meters
6. Flow Meter Calibration.
6.1
Sources of Errors in Flow Meter Calibration.
7. Other Types of Flow Meters
7.1
Nutating Disc
7.2
Piston water flow meter
7.2.1 Oscillating Piston Flow Meter
7.2.2 Rotary Piston Flow Meter
7.3
Vortex Flow Meter
7.4
Ultrasonic Flow Meter
7.4.1 Time of Flight Flow Meter
7.4.2 Doppler Flow Meter
7.5
Elbow Flow Meter
7.6
Target Flow Meter
7.7
Mass Coriolis Flow Meter
7.8
Thermal Mass Flow Meter
8. Selecting a Flow Meter
9. Working with Flow Meters
10. Advantages And Disadvantages Of Different Flow Measuring Techniques
11. Flow meter Selection Guide
References.
Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD
3/23/2014
Conversion Factors
MASS
1.0 lbm
1.0 slug
1.0 kg
=
=
=
453.59237 g
32.174 lbm
2.2046 lbm
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
2.54 cm
3.208 ft = 39.37 inches
0.01 m = 0.3937 in = 0.0323 ft
0.001 m = 1*10-3 m
0.000001 m = 1*10-6 m
0.000000001 m = 1*10-9 m
1000 m = 0.612 miles
5280 ft
=
=
=
60 s
60 min
8.64*104 s
POWER
1.0 w
1.0 hp
1.0 kW
1.0 BTU/hr
LENGTH
1.0 inch
1.0 m
1.0 cm
1.0 mm
1.0 m
1.0 nm
1.0 km
1.0 miles
=
=
=
=
ENERGY
1.0 J
1.0 erg
1.0 cal
1.0 BTU
TIME
=
=
=
=
=
VISCOSITY
1.0 min
1.0 h
1.0 day
1.0 N.s/m2
SPECIFIC HEAT
1.0 kJ/kg.C
= 0.23884 BTU/lbm.F
FORCE
1.0 N
1.0 lb
=
=
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
1.0 W/m.C
= 0.5778 BTU/hr.ft.F
PRESSURE
1.0 Pa
2
1.0 lb/in
1.0 atm
1.0 bar
1.0 inch Hg
1.0 inch H2O
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
1 N/m2
1.4504*10-4 lb/in2
6894.76 N/m2
14.696 lb/in2 = 760 Torr
14.505 lb/in2
1*105 N/m2
1*108 dynes/cm2
3376.8 N/m2
248.8 N/m2
0.0362 lb/in2
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
AREA
1.0 m2
1.0 cm2
=
=
10.76 ft2
1*10-4 m2 = 0.155 in2
VOLUME
1.0 cm3*103
1.0 gallon
1.0 ft3
=
=
=
=
=
1 Liter
1*10-3 m3
0.2642 galons
231.0 in3
0.0283 m3
= 0.1761 BTU/hr.ft2.F
3/23/2014
A2 f
1 A2 f
A1f
2 P1 P2
[m3/sec]
(1)
Where:
Qth
: Theoretical mass flow rate
A1f , A2f : Cross-section flow areas where pressure P1, P2 are measured, [ m2 ]
: Flow density, [kg / m3]
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Actually, the real situation deviates from the assumption of the theoretical model,
and this requires experimental correction factors, for example:
A1f , A 2f : Are areas of the actual flow cross-section which are not the
same as those of the pipe and orifice.
Usually there is a friction effect which affects the measured pressure
drop.
Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD
3/23/2014
Where
Qa
(2)
Q th
[m3 / sec]
And thus :
Qa
C d A2
1 A2 A
1
2P1 P 2
[m3/sec]
(3)
Or
Qa Cd
A2
2 P1 P 2
1 4
Qa Cd A 2 F
2 P
d
m Cd A 2 F
a
2 P
d
Where:
d
D
d
A1
A2
P
d
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Based on Orifice
diameter
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Also, orifice discharge coefficients are quite sensitive to the condition of the
upstream edge of the hole. The standard orifice design requires that this edge be
very sharp, and also that the orifice plate be sufficiently thin relative to its
diameter.
1.2 The Nozzle Flow Meter And The Venturi Flow Meter:
Nozzle and venturi flow meters are shown in figures ( 3 and 4 ). The nozzle and
venturi flow meters are all operate on exactly the same principle as the orifice.
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A1
value for the pressure loss, (P)Loss, compared to that of the orifice plate
as shown in figure (5) .
Due to the lower value of the pressure loss in the venturi meter, it gives a definitive
improvement in power losses over an orifice and is often indicated for measuring
very large flow rates. The initial higher cost of a venturi over an orifice may be
offset by reducing operating costs.
Note that for orifice, venturi and nozzle:
A2
2(P) d
Q C d
1 4
or
Q (P) d
Where (P)d is the differential pressure across the meter
(P)d = P1 P2
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This indicates that the measured discharge is proportional to the square root of the
differential pressure.
In the previous analysis, we assumed that the flow is incompressible, ( constant).
Actually this is not true in cases where the fluid has higher velocities. In these
cases, pressure and therefore density are changed through the flow. Therefore,
compressibility effect should be taken into consideration.
1.2.1 Effect of compressibility:
For a steady, compressible, isentropic flow between two sections 1 and 2, one can
prove that:
P1 P 2
2 V 2
2 2
M4
1
2 k 2 .....
4
24
M2
2
(5)
Where:
The conditions at section 1, assumed to be stagnation conditions at inlet,
(V1 = 0), M2 is the Mach number at section 2 and k is the specific heat
ratio Cp/Cv .
The term
P1 P2
2 V22 2
M 2 0.3
For
M 2 = 0.4
1.02
1.04
P1 P2 2 V2
2
(6)
Or
2 V2
2
P1 P2
2
Thus for M 0.3 , the flow may be considered incompressible flow and equation
(3) is valid for all the above mentioned three devices, orifice, nozzle and venturi
meters. If M > 0.3, compressibility effects will appear and can be represented by a
factor called expansion factor.
Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD
10
3/23/2014
(7)
V2
V2
C p T1 1 2 C p T 2 2 2
(8)
p v k cte
(9)
If V1 0, the mass flow rate, m, can be calculated from the following equation:
2/k
2k
P P2 P1
k 1 1 1
A2
1 4 P 2
2/k
P1
i.e m = f ( P2 /P1 , . k )
P2
k 1
P1 k
(10)
But for a venturi meter for incompressible flow equation (3) gives :
2 P P
1 2
C A
d 2
1 A / A
2
1
Or
m Q
1
2 P P
1 2
C A
d 1 2
1 A / A
2
1
So for compressible flow, the mass flow rate may be calculated from :
m C
Y A
d
1 A / A
2
1
2 P P
1 2
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Where:
Y is the expansion factor and is equal to :
1 4
2/k
1 4 P2
P1
k P2
k 1 P
1
1l2
k 1
P2 k
1
P1
1 P2
P1
2/k
Q a C d A 2 F Y
2 P1 P2
1
Or
ma Cd A 2 F Y
2 1 ( P1 P2 )
Where
F = velocity approach factor
1
F
1
(11)
1 4
A
1
DIAMETER RATIO = d
A2 / A1
(12)
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For venturi and nozzle flow meters, the expansion factor Ya could be calculated
from the following equation :
Y
a
( k 1) / k
P
1 2 P
1
P
2
1
P
1
2/k
P2
k
P1
k 1
1/ 2
1 4
P
1 4 2 P
1
2 / k
(13)
While for orifices with flanged taps or vena-contracta taps, the following empirical
expression of Yb is given by:
Y
b
1 0.41 0.35 4
P P
1 2
P
1
1
k
(14)
Y 1 0.333 1145
.
2 0.7 5 12 13
1
P P 1
1
2
P
k
1
(15)
Figure (6) and figure (7) give the variation of Ya and Y1 , for air (k=1.4) and for
different values of .
Thus, we have the following semi-empirical equation which is conventionally
applied to venturi, nozzle and orifice flow meters:
Y F
2 1 P P
1
2
13
[kg /sec]
(16)
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14
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15
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P*
P
1
where
P*
P1
k / ( k 1)
2
k 1
(17)
This ratio is called the critical pressure ratio. By inserting this ratio in equation (10)
gives the mass flow rate for choked nozzle :
1/ 2
2
k
2 2 /(k 1)
mC d A 2 P1
(18)
RT1
k
1
k
i.e.
m = f ( P1 , T1 , k )
The above equation is frequently applied to a nozzle when the pressure ratio
(P2 / P1) is less then the critical value. Under these conditions, the flow is
dependent only on the inlet stagnation conditions P1 and T1 .
The ideal sonic-nozzle flow rate given by equation (18) must be modified by an
appropriate discharge coefficient, Cd, which is a function of the geometry of the
nozzle and other factors. This coefficient is usually about 0.97.
Exercises
1-
For an orifice flow meter, show that the mass flow rate is proportional to the
square root of the measured differential pressure.
16
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Example:
Air at 18 oC flows through a 7.5 cm pipe diameter. A sharp edge orifice plate
with = 0.6 is chosen to meter the flow. A differential pressure of 10 cm H 2O is
measured at flange taps with an upstream pressure of 3.95 bar abs. If the kinematic
viscosity of the air is 10.56x10-2 m2/hr, find the air mass flow rate in kg/s.
Take R = 288 kJ/kg K , the expansion factor equals 0.92 , and you may use the
figure shown below.
As a first trial take Cd = 0.648
Make TWO Trials.
Given:
T = 273+18 = 291 K, D=0.075 m , = 0.6 = d/D , P = 10 cm water,
P = 3.95 bar abs, = 0.1056 m2/hr , R = 288 kJ/kg K , Y = 0.92, Cd = 0.684
Solution:
= 0.6 = d/D Thus d = 0.045 m
m2
F = Velocity approach factor =
For air
P = 10 cm water = 0.1x1000x9.81 N/m2 = 981 N/m2
For orifice meter
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Take Cd = 0.684
Thus
18
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Example:
In calibrating an orifice flow meter using air the following data are given:
Pipe Inside Diameter D1
Orifice Diameter do
Inlet Pressure P1
Inlet Temperature t1
Orifice Differential Head hd,O
Orifice Expansion Factor
Actual Measured Mass Flow Rate
2.54
cm
8.38 mm
150 kPa
24 oC
32 cm H2O
0.95
0.004 Kg/s
5.51541E-05
For air
m2
1.005977113
1.759757857
0.005540388
= 0.721971056
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V2
1
2g
P
2
V2
2
2g
(19)
L,1 2
where hL,1-2 is the pressure loss from inlet, section 1, to exit, section 2.
The head loss term, hL,1-2 , can be estimated using the Darcy equation:
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L,1 2
L
d
1
V2
1
2g
(20)
Where L is the distance between pressure taps, d1 is inside pipe diameter and f is
the friction factor, which for a laminar flow is :
f
64
Re d1
(21)
Where:
Red1 is Reynolds number based on diameter d1.
d 12
And as
QV
1
V1 = V2
Q
Thus
d12
4
d 12
V
2
4
V
1
P
g
2
L V1
h
f
L,1 2
d 2g
1
2
64 L V1
or
P
V d d 2g
11 1
2
64
L V1
Re d d 2g
1 1
64 L 1 4Q
d
d 2 d 2
1
1
1
Therefore,
Q
d14
128
P
L
m3/sec
(23)
or,
Q = K P
or
Q P
Where:
Q
d1
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The above equation reveals that volume flow rate is linear with pressure drop in a
laminar flow element.
Q P
Note that for orifice, venturi and nozzle:
Q C
A
d
1 4
2 P
or
Q P
Thus for orifice, venturi and nozzle, the volume flow rate is linear to the square
root of the differential pressure.
The simplest type of laminar flow element consists of two pressure taps separated
by a length of piping. However the Reynolds number constraint for laminar flow
restricts the size of pipe diameter that can be used. This limitation is overcome in
commercial unit through the use of laminar flow elements which consist of a
bundle of small diameter tubes, or some proprietary design of geometric passages
(small spherical balls, honey comb, etc.) placed in parallel. The strategy of a
laminar flow element is to divide up the flow by passing it through the tube bundle
so as to reduce the flow rate per tube such that the individual Reynolds number in
each tube remains below 2000. Pressure drop is measured between the entrance
and the exit of the laminar flow element. Because of the additional entrance and
exit losses associated with the laminar flow element, a flow coefficient is used to
modify the above equation. This coefficient must be determined by calibration.
So;
d4
Q Cd
128
P
L
or
Q = Cd K (P/)
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For any given meter there will exist a flow rate above which laminar flow will no
longer exist in the laminar flow element.
The main disadvantage of this meter is that the pressure loss is equal to the
differential pressure because it is completely the result of viscous friction.
Laminar flow elements offer some distinct advantages over other pressure
differential meters. These advantages include:
1- A high sensitivity even at extremely low flow rates.
2- The ability to measure pipe system flow in meter direction, as Q P
3- A wide usable flow range.
4- The ability to indicate an average flow rate in pulsating flows.
Disadvantages of the meter:
1. Their use is restricted to clean fluids or the tubes will be clogged by dirty.
2. The entire pressure drop measured remains a system pressure loss.
1.5 Factors Affecting Obstruction Meter Selection :
- Meter placement.
- Overall pressure loss.
- Accuracy and overall costs.
Exercises:
1- Derive an equation to calculate the mass flow rate using a laminar flow
element. What are the main advantages and disadvantages of this meter?
2- Derive an equation to calculate the mass flow rate using a laminar flow
element meter . For such meter, show that the mass flow rate is
proportional to the differential pressure.
prove that Q = Cd K p
3- For a Laminar Flow Element (LFE)
3
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Example:
When a calibrated LFE is used to measure air discharge, it was found K = 11.6
x10-3 . If the LFE is used to measure the discharge of water, what will be the value
of K given that:
For air: Density = 1.17 [kg/m3] and dynamic viscosity = 1.86x10-4 [Poise]
For water: Density = 995.7 [kg/m3] and dynamic viscosity = 2.886 [kg/m hr]
Note: 1 [Poise] = 1 [gm/cm s]
Given:
K meter constant = Kair = 11.6x10-3
air = 1.17 kg/m3 & air = 1.86x10-5 [Poise] = 1.86x10-5
kg/m s
3
-4
water = 995.7 kg/m
& water = 2.886
[kg/ m hr] = 8.01667x10 kg/m s
Solution:
For LEF
Or
meter constant
For air
For water
Thus
or
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F
F
B
W
U2
Cd A b f m f V b b V b
2
F
D
(24)
(25)
Where:
Cd : Drag coefficient
Ab : Frontal area of the body (float)
f ,f : Density and specific weight of the passing fluid
b : Specific weight of the float
Vb : Volume of the float
Um : Mean flow velocity in the annular space
Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD
FB
25
FW
3/23/2014
Note that:
1
Cd
2g V
b
A
b
1/ 2
b f
f
(26)
The drag coefficient, Cd , is dependent on the Reynolds number and hence on the
viscosity. However special floats may be used that have an essentially constant
drag coefficient and thus offer the advantage that the meter reading will be
independent of the viscosity.
It must be noted from the above equation, as (Vb , Ab , b , f and Cd are constants;
Um = constant
And
1
Q AU A
m
Cd
2 gV b f
b
A
f
b
1/ 2
(27)
Where A is the annular space between the taper glass tube and the float.
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So, to get a variable measured value for Q, the area A must be vary with
the variation of the discharge Q, so a taper tube must be used.
Where:
A
A D ay d 2
4
D
d
y
a
2
Cd
2 gV b f
b
A
f
b
1/ 2
D ay d 2
A D 2 2 D a y a 2 y 2d 2
4
Since D d
and as a = 2 tan
and very small, so;
is constant
a2 y2 may be neglected ;
Therefore ; A D a y
and as ( a and D ) are constants,
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A y
It may be noted that for many practical meters, the quadratic area relation given
above becomes nearly linear for the actual dimension of the tube and the float.
Assuming such a linear relation, the equation for mass flow rate becomes:
Q y
1
Cd
2g V
b
A
b
b f
f
1/ 2
or,
m f Q C1 y
b f f
(28)
Where:
C1
1
C
d
2g Vb
Ab
12
Thus the floats vertical position, y, gives a direct measure for the flow rate which
can be read from a graduated scale.
The tubes of the rotameters are made often of high strength glass to allow direct
observation of the float position. Where greater strength is required, metal tubes
can be used and the float position detected magnetically throughout the metal wall.
Exercises:
1- Show that the mass flow rate measured by a rotameter is function of the
height of the pop in the glass tube. Can we use a straight glass tube in a
rotameter? Why?
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Example:
A rotameter is designed to measure a maximum flow rate of 40 lit/min of
water. The bob has 25 mm diameter, a total volume of 15 cm3 and a frontal
area of 20 cm2. The bob constructed so that its density is double that of
water. The total length of the rotameter tube is 40 cm and the diameter of
the tube at inlet is 25 mm. Determine the tube taper for a drag coefficient of
0.08.
Assume a linear relation between the annular area of the rotameter, and
the bob height, determine the meter constant.
Given:
Q = 40 lit/min of water, d = D = 0.025 mm, Vb = 15 cm3 , Ab = 20 cm2 , b
= 2 f
Y = 0.4 m , Cd = 0.08
Solution:
Vb / Ab = (15x10-6) / (20x10-4) = 0.75 x 10-2
[
{(
{(
or
)
or
)
where a = 2 tan
= tan-1 (a/2) = 0.7425 deg
total taper tube angle = 2 = 1.485 deg
29
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Example:
A rotameter is to be used for measure air flow rate at 7 bar abs and 20 oC. The
maximum measured air flow rate is 0.015 kg/s, the inlet diameter of the meter is 25
mm and the length of the meter is 30 cm. The bob is constructed so that its density
is five times that of the air and its frontal area to its volume is 350 m-1. Calculate
the exact total tube taper angle if the drag coefficient is 0.5 and the bob diameter is
equal to the taper tube inlet diameter.
Given:
P = 7 bar abs., T = 20 oC., m. = 0.015 kg/s, D = d = 0.025 m, y = .3 m
b = 5 f , Ab/Vb = 350 , Cd = 0.5
Solution:
[
{(
{(
or
)
or
)
where a = 2 tan
= tan-1 (a/2) = 3.685 deg
Exact total taper tube angle = 2 = 7.37 deg
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Example:
In a laboratory test, a rotameter is used to measure liquid refrigerant R12 flow rate
at 12.14 bar abs, 50o C and density 1.21kg/dm3. The maximum measured
refrigerant flow rate is 20 gm/s, the inlet diameter of the meter is 12 mm and the
total taper tube angle is 2 deg. The bob is constructed so that its density is 1.05
times that of the refrigerant and its frontal area to its volume is 420 m-1. If the drag
coefficient is 0.3 and the bob diameter is equal to the taper tube inlet diameter.
Calculate:
i.
ii.
Given:
P = 12.14 bar abs, T = 50o C, f = 1.21kg/dm3 = 1210 kg/m3 ,
m' = 20 gm/s = 0.02 kg/s, D=d= 12 mm = 0.012 m, 2 = 2 deg, b = 1.05 f
Ab/Vb = 420 m-1 , Cd = 0.03
Solution:
i)
Um : Velocity in the annular space
[
or
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or y = 21.65 cm
ii)
if A y
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Dimensional analysis of the turbine flow meters, shows that ( if bearing friction
and shaft power output are neglected) the following relation should hold :
Flow coefficient =
nd 2
f
nd 3
Where:
Q : volume flow rate,
n : rotor angular velocity,
d : meter bore diameter,
: Kinematics viscosity,
= f (Re )
(29)
[m3/sec]
[rps]
[m]
[m2/sec]
(30)
Turbine meter can follow transient flow accurately since their fluid mechanical
time constant is of the order of 2 - 10 msec.
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[V]
Magnetic Field
(31)
Where:
u
Magnetic
Field
Electrode
Electrode
A magnetic flow meter (mag flow meter), Fig. 11, is a volumetric flow meter
which does not have any moving parts and is ideal for wastewater applications or
any dirty liquid which is conductive or water based. Magnetic flow meters will
generally not work with hydrocarbons, distilled water and many non-aqueous
solutions). Magnetic flow meters are also ideal for applications where low pressure
drop and low maintenance are required.
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In general, electrodes are embedded in the pipe wall in a diametrical plane that is
normal to the known magnetic field, and the flow rate is found by :
Q u
d2
4
E d2
L 4
K1 E
(32)
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Fixed Casing
This type usually used for oil or fuel metering in gas stations.
39
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40
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These are the most common type of gas meter, seen in almost all residential and
small commercial installations. Within the meter there are two or more chambers
formed by movable diaphragms. With the gas flow directed by internal valves, the
chambers alternately fill and expel gas, producing a near continuous flow through
the meter. As the diaphragms expand and contract, levers connected
to cranks convert the linear motion of the diaphragms into rotary motion of a crank
shaft which serves as the primary flow element. This shaft can drive an odometerlike counter mechanism or it can produce electrical pulses for a flow computer.
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Exercises:
a) What is meant by positive displacement flow meters? Sketch a domestic water
flow meter and explain how it works.
b) Describe one of the positive displacement flow meters? Sketch this meter and
explain how it works.
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These types of flow meters are usually used for domestic water flow measurement.
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A tapered inlet creating a single jet of water that is projected into the
measuring chamber where it strikes the blades of the impeller.
The impeller rotation speed is in relation to the velocity of water flow
A magnet and gear train converts the number of rotations into a volume
which is displayed on the indicating device (register dial face)
Body has only single water entry and exit
While water flows only one wing of the impeller is being touched
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1- Cover
2- Totalizer
3- Ring nut
4- Pressure plate
5- Impeller wheel
6- Housing
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Multi jet meters use multiple ports surrounding the internal measuring
chamber, to create a jet of water against the impeller
The impeller rotation speed is in relation to the velocity of water flow
A magnet and gear train converts the number of rotations into a volume
which is displayed on the indicating device (register dial face)
Water flows via tangential entries and push the impeller
All impeller wings are in touch with water simultaneously while water
flows.
Some models equipped with an adjusting port to allow for recalibration,
compensate for inaccuracy in older meters.
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1- Cover
2- Totalizer
3- Pressure plate
4- Impeller wheel
5- Housing
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Multi-jet
Single-jet
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A constant head tank maintains a fixed inlet pressure to the flow meter under
test, irrespective of the flow rate. The flow rate through the meter is adjusted to
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the various desired values with a flow - control valve. Until a constant flow rate
is established, the liquid is diverted from the weigh or volume tank which must
be emptied before flow into it is started. When a constant flow rate is
established, the flow diverter is suddenly moved to the tank position and a
switch starts the electronic timer as the diverter passes the mid position. Flow is
continued until the tank is filled, at which the motion of the diverter through the
mid - position to the return position stops the timer. The weight or volume of the
accumulated liquid during the timed interval is then determined to calculate the
volume or mass flow rate.
The calibration of flow meters to be used with gases can often be carried out
with liquids as long as the similarity relations ( Reynolds number) are
maintained.
2-
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This type of flow meter is normally used for water service, such as raw water
supply and evaporator feed. The fluid enters an opening in the spherical wall on
one side of the partition and leaves through the other side. As the fluid flows
through the chamber, the disk wobbles, or executes a nutating motion. Since the
volume of fluid required to make the disc complete one revolution is known, the
total flow through a nutating disc can be calculated by multiplying the number
of disc rotations by the known volume of fluid.
The top of the shaft operates a revolution counter, through a crank and set of
gears, which is calibrated to indicate total system flow.
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Working principle:
Liquid enters a precision-machined chamber containing an oscillating (rotating)
piston. The position of the piston divides the chamber into compartments
containing an exact volume. Liquid pressure drives the piston to oscillate and
rotate on its center hub. The movements of the hub are sensed through the meter
wall by a follower magnet. Each revolution of the piston hub is equivalent to a
fixed volume of fluid, which is indicated as flow by an indicator/totalizer. Close
clearances between the piston and the chamber ensure minimum liquid slip for
highly accurate and repeatable measurement of each volume cycle. Maximum
viscosity allowed: 4,000 centi-poise.
The figure shows: the working principle of the oscillating flow meter.
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Working principle:
The working principle is based on a
calibrated chamber of a known
capacity and a Rotary Piston
activated by the energy of the flow
passing through.
The water flowing through the meter
drives the circular piston (not
perfectly circular) in an eccentric
path around the measuring chamber,
the piston rotates while the chamber
fills up and empties with a constant
volume of water. Each revolution
represents the transfer of a known
quantity of water. The rotary action
of the piston is transferred to a drive
coupling from which it is transmitted
to the combined gear and dial unit.
The combined gear and dial unit which has a simple straight reading display
counts these revolutions, indicating the total volume of water.
Solid particles are gathered by a strainer preventing damage. Partial obstruction
of the strainer will have no adverse effect on the accuracy of the meters
registration.
A body O ring seal between the measuring chamber and the meter body
ensures that internal leaks which could by-pass the measuring chamber are
eliminated.
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Vortex-shedding flow meters are best used in turbulent flow with a Reynolds
number greater than 10,000. One advantage of using this type of flow meter is
its insensitivity from temperature, pressure, and viscosity. The major
disadvantage to using this method is the pressure drop caused by the flow
obstruction.
Construction:
All vortex shedding meter designs consist of two main components, the bluff
body
and
the
sensing
device.
There are many different
of
bluff body configurations. In some instances multiple struts are incorporated
into the design.
Bluff Bodies:
Though the shape differs, actual dimensions of the bluff body are determined by
the relationship between the diameters of the pipe, the viscosity of the fluid and
the flow rate. The strut must have non-streamlined edges so that the vortex
formation will occur.
Sensors:
There are four types of sensors commonly used to detect vortices developed by
the bluff body and shed into the downstream flow. These sensors are strain
gauge, magnetic pickup, ultrasonic detector and piezoelectric element.
Working principal:
An obstruction in a fluid flow creates vortices in a downstream flow. Every
obstruction has a critical fluid flow speed at which vortex shedding occurs.
Vortex shedding is the instance where alternating low pressure zones are
generated in the downstream.
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These alternating low pressure zones cause the obstruction to move towards the
low pressure zone. With sensors gauging the vortices the strength of the flow
can be measured.
Vortex flow meters, also known as vortex shedding flow meters or oscillatory
flow meters, measure the vibrations of the downstream vortexes caused by a
barrier in the moving stream.
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The vibrating frequency of the vortex shedding is related to the velocity of the
flow.
The number of vortices formed is directly proportional to the flow velocity and
hence the flow rate. The vortices are detected downstream from the blunt body
using an ultrasonic beam that is transmitted perpendicular to the direction of
flow.
As the vortices cross the beam, they alter the carrier wave as the signal is
processed electronically, using a frequency-to-voltage circuit. The following
diagram shows the basic principle of the vortex-shedding flow meter:
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The transient time ultrasonic transducers can be mounted in one of two modes.
The upstream and downstream ultrasonic transducers can be installed on
opposite sides of the pipe (diagonal mode) or on the same side (reflect mode).
Diagonal and reflect modes for transient time ultrasonic flow meter
It is important when installing an ultrasonic transit time flow meter to select a
location where we would find the most fully formed flow profile; this means
that we should avoid bends and try to install our meters on straight runs of pipe.
A rule of thumb in the industry is to give at least 10 diameter lengths upstream
and 5 lengths downstream.
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there is no flow meter or where other flow meters make it impractical for
installation.
The ultrasonic meter can measure water, waste water, hydrocarbon liquids,
organic or inorganic chemicals, milk, beer, lube oils and the list goes on. The
basic requirement is that the fluid is ultrasonically conductive and has a
reasonably well formed flow. Clamp-on ultrasonic flow meters measure flow
through the pipe without any contact with the process media, ensuring that
corrosion and other effects from the fluid will not affect the workings of the
sensors or electronics.
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Q (V2-V1)
[Momentum Equation]
Where,
F = Force
= the fluid density
Q = the discharge (flow)
V = the velocity vector
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The deflection of the target and the force bar is measured in the instrument, or
by electronic sensors.
(N)
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When the tubes are filled with fluid, but there is no flow, the inlet and outlet
sides of the tubes are subject to the same force operating in the same direction.
The inlet and outlet pick-offs register oscillations at the same time. However,
when there is flow through the tubes, it is accelerating (changing direction) on
the inlet side and decelerating on the outlet side. This produces a slight twist in
the flow tubes, which causes the inlet pick-off to register before the outlet pickoff. The magnitude of the time delay between the inlet and outlet sides of the
tubes is directly proportional to the mass flow of the fluid.
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The Coriolis meter can also be used to measure density, temperature, volume
flow and concentration.
Density Measurement:
The density of the fluid can be directly determined by changes in the natural
frequency of the tubes' oscillations. The natural frequency is based on the mass
of the flow tubes themselves, plus the mass of the fluid. When the total mass
increases, the natural frequency decreases.
Because the volume of fluid contained within the flow tubes is constant, and
because the mass of the flow tubes is constant, the only cause of a change in
total mass (and by extension the natural frequency) is a change in fluid density.
Temperature Measurement:
Most Coriolis meters include an RTD for process temperature measurement.
The temperature value can be used to compensate measurement for the effect of
temperature on flow tube stiffness. This effect is typically measured at the
factory and included in the factory calibration.
Volume Flow Measurement:
Coriolis meters can calculate a highly-accurate volume flow measurement based
on the direct mass flow, density, and temperature measurements.
Concentration Measurement:
Coriolis meters can also calculate a highly-accurate concentration measurement
when the concentration of one or two components has a dominant effect on the
fluid density.
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m=
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Experts claim that over 75 percent of the flow meters installed in industry
are not performing satisfactorily and improper selection accounts for 90
percent of these problems. Obviously, flow meter selection is no job for
amateurs.
The most important requirement is knowing exactly what the instrument is
supposed to do. Here are some questions to consider:
Is the measurement for process control (where repeatability is the
major concern), or for accounting or custody transfer (where high
accuracy is important)?
Is local indication or a remote signal required? If a remote output is
required, is it to be a proportional signal, or a contact closure to start
or stop another device?
Is the liquid viscous, clean, or slurry?
Is it electrically conductive?
What is its specific gravity or density?
What flow rates are involved in the application?
What are the processes' operating temperatures and pressures?
Accuracy, range, linearity, repeatability, and piping requirements
must also be considered.
It is just as important to know what a flow meter cannot do as well as what
it can do before a final selection is made. Each instrument has advantages
and disadvantages, and the degree of performance satisfaction is directly
related to how well an instrument's capabilities and shortcomings are
matched to the application's requirements. Often, users have expectations
of a flow meter's performance that are not consistent with what the supplier
has provided. Most suppliers are anxious to help customers pick the right
flow meter for a particular job. Many provide questionnaires, checklists,
and specification sheets designed to obtain the critical information
necessary to match the correct flow meter to the job.
Technological improvements of flow meters must be considered also. For
example, a common mistake is to select a design that was most popular for
a given application some years ago and to assume that it is still the best
instrument for the job. Many changes and innovations may have occurred
in recent years in the development of flow meters for that particular
application, making the choice much broader.
Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD
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Advantage
Simple concept
Not expensive
Simple concept
Expensive
Disadvantage
Non linear output
Creates head loss
Non linear output
Expensive
Creates head loss (less
than orifice)
Creates head loss
Variable area
(Rotameter)
Laminar Flow
Element
(LFE)
Visual output
Linear scale
A high sensitivity
Their use is restricted
even at extremely
to clean fluids or the
low flow rates.
tubes will be clogged
by dirty.
The ability to
measure pipe system The entire pressure
flow in meter
drop measured
direction.
remains a system
pressure loss.
A wide usable flow
range.
The ability to indicate
an average flow rate
in pulsating flows.
Ultra sonic
Time of flight
No moving parts
Non intrusive
No head loss
Ultra sonic
Doppler
No moving parts
Non intrusive
No head loss
Suitable for fluids
contains solids or gas
bubbles
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Type
Magnetic
Turbine meter
Positive
displacement
meter
Advantage
Accurate
No moving parts
No head loss
Linear output
Accommodate solids
in suspension
Accurate
Suitable for low flow
usage
Suitable for high
viscosity usage
Accurate
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Disadvantage
Expensive
Expensive
Create head loss
Expensive
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Clean, dirty
liquids; some
slurries
Venturi Clean, dirty
and viscous
meter
liquids; some
slurries
Flow nozzle Clean and
dirty liquids
Medium
Clean liquids
Very low
Orifice
Pitot tube
Low
Medium
Very low
High
Medium
Medium
High
Medium
None
2 to 4
of full
Scale.
1 of full
scale
Required
Upstream
pipe,
diameters
10 to 30
Viscosity
effect
Relative
Cost
High
Low
5 to 20
High
Medium
1 to 2
of full
scale
3 to 5
of full
scale
5 to 10
of full
scale
1 to 5
of full
scale
1 to 10
of full
scale
0.5 of
rate
0.25 of
rate
I of rate
10 to 30
High
Medium
20 to 30
Low
Low
30
Low
Low
10 to 30
Medium
Medium
None
Medium
Low
None
High
Medium
5 to 10
High
High
10 to 20
Medium
High
0.5 of
rate
None
High
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Flow Meter
Element
None
5 of full
scale
None
1 to 5
of full
scale
0.4 of
rate
Required
Upstream
pipe,
diameters
5 to 30
Relative
Viscosity
Cost
effect
None
High
5 to 30
None
High
None
None
High
1 of full
scale
None
None
High
Very low 2 to 5
of full
scale
None
Low
Low
Source : Omega
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REFERENCES:
1. Richard S. Figliola and Donald E. Beasley, Theory and Design for
Mechanical Measurements, Jhon Wiley & Sons, 1991.
2. J. P. Holman and W. J. Gajda, Expeimental methods for Engineers ,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1978.
3. William C. Dunn, Fundamental of Industrial Instrumentation and
Process Control, McGraw-Hill, 2005
4. Roger C. Baker, Flow Measurement Handbook, Cambridge University
Press, 2000
5. E.L. Upp, Paul J. LaNass, Fluid Flow Measurement, A Practical Guide to
Accurate Flow Measuirement, Second Edition, Gulf Professional
Publishing,2002
6. OMEGA, Transactions in Measurement and Control, Flow and Level
Measurement , Volume 4, WWW.Omega.Com
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APPENDIX
Orifice Meter
For frictionless and incompressible flow,
m 1A1u1 2 A 2 u 2
2
2
P1 u1 P 2 u 2
1 2
2 2
for incompressible flow
(frictionlessflow)
2 1
2
u 22
A 2
1
p1 p 2
2
A1
OR
u2
1 A2
2P1 P 2
A1
AS
Q A2 u
2
A2
1 A2
A2
1 4
2P1 P 2
m3 s
A1
2P1 P 2
m Q
IF
A2
1 4
2P1 P 2
1 2
m A 2 F 2 1P1 P 2
1
F
velocity approach factor
4
1
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