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KEYCONCEPTS

1.EFLENLALOE(20)
The Organic Law on Education 2/2006 of 3 rd May estates the official educational
curriculum as the objectives, key competences, contents, pedagogical methods and
evaluationcriteriaoftheeducativelevelscoveredinit,whiletheRoyalDecree1513/2006
of the 7th December establishes the minimum contents for primary education which
representthe65%oftheschooltimetableandthe55%inthecommunitieswithcoofficial
languagesasitisthecaseoftheValencianCommunity.
Thecurrenteducationallawproposesaforeignlanguageteachingapproachbasedonthe
orientationssettledbytheCouncilofEuropeandtheModernLanguageDivisioninthe
CommonEuropeanFrameworkofreferenceforlearning,teachingandevaluationofthe
languages,anditisalsobasedonthelanguagesintegrationdidacticalapproach,especially
intheAutonomousCommunitiesinwhichtwoofficiallanguagescoexist,asitisthecaseof
ourcommunity.
ThemainobjectiveofteachingforeignlanguagesinPrimaryEducationinSpainisto
facilitatetheacquisitionofstudents'communicativecompetence,anspecificcompetence
whichincludesnotonlytalkativeandexpressiveskillsthatareusefultocommunicateina
foreignlanguagebutrathertheyarealsoofvitalimportanceforanyothersocialactivity
andforthestudents'learninggeneralprocess.Thisimpliesconsideringapproachesbased
on communication and focused on the acquisition and development of communicative
competence and the several subcompetences which are involved in it: grammatical
competence,discursivecompetence,sociolinguisticcompetence,strategiccompetenceand
socioculturalcompetence.
Bymeansofdevelopingtheircommunicativecompetence,languagelearnersareable
tocommunicateandtointeract.Theareaoflearningforeignlanguagescontributestothe
learners'globalintellectualandsocialdevelopment,totheirdevelopmentaspersonsand
citizensmembersofaplurilingualandmulticulturalsociety.

Thebasicprinciplederivedinthispositionistheneedtolearnalanguagebyusingit
incommunicativecontextswhichshouldbeasmuchrealisticaspossibleandmeaningful
forthelearners.Thesecommunicativecontextsshouldfacilitatecommunicativelanguage
actsthatimplytheneedingtocommunicatesomethingtoothersandtointeractwiththem
asameanofsocializingwitharealpurpose.
Thelearningcontentsoftheforeignlangugeareaaregroupedintosectionsrelated
withsixlearningcontexts:theorallanguage(listeningandspeaking),thewrittenlanguage
(readingandwriting),theconstituentelementsofthelinguisticsystem,theiroperations
andrelationships,languageasalearninginstrument,thesocialandculturaldimensionof
theforeignlanguageandtheICTs.
Theassessmentwillbecontinuousandglobalandwilltakeintoaccountprogressinall
subjectareas.
Theevaluationcriterianeedtobedevelopedalongwiththeobjectivesandcontentofeach
of the areas for each cycle. They determine the acquisition of the objectives and key
competencesbythestudents,thatiswhytheymustbespecific,observableandmeasurable
toallowustomakeajudgementofthestudentslearning.
Theassessmentcriteriadonotreflectthetotalityofwhatastudentcanlearn,but
onlythoseparticularpointsnecessarytocontinuewiththelearningprocess.
Beingcompetentmeanstobeabletorespondtoarealsituationinaneffectiveman
ner,soitseemsobviousthattheinitialpointofanyevaluatingactionneedstobeasitu
ationsimilartoareallifeone,servingasmodelsofthatonesthestudentswillfaceoutside
theschool,intheydaytodaylife.
Thisapproachseeksthatstudentscanactinpunctualactionsbutalsomakethem
competent to respond to situations when the knowledge, attitude or ability learned is
neededandthereforetobeabletousetheminothercontexts.

Toevaluate,weneedtousedifferentassessmenttoolslikeobservation,projects,oral
and written tests, etc. Bearing in mind that the assessment needs to be formative and
summative, ensuring a permanent learning. Students must learn to autoevaluate
themselvesintegratingknowingandskills.
The evaluation should address the whole teaching and learning process and,
therefore,notonlytheresultsachieved bythepupils,but toany of the keyvariables
involvedintheteachinglearningprocess,fromtheactivitiespromotedbytheteachers,to
theexperiencesmadebythestudentandthelearning'scontents.
Themethodologyhastobebasedonthecommunicativeapproach,thereforeitis
veryimportanttopresenttheactivitiesandtasksinsideteachinglearningcontexts,starting
withrealsituations.Weneedtobeflexibleintheuseofthespatialandtimeresourcesad
aptingtotheneedsofeachsituation.Cooperativeworkingandstudentsimplicationandin
teraction is also fundamental (language in use), starting always from contents already
knownbythestudents,withclearinstructionssopupilsknowwhattodoandhow,feeling
safeandsecure.

2.COMPETENCIACOMUNICATIVA(14,1)
ThetermcommunicativecompetencewasintroducedbyDellHymesanddiscussedand
redefinedbymanyauthors.Hymes'originalideawasthatspeakersofalanguagehaveto
havemorethangrammaticalcompetenceinordertobeabletocommunicateeffectivelyin
alanguage;theyalsoneedtoknowhowlanguageisusedbythe membersofaspeech
communitytoaccomplishtheirpurposes.
Thereforeforeignlanguageteachingmustbebasedontheideathatthegoaloflanguage
acquisitionistoacquirecommunicativecompetenceinthetargetlanguage,inotherwords,
theabilitytousethelanguagecorrectlyandappropriatelytoaccomplishcommunication
goals.Thedesiredoutcomeofthelanguagelearningprocessistheabilitytocommunicate,
nottheabilitytousethelanguageexactlyasanativespeakerdoes.
Communicativecompetenceismadeupofothersubcompetences:linguisticcompetence
andpragmaticcompetence.Thelinguisticcompetenceisknowinghowtousethegrammar,
syntaxandvocabulary.Thepragmaticcompetenceincludesthesociolinguisticcompetence
whichconsistsinknowinghowtouseandrespondtolanguageappropriately,giventhe
setting,thetopicandthe relationshipamongthepeoplecommunicating;thediscursive
competence, which means knowing how to interpret the context and how to construct
longerstretchesoflanguagesothatthepartsmakeupacoherentwhole,andthestrategic
competencewhichisknowinghowtorecognizeandrepaircommunicationbreakdowns,
howtoworkaroundgapsinone'sknowledgeofthelanguage,andhowtolearnmoreabout
thelanguageandinthecontext.

3.MARCOCOMNEUROPEODEREFERENCIA(20)
The Common European Framework provides a common basis for the elaboration of
languagesyllabuses,curriculumguidelines,examinations,textbooks,etc.acrossEurope.It
describesinacomprehensivewaywhatlanguagelearnershavetolearntodoinorderto
usealanguageforcommunicationandwhatknowledgeandskillstheyhavetodevelopso
astobeabletoacteffectively.Thedescriptionalsocoverstheculturalcontextinwhich
language isset. The Frameworkalso defineslevelsof proficiency which allow learners
progresstobemeasuredateachstageoflearningandonalifelongbasis.
TheCommonEuropeanFrameworkisintendedtoovercomethebarrierstocommunication
amongprofessionalsworkinginthefieldofmodernlanguagesarisingfromthedifferent
educationalsystemsinEurope.Itprovidesthemeansforeducationaladministrators,course
designers, teachers, teacher trainers, examining bodies, etc., to reflect on their current
practice,withaviewtosituatingandcoordinatingtheireffortsandtoensuringthatthey
meettherealneedsofthelearnersforwhomtheyareresponsible.
By providing a common basis for the explicit description of objectives, content and
methods, the Framework will enhance the transparency of courses, syllabuses and
qualifications,thuspromotinginternationalcooperationinthefieldofmodernlanguages.
The provision of objective criteria for describing language proficiency will facilitate the
mutualrecognitionofqualificationsgainedindifferentlearningcontexts,andaccordingly
willaidEuropeanmobility.
In order to fulfill its functions, such a Common European Framework must be
comprehensive, transparent and coherent. The construction of a comprehensive,
transparentandcoherentframeworkforlanguagelearningandteachingdoesnotimplythe
impositionofonesingleuniformsystem.Onthecontrary,theframeworkshouldbeopen
and flexible, so that it can be applied, with such adaptations as prove necessary, to
particularsituations.
A comprehensive, transparent and coherent frame of reference for language learning,
teachingandassessmentmustrelatetoaverygeneralviewoflanguageuseandlearning.

Theapproachadoptedhere,generallyspeaking,isanactionorientedoneinsofarasit
viewsusersandlearnersofalanguageprimarilyassocialagents,i.e.membersofsociety
who have tasks (not exclusively languagerelated) to accomplish in a given set of
circumstances,inaspecificenvironmentandwithinaparticularfieldofaction.Whileacts
of speech occur within language activities, these activities form part of a wider social
context,whichaloneisabletogivethemtheirfullmeaning.Wespeakoftasksinsofaras
theactionsareperformedbyoneormoreindividualsstrategicallyusingtheirownspecific
competencestoachieveagivenresult.Theactionbasedapproachthereforealsotakesinto
account the cognitive, emotional and volitional resourcesand thefull rangeofabilities
specifictoandappliedbytheindividualasasocialagent.

4.COMMUNICATIVELANGUAGETEACHING(14)
Themainaimoftheforeignlanguageareaistoprovidestudentswithacommunicative
competenceintheforeignlanguagetaught.Thisassertimpliesfollowingacommunicative
approach,whichconsiderslanguageasameansofcommunicationbetterthanasetofrules
thathavetobelearntbythestudents.
According to this approach, one of the main teaching aims must be preparing
communicativecontextswithintheclassroom,sothatmostactivitieshaveacommunicative
aimforthestudents.ButthisdoesnotmeanthatotherlesscommunicativeactivitiesMybe
planned, especially in the stage of controlled practice, when the students need to
consolidatethelinguisticissuesbeinglearnt.
But we should always bear in mind that our main objective is to teach students to
communicate,andonelearnsthisthroughthecommunicativepractice.

5.YOUNGLEARNERS(2,21)
ForthesuccessfulteachingofEnglishinprimaryschools,aboveall,itisessentialforthe
teachertounderstandtheyounglearners'characteristics,instincts,andinterestsintheir
cognitive,linguistic,andemotionalaspects,becausethiswillplayacrucialroleinhowthe
teacherbuildsalesson,howheorshecanmakesurethattheyounglearnersarefully
involvedinthelearningprocess,howheorsheachievestheobjectivesofalesson,andhow
theyrespond.

Theyhaveshortattentionspan.Soteachersshouldvarytheirtechniquestobreak
theboredom.theyshouldgivevariedactivitiesashandwriting,songs,gamesetc.

Theyareveryactive.Trytoaskthemtoplaygames,roleplaydialoguesandinvolve
themincompetitions.
Theyrespondwelltopraising.Alwaysencouragethemandpraisetheirwork.
Theydifferintheirexperienceoflanguage.Treatthemasaunit,don'tfavourthose
whoknowsomeEnglishattheexpenseofthosewhodonotknow.
They are less shy than older learners. Ask them to repeat utterances , resort to
mechanicaldrills.
They are imaginative. Use realia or pictures to teach new vocabulary related to
concretemeanings.
They enjoy learning through playing. Young learners learn best when they learn
throughgames.Letgamesbeanessentialpartofyourteaching.
Theyarelessshythanolderlearners.
Theyenjoyimitatingandareskillfulinlisteningaccuratelyandmimickingwhatthey
haveheard.
Theyrespondwelltorewardsfromtheteacher.
They are imaginative but may have some difficulties distinguishing between
imaginationandrealworld.
PrimaryStudents(Ages5to7)
Most primarygrade children are still preoperational, and they learn best with concrete
experiencesandimmediategoals.Newconceptsandvocabularyaremoremeaningfulwhen
presentedaspairsofbinaryopposites.Childrenliketonameobjects,definewords,and

learnaboutthingsintheirownworld;theyalsohavevividimaginationsandrespondwell
tostoriesoffantasy.Theyneedtoknowhowtofeelaboutsomethinginordertolearnit
well. Primaryagechildren learn through oral language; they arecapableof developing
goodoralskills,pronunciation,andintonationwhentheyhaveagoodmodel.Theylearn
well,especiallybeginninginfirstgrade,throughdramaticplay,roleplay,anduseofstory
formwithastrongbeginning,middle,andend.Becauseoftheirshortattentionspans,they
needtohaveagreatvarietyofactivities,buttheteachermustkeepinmindthatchildrenof
thisagetireeasily.Theyrequirelargemuscleactivity,andtheyarestillratherunskilled
with smallmuscle tasks. Teachers of primary students must give very structured and
specificdirectionsandbuildregularroutinesandpatternsintothedailylessonplans.

IntermediateStudents(Ages8to10)
Intermediategrade students are at a maximum of openness to people and situations
differentfromtheirownexperience.Forthese children,aglobalemphasisisextremely
important,becauseitgivesthemanopportunitytoworkwithinformationaboutcountries
in all parts of the world. As intermediates develop the cognitive characteristics of the
concrete operations level, they begin to understand cause and effect. Students in
intermediategradescanworkwellingroups.Theycanbeginamoresystematicapproach
to language learning, but they continue to need firsthand, concrete experiences as a
startingpointandtobenefitfromlearningthatisembeddedincontext.Thephenomenon
ofboygermsandgirlgermsbeginstodevelopduringtheseyears,andchildrenmay
resistpartnersituationswithchildrenoftheoppositesex.Theycontinuetobenefitfrom
experiences with imagination and fantasy, emphasis on binary opposites, and strong
emotionalconnectiontowhatislearned,aswellasstoryformwithdistinctivebeginning,
middle,andend.Inaddition,theywillbenefitfromthemesbasedonreallifeheroesand
heroineswhodisplaytranscendentqualitiesinovercomingthechallengesoflife.

6. EFLPROFICIENTCLASSROOMS

7. SKILLS(1,2,3,7,8)
Listening is an active skill that includes the use of many subskills such as predicting
content,inferringmeaningfromcontent,listeningforthegeneralmeaningandlisteningfor
detailedinformation.
Speakingalsoconsistsofanumberofelementssuchaspronunciation,intonationandturn
taking.Buttheoverallaimofspeakingistoachieveoralcommunication.
Reading involves various subskills similar to the ones in listening. Reading for detail
(intensive reading), reading for the general meaning (skimming), reading for specific
information (scanning), predicting content and inferring meaning from content and
context.
Writing is considered the most difficult language skill since it includes so many other
elements such as handwriting, spelling, syntax, grammar, paragraphing, ideas, etc. For
younglearnersthemostimportantwritingskillsarecopying,handwriting,spellingand
basicsentenceformation.
8. MATERIALSANDRESOURCES(16,17,18,19,23,24)

9. METHODOLOGIESANDAPPROACHES
Languageacquisition
Language acquisition theory suggests that the language to which learners are exposed
shouldbeasnaturalaspossiblethatthepasttense,forexample,shouldnotbepostponed
until students are able to analyze the past tense themselves. The key factor in the
usefulnessofinputiswhetherornotitiscomprehended.
In general, the grammatical details of a message do not have as much impact on
comprehensibilityasdoesthecontextsurroundingtheverbalmessageandthevocabulary
with which the message is communicated, especially in the early stages of language
acquisition.Meaningfulnessandinterestforthelearnermaywellbethemostsignificant
factorsofall.
MichaelLong(1983)andotherssuggestthatacquisitiontakesplacebestinasettingin
whichmeaningisnegotiatedthroughinteraction,sothatthestudenthasinfluenceonthe
messagebeingcommunicated.Ofcourse,thegreaterthelanguageskillsofthelistener,the
moreeffectivelytheinteractioncaninfluencethemessage.Thissuggeststotheteacherthat
earlyattentionmustfocusonprovidingstudentswiththeabilitytocommunicatemessages
suchas,Idontunderstand,Couldyoupleaserepeatthat?,Didyoumean...?,
Couldyoupleasespeakmoreslowly?,andsoforth.
ComprehensibleOutput
MerrillSwain(1985)hastakenKrashensideaonestepfurtherwithhersuggestionthat
students acquire language most meaningfully when they also have the opportunity for
comprehensibleoutput,orpushedoutput.Thatis,theyneedtohaveasettinginwhich
their attempts at communication are valued and shaped to make them acceptable and
understandable,throughcommunicativeratherthangrammaticalmeansofcorrection.
Whenlearnersarepushedtoexpressthemselvesinthenewlanguage,theybegintolisten
tothegrammarofthelanguage,andnotjusttothevocabulary.Outputalsoallowslearners
totesthypothesesaboutthetargetlanguagegrammar(Ellis,2008).
Mountingevidencesuggeststhatdirecterrorcorrectionhaslittleornoinfluenceonthe
accuracyofmessages(Dulay,Burt,andKrashen,1982).Correctionthatrespondstothe
meaningofamessage,however,hasamuchgreaterlikelihoodofmakingadifferencefor
thespeaker.Frequentlycorrectinggrammaticalerrorsandinterruptingtoprodforaccuracy

tendstoshiftstudentsattentionawayfromthemessagebeingcommunicatedandtoward
inhibitingtheirwillingnesstospeak.

10. LESSONPLANNING(21)
Thebestteachersarethosewhothinkcarefullyaboutwhattheyaregoingtodointheir
classesandwhoplanhowtheyaregoingtoorganisetheteachingandlearning.(Jeremy
Harmer)
Everylessonisuniqueandismadeupofdifferentstages.Lessonscanfocusongrammar,
vocabulary, reading or writing. They may contain listening and speaking activities and
concentrateonintroducingnewlanguageitemsoronrevision.Theactualcontentofany
lessonwilldependonwhattheteacheraimstoachieveduringthelesson,thestudentsand
the teaching situation. However there are some ideas that can be considered for every
lesson.
Studentswhoareinterestedin,involvedinandenjoywhattheyarestudyingtendtomake
betterprogressandlearnfaster.
Asteachers,itisimportantthentoprovidestudentswithlessonsthatarenotonlywell
structuredbutwhicharealso
interestingandenjoyable.Carefulthoughtandpreparationwillhelptoachievethis.
Alessonplanisaframeworkforalesson.Ifyouimaginethatalessonislikeajourney,then
thelessonplanisthemap.Itshowswhereyoustart,whereyoufinishandtheroutetotake
togetthere.
Lessonplansaretheproductofteachersthoughtsabouttheirclasses;whattheyhopeto
achieveandhowtheyhopetoachieveit.Theyareusually,thoughnotalways,inwritten
form.
Without some kind of planning, a lesson could be just as chaotic and could leave the
studentswithnoclearideaofwhat
theyweredoingorwhy.Thiskindofuncertaintyisnotgoodforeffectivelearningorclass
discipline.
Oneofthemostimportantreasonstoplanisthattheteacherneedstoidentifyhisorher
aimsforthelesson.Teachersneedtoknowwhatitistheyhopetoachieveintheclass,what
itistheywantthestudentstobeabletodoattheendofthelessonthattheycouldntdo
before.
Herearesomemorereasonswhyitisessentialtoplan:

Planningisasignofprofessionalism.Studentsexpectteacherstobeprofessional.If
youareprepared,thestudentscantell.Theyalsoknowifyouarenotprepared.
Planningisawaytohelpgaintherespectofyourstudents.

By planning you are considering your teaching situation and your particular
students.Howevergoodyourteachingmaterialorcoursebookmaybe,itisunlikely
thatitwaspreparedforyourparticularstudents.Planninggivesyoutheopportunity
totailoryourmaterialandteachingtoyourclass.

Aswehaveseen,lessonsneedtohavecertainelementsandfeaturessuchasESA.
Planningencouragesteacherstoconsiderthesepointsandensuretheyareincluded
inthelesson.

Planninggivestheteacherachancetopredictpossibleproblemsintheclassand
thinkaboutwaystodealwiththem.Bythoroughlyresearchingthetargetlanguage
and being prepared for difficult questions, for example, the teacher can feel
confidentintheclassroom.

Principlesofplanning:
Oneofthemainprinciplesofplanningisestablishingaclear aim foryourlesson.Itis
importantthataimsarerealistic.Ifthesubjectistoodifficultforthestudents,thentheycan
becomefrustratedandlosemotivation.However,ifthesubjectistooeasy,thestudentsmay
becomebored.Boredandfrustratedstudentscanoftencausedisciplineproblems.Soitis
importantwhenplanningtothinkaboutyourparticularclass.
As we have seen, itisimportant to try and keepthestudents engaged and interested.
Providing variety inalessonandaseriesoflessonsisawayofachievingthis.Repeating
thesamekindsofexercisescanbecomemonotonousanddemotivatingforstudents.Where
possibleitsagoodideatotryandvarythekindsofactivities,materialsandinteractions.
Howeverwellyouplanyouneveractuallyknowexactlywhatsgoingtohappeninaclass
untilithappens!Exercisesmaytakelongerorshorterthananticipated,thestudentsmaybe
moreorlessinterestedinatopicthanyouimagined,somethingunexpectedmayhappen
during the lesson. In these cases if the teacher sticks rigidly to their plan the careful
preparationmayactuallyhaveanegativeeffect.

Carefulplanningisveryimportantbutteachersneedtobeabletoadapttheirplanduring
thelessontosuitthecircumstances,itisoftenagoodideatoconsiderextraoptionalor
alternativeexercises.Then,ifyourmaterialrunsshortoryouthinktheclassmightnot
respondwelltoaparticularactivity,youhavesomethingtofallbackon.
Similarly,teachersneedtobeawareofwhatishappeninginandaroundtheclass.Students
mayraiseinterestingpointsanddiscussionscouldprovideunexpectedopportunitiesfor
languageworkandpractice.Theteacherneedstobe flexibleenoughtobeabletoleave
theplaniftheopportunityarise.
Tobegintoorganizetheplanweneedtoaskourselvesthreebasicquestions,thefirstoneis
Whereareourstudentsgoing?,thesecondoneisHowtheyaregoingtogetthere?Andthe
thirdoneisHowwillweknowwhentheyhavearrived?.Thesequestionswillguideus
duringeachstageoftheplanningprocess.
Firstofallweneedtodeterminethethegoalsofthelesson,thatmeansthepurposeofthe
lesson. The goals are typically written as broad educational or unit goals adhering to
NationalorAutonomiccurriculumstandards.Theyarebasicallywhatweexpectstudentsto
beabletodoattheendofthelessonorunit.
Then,thenextsectionofthelessonplanaretheobjectives.Thissectionfocusesonwhat
thestudentswilldotoacquirefurtherknowledgeandskills,whatwilltheybeabletodo
duringthelesson.Theobjectivesforthedailylessonplanaredrawnfromthebroaderaims
oftheunitplanbutareachievedoverawelldefinedtimeperiod.
Anotheritemonthelessonplanaretheprerequisites,whatmuststudentsalreadybeable
todobeforethelessonandwhatconceptshavetobemasteredinadvancetoaccomplish
thelessonobjectives.
Thenextsectionwillincludethe materials,thatistosaytheresourcesweneedtouse
duringthelesson.Thatwillhelpteacherstodeterminehowmuchpreparationtimeand
managementwillbeinvolvedincarryingoutthisplanandwhatbooks,equipmentand
resourcestheywillneedtohaveready.

Afterthat,wewillwritethe lessondescription givingustheopportunitytosharesome


thoughts,experienceandadvice.Italsoprovidesageneraloverviewofthelessoninterms
oftopicfocus,activitiesandpurpose.
Finally,thelastpointofthelessonplanistheassessment/evaluation.Thissectionsfocuses
onensuringthatthestudentshavearrivedattheirintendeddestination.Itisimportantfor
thattogathersomeevidencethattheydid.Thisisusuallydonebygatheringstudents'work
and assessing this work using some kind of grading rubric that is based on lesson
objectives.

11. HARMER'SMODEL(21)
JeremyHarmerdividestheteachinglearningprocessinthreephases:
Engage:Itisimportanttoengagethestudents.Thismeansgettingthestudentsinterested
inthesubject,intheclassandinthelanguagepointandhopefullyenjoyingwhattheyare
doing. Engaging students isimportant for the learning process. Engaged students learn
betterandarelikelytocausefewer
disciplineproblems.
Communicate:InanEnglishteachinglessonthereneedstobesomelanguagefocusforthe
class.StudentsneedtobeintroducedsystematicallytothewaythatEnglishisputtogether.
Itcouldbeafocusonanyaspectofthelanguage,suchasgrammarorvocabularyand
pronunciation.ACommunicatestagedoesnothavetobenewlanguageinput.Itcouldalso
coverrevisionandextensionofpreviouslytaughtmaterial.
Activate:Simplytellingstudentsaboutthelanguageisnotusuallyenoughtohelpthemto
learnit.InorderforstudentstobeabletodeveloptheiruseofEnglish,theyneedtobe
giventhechancetoproduceit.InanActivatestagethestudentsaregiventasks,normally
writingandorspeakingactivitieswhichrequirestudentstousenotonlythelanguagethey
arestudyingthatday,butalsootherlanguagethattheyhavelearnt.
Herearesomereasonswhyitsimportanttoletstudentshavethiskindofpractice:
ItgivesstudentsthechancetorehearseEnglish,asiftheyweredoingitintherealworld
butinthesafeenvironmentoftheclassroom.
Sometheoriesoflanguagelearningsuggestthatbygivingstudentsthiskindofpractice,it
helpsthemtoswitchlanguagetheyhavebeenstudying,intolanguagewhichtheycanuse
instinctivelywithouthavingtothinkaboutit.
Thesekindofactivitiesareoftenfunforthestudents.Aswehavementionedbefore,
providinganenjoyableclassroomexperienceforstudentshelpsthelearningprocess.
Thiskindofactivity,becauseitdoesnotrestrictthestudentstousingonlyaparticular
areaoflanguage,isaneffectivewayforbothstudentsandtheteachertoassesshowwell
theclassisprogressing.
Providingsuitabletaskswhichthestudentscanachieveusinglotsofdifferentlanguage
hasapositivemotivationaleffectonstudents.Motivatedstudentstendtolearnbetter.

Engage,CommunicateandActivatethreeimportantconsiderationsforanylesson.Every
activity, every exercise, every part of a lesson should fit into one of these categories.
AlthoughECAisaguidetowhatshouldgointoalesson,itisnotnecessarilyaguideasto
whatorderactivitiesshouldcomeinalesson.Forexample,itispossibletohaveanActivate
stagebeforeaCommunicatestage.Inthisordertheteachercanmonitortheactivitytofind
outwhatitisthatthestudentsneedtoknow.Inotherwords,theActivatestagehelpsthe
teachertodecidethecontentoftheCommunicatestage.

12. LEARNINGSTYLES(18)
Theindividuallearnersinforeignlanguageclassesdifferinmanyways,ateverylevelof
instruction.Writersandresearchersonlearningstyleshaveprovidedaplethoraofwaysto
analyzeanddescribelearnerdifferences,andallareuseful.Learnerscanbecharacterized
asvisual,auditory,andkinestheticlearners;theycanalsobeclassifiedasholisticorlinear
learners.Someresearchersplacelearnersonacontinuumfromconcretetoabstractorfrom
sequential to random. Perhaps the most important insight from this information is the
realizationthatalmostallstudentsaredifferentfromtheirteachers,andfromeachother,in
alargevarietyofways.
Some learners thrive in a highly social and interactive environment; others feel more
comfortableandmaydobetterwhentheycanthinkandlearnalone.Somelearnersare
motivated and empowered by carefully structured, linear tasks and unvarying routines;
theymayfinditannoyinganddistractingwhenbulletinboardsorvisualsarenotcarefully
alignedandtheclassroomisntneatandorderly.Otherstudentsfeelsuffocatedbysomuch
structureandlongforthefreedomtosolveproblemsandbecreative.Thesesamestudents
enjoyclassesinwhichtheteacherkeepsthemguessingandsometimesmakesrandomleaps
fromonetopictoanother.
Many students need a supportive emotional climate in which to learn, and regular
assurancethattheyarevaluedaspeople,regardlessoftheirperformance.Afewstudents,
ontheotherhand,justwanttobeleftalonetolearnontheirown.
Somestudentsneedtotouch,ormove,inordertolearn.(Thatsprobablytrueofalmost
everyprimaryschoolchild.)Somestudentsbenefitmostfromvisualsandteachersgestures
when they are learning or reviewing language; others wont feel confident of the
information until they see it written out; still others, with poor vision or a brain that
processesvisualinputpoorly,dontbenefitfromeither.
Somechildrenlearnverywelljustfromlisteningattentivelytowhatistakingplace,they
mayrememberwellwithouteverwritingthingsdown.Stillothersneedtotakenotesand
reworktheinformationseveraltimesbeforeitisfirmlyanchored.
Somestudentslearnbestwhentheycanvolunteerandtrythingsout;othersneedtofeel
verysecurebeforetryinganythingnew.

NancyFoss(1994)pointsoutthatwhenstudentsareaskedtolearninawaythatmakes
themuncomfortable,theyexperiencestress.Inaclassroomwhereastudentslearningstyle
isneverincluded,thatstudentisconstantlyoperatingunderstress,andlearningislikelyto
beseriouslyaffected.Fossrecommendsthatteachersshouldbeawareofwhenanactivity
oranassignmentwillcausestressforoneormoregroupsofstudents,andtrytofindways
tomaketheactivitymorecomfortable.Forexample,somestudentswhopreferverylinear,
clearlydefined tasks will be understresswhen assigned to create a skit with agroup.
Providing clear written directions and a template for the skit, as well as a written
component as part of the skit preparation, will help to make these students more
comfortableandhelpthemtolearnmoreeffectively.

DevelopmentalCharacteristicsoftheLearner
Themostimportantfactorinteachingandlearninginanysettingisthelearner.Learnersof
anyagedifferfromoneanotherinsignificantways:Individualsmaylearnbestthrough
listeningorreading,theymaylearnmoreeasilyaloneorwithinasmallgroup,theymay
requireheavyvisualreinforcementorlearnbetterthroughverbalexplanations,ortheymay
respondbettertoasequentialortoarandomorganizationofmaterialsorexperiences.
Eachlearnersexperiencesdifferfromthoseofclasspeersinavarietyofways.Childrenand
youngadolescents,however,differfromolderlearnersincertainpatternedandpredictable
waysastheyprogressthroughstagesofdevelopment.Anunderstandingofthesegeneral
developmentalcharacteristicsisessentialfortheelementaryandmiddleschoollanguage
teacher.

13.TEACHER'SROLES(6)
The main teachers' roles in understanding students' needs and engaging them in their
learningexperiencesincludes:

Learningaboutthestudents:talkingdirectlywitheachstudentprovidesinformation
abouthow each student perceives himself orherself as alearner.The diagnostic
informationgatheredallowsteacherstoindividualizeinstructionandassessmentto
meettheneedsofeachstudent.

Planningclassroomenvironmentandroutines:teachersareencouragedtoinclude
students in setting some of the routines and expectations for use of classrooms
spaces,andforparticipatingappropriatelyasacommunityoflearners.

Organizingclassroomfacilitiesandresources:itinvolvesorganizingtheclassroom
furnituretofacilitatethewholegroup,smallgroup,inpairsorindividualactivities.
Alsoincludestocreatedisplayareasforstudents'projectsandmultimediaproducts
tocollaboratewithteacherlibrariantodevelopaclassroomresourcecollection.

Communicatingwithstudents'families:itisimportanttoestablishregular,positive
communicationwithstudents'families.Wecandoitbytherelevantinvolvementof
parentsinclassroomactivities,beingsensitivetothediversityoffamilystructures,
exchanging informal notes and using, if it's possible, available technology to
communicatewiththem.

Reflecting upon practice: teachers benefit from their own accumulated


understandingthatistheresultoftheirreflectionnpastpracticeandexperience.
Teacherswhoreflectabouttheirpractice,considerthattheyknowandbelieveabout
aspectssuchasstudentsneeds,interestsandpersonallearninggoals,thecurriculum
philosophy, expectations, aims, goals, their own philosophy about instruction,
assessmentandtheirownreflectivepractices.

Also other important roles are researcher of information about educational aspects,
organizer(planning,managing,monitoring,controllingandguiding),informingstudents
during the whole process, motivator, active participant during the lessons, corrector,
assessorandevaluator.

14. COMMUNICATIVEACTIVITIES(6)
In an EFL context, students rarely have opportunities to practice speaking the target
languageoutsideoftheclassroom.Therefore,itisespeciallyimportantthatEFLteachers
provideopportunitiesforproducingEnglishwithintheclassroom.Classroominteraction
techniquescanbeusedtogivestudentsachancetobuildtheirorallanguageproficiency.
StudentscanpracticeusingEnglishinmeaningfulandcommunicativecontextswiththe
teachersguidanceandfeedback.
Itisthroughtheserealcommunicativeactsintheclassroomthatstudentscangainmore
exposuretointeractioninEnglish.
Communicative activities include any activities that encourage and require a learner to
speak with and listen to other learners, and they have real purposes such as finding
information,breakingdownbarriers,talkingaboutself,andlearning abouttheculture.
Even when a lesson is focused on developing reading or writing skills, communicative
activitiesshouldbeintegratedintothelesson.
Furthermore,researchonsecondlanguageacquisition(SLA)suggeststhatmorelearning
takes place when students are engaged in relevant tasks within a dynamic learning
environmentratherthanintraditionalteacherledclasses(Moss&RossFeldman,2003).
Therearesomebenefitsforusingcommunicativeactivities.Forexample,studentswillhave
moreexposuretoTargetLanguage,therewillbemoreauthenticopportunitiestousethe
language,theseactivitiesarefunandinterestingforlearnersandtheyprovideopportunity
touseauthenticmaterials.
Characteristicsofthecommunicativeactivities:

Thesuccessofacommunicativeactivitycanbedeterminedbytheextenttowhich
learnersaredependentontheteacher.Tasksshouldbedevisedinamannerthat
learnersgainautonomyandindependencewhilelearning.

Theroleoftheteachersistogiveclearandtothepointinstructionsandprovidethe
appropriateenvironmentforlearnerstointeractandexchangeinformation.
Communicativeactivitiesaremotivating.Learnersshouldbeateaseandhavefun
whiledoingthecommunicativetasks.
Communicativetasksarerealistic.Realcommunicationsituationsshouldbethe
focusinsteadofisolatedstructureswithnoreallifereference.

Whileinteacherledclassroomslearnerswereexpectedtobequietandlistentothe
teacherandthen,whenasked,torespondtotheteacherinunisonwiththeone
correctanswer,communicativetasksrequirelearnerstotakeinitiativesandprovide
theirresponses(insteadofaresponse)tocontributetothesuccessoflearning.
Communicativeactivitiesaremeaningful:theyarecarriedouttofulfillspecific
purposessuchasbookingaplane,hotelticket,invitingsomebodytoaparty,
answeringaninvitationletter,shopping.
Performanceincommunicativetestsreflectsanunderlyingcompetencethatis
linguistic,sociolinguistic,pragmatic,strategicCommunicativeactivitiesshould
considerthismultidimensionalnatureoflanguage.
Examplesofcommunicativeactivities:
Informationgapandjigsawactivities.Inboththesetypesofactivities,studentscompletea
taskbyobtainingmissinginformation,afeaturetheactivitieshaveincommonwithreal
communication. However, information gap and jigsaw activities also set up practice on
specificitemsoflanguage.
An example of information gap activity could be Colouring the picture in which two
partnershavesimilarpictures,eachwithdifferentmissingdetails,andtheycooperateto
findallthemissingdetails.Inanothervariation,noitemsaremissing,butsimilaritems
differinappearance.
On the other hand, jigsaw activities are more elaborate and can be done with several
partners.Inajigsawactivity,eachpartnerhasoneorafewpiecesofthepuzzleandthey
mustcooperatetofillallthepiecesintoawholepicture.Thepuzzlepiecemaytakeoneor
severalforms.Itmaybeonepanelfromacomicstriporonephotofromasetthattellsa
story.Itmaybeonesentencefromawrittentextorarecordingofaconversation.
Roleplaysarealsocommunicativeactivities.Inroleplaystudentsareassignedrolesand
putintosituationsthattheymayeventuallyencounteroutsidetheclassroom.Becauserole
playsimitatelife,therangeoflanguagefunctionsthatmaybeusedexpandsconsiderably.
Also, the role relationships among the students as they play their parts helps them to
practiceanddeveloptheirsociolinguisticcompetence.Theyhavetouselanguagethatis
appropriate to the situation and to the characters. Students usually find roleplaying
enjoyable,butstudentswholackselfconfidenceorhavelowerproficiencylevelsmayfins

themintimidatingatfirst.
To succeed with roleplays we need to prepare carefully the activity, introducing it by
describingthesituationandmakingsurethatallofthestudentsunderstandit.Itisalso
essentialthatstudentsknowwhatthegoaloftheactivityis.Anotherusefultipistouserole
cards,givingeachstudentacardthatdescribesthepersonorroletobeplayed,foryounger
studentsthecardscanincludewordsorexpressionsthatthepersonmightuse.
Before starting the activity it is good to brainstorm to predict what vocabulary,
communicativefunction,etc.theymightuse.Itisalsoadvisabletodotheactivityinsmall
groups,sothelessconfidentstudentswillfeelmorecomfortable.
Whileperformingtheactivity,theroleoftheteacherhastobehelpingandguidingthe
studentsnotmonitoringthem,prioritizingfluencyratherthanaccuracy.

15.GOODLANGUAGELEARNERS(6)
16. KEYCOMPETENCES(20)

17.STUDENTCENTREDAPPROACH(25)
Studentcentred is the way of teaching in which teachers centre their planning, their
teachingandtheirassessmentontheneedsandabilitiesofthesudents.
Instudentcentredteaching,studentarenotjustmemorizinginformation,theyareallowed
to work with and use the information alone or with peers. Their diverse thoughts and
perspectivesarethenecessaryinputtoeveryclass.Thestdentsaregivenchoicesandare
includedinthedecisionmakingprocessesoftheclassroom.
Then,thefocusintheseclassroomsisinopinions,ratherthanuniformity.Inotherwords,
learnersaretreatedascocreatorsinthelearningprocesses
Studentcentred teaching help us deign effective instruction for every members of the
classroom,becauseisadaptabletomeettheneedsofeverystudent.Thatistosaythatin
ordertodesignanylesson,wehavetogiveprioritytoourstudents,ratherthaninthe
content.
Withstudentcentredteachingthemotivationincreaseandstudentsretainmoreforlonger
periodsoftime.Also,foreignlangugestudetns,whentheyuselanguagetheygetpracticein
activelyconversation,evelopingmorefluencythantheywouldtakeiftheycompletesome
sentencescreatedbytheteacher.
Thecreativityinherentinstudentcentredactivitiesadsanelementofsurprisetoteacheach
class,sowecanreducefrustratingandintimidatingfeelings,becausestudentsareengaged
andwillingtolearn.
Studentsareresponsibleforthesuccessofthelessonandtheytendtofeelmoreresponsible
forthesuccessoftheirownlearning.Thus,theycometogainselfconfidenceascompetent
problemsolvers.
Teachersmustdesignactivitiesthatletstudentstakeinitiativeandthatletstudentsdiscover
meaningfulinformationfortheirownlives.Teachersneedtofocusonthestudents'needs,

abilitiesandinterests.
Therearefourmainapproacheswhicharerepresentativeofthestudentcentredapproach:

cooperativelearning:letskidstoworkoffeachother'sabilitiesandknowledge.The
emphasisisplacedonthekids.Itisalsocalledcollaborativelearning,andoccurs
wheneverstudentsinteractinpairsorgroupstoshareknowledgeandexperiences.
All activities in which students work together towards a common goal, are
cooperativelearningactivities.
Studentswhoworkwiththeirpeersexperiencehigherretentionandachievement,
develop interpersonal skills and responsibility, and also selfsteem and creativity.
Furthermore,cooperativeactivitiesplacestudentsinroleswheretheymustlearn
effectivecommunicationstrategiestosucceedasagroup,acquiringthenecessaries
skillstointeractsuccessfullywithpeersinanenvironmentthatrewardsrespectful
collaborationamongstudentsofallactivitylevels.Examplesofcooperativeactivities
are:informationgap,jigsaw,roleplaysandstorytelling,amongothers.

Activelearning:itdependsonthestudent'sparticipationinthelearningprocessto
beeffective.

Authenticlearning:lessonsaredirectlyapplicabletothestudent'sownlives,totheir
needsandtheirdesires.

Cognitiveapprenticeship:putsstudentsincontrolofthedirectionoftheirlearning,
guidedbyacoach,whocanhelpthemmeettheirgoals.

18.MOTIVATIONANDEFL(19)
Studentmotivationhastodowithstudents'desiretoparticipateinthelearningprocess.Its
to capture students' attention and curiosity and channel their energy towards learning.
Although students may be equally motivated to perform a task, the sources of their
motivationmaydiffer:

Intrinsicmotivation:it'sthemotivationfromwithinthestudent,thatistosaythata
studentstudiesbecausehe/shewantstostudy.

Extrinsicmotivation:anextrinsicallymotivatedstudentperformsinordertoobtain
somerewardoravoidsomepunishmentexternaltotheactivityitself,suchasgrades,
stickersorteacherapproval.

Instrumentalmotivation:itmeansthatstudentsstudyinordertousethelanguage.

Integrative motivation: it means that students because they want to know more
about the foreign language culture and they want to be part of the foreign
community,asitisthecaseofpeoplewhoimmigratetonewcountries.

Tomotivatestudents,awellplannedlessoninessential.Theteachermustbecreativeand
flexible.Thelessonsmustbesimple,yetfunandinteresting,withalotofchangesfrom
writingexercisetospeaking,listening,backtowritingandsoon,allinthesameclass.
The material must also be relevant, interesting and attractive to the students, and the
vocabularyusedmustbecomprehensible.

19. CLASSROOMMANAGEMENT(22)
To begin with I will explain what classroom management involves and why it is so
important.Asdefinedintheprefacetothe1979yearbookoftheNationalSocietyforthe
Study of Education, the term classroom management encompasses the provisions and
proceduresnecessarytoestablishanmaintainanenvironmentinwhichinstructionand
learningcanoccur.
Aconsistentandfairdisciplinestrategyensuresthatallchildrenhaveanequalchanceto
learntotheirfullpotential.
Itisimportanttoformpositiverelationships,andthatthechildrenarewellbehavedtrying
tobefirmbutfriendly.
Itiscommonlyacceptednowadaysthattheabilitytocommunicateistheprimarygoalof
foreignlanguagelearning,EFLlearningisnowmoreregardedasaprocessofacquiring
linguistic and communicative competences, through the use of the language in active
practiceandinteractions,becauseEFLlearnerslacktheinformallinguisticenvironmentand
thushavelittlechancetousethetargetlanguageindailylife,theyhavetodependentirely
onclassroomactivities.Formostofthem,theclassroomistheonlyenvironmentinwhich
theycanpracticecommunicatinginEnglish.
So an EFL teacher must bear in mind that neither control nor discipline but setting a
climate appropriate for learning in the class is the most important task for classroom
management. On an effective EFL learning environment the learner feels strongly a
communicativeneedtousethetargetlanguageintheclassandthereisaneasyclimatein
whichstudentsenjoyparticipatingintheclassroomactivities.
Whenthelearnerhasaclearcommunicativeneedforthetargetlanguage,heismostlikely
tolearnthelanguagespontaneously,soanEFLclassshouldbestudentcentredratherthan
teachercentred,witharelaxedatmosphereinwhichstudentsfeeleasyandeagertoinvolve
themselvesintotheclassroomactivities.

Tosetupsuchalearningenvironmenttheteachershouldconsiderseveralfactors,suchas
motivation,studentsshouldhavetheneedtocommunicatewithothers,theyneedtobe
involved and relaxed, without any fear on making mistakes, specially in oral work,
teachersmustpayattentiontofluencyoveraccuracy.
Inordertodevelopthefourlanguageskillslistening,speaking,readingandwritingof
the students, an EFL lesson should be composed of various activities which require an
activeparticipationofthestudents.Sothestudentsusuallyhavemoreopportunitiesinan
EFLclassthanclassesofothersubjecttospeak,totalk,toreadaloudoreventoarguewith
eachother.Theclassmayappeartobeinlackoforderandtoonoisyforanormalclass.Of
course,thisdoesnotmeanthatanEFLclasscandowithoutdisciplineorclassorder.The
problemishowdisciplineisachievedandwhatdisciplineitis.Overdisciplineoftencauses
anxietyinthestudentsandtheanxietyofthestudentsisfatallyharmfulforeffectiveEFL
learning.
Class order should not be fostered by an external force, such as the teachers strict
discipline or constant threats of punishment. Whenclass orderisachieved through the
external force of this kind, it doesno good to the teacher or thelearner because in a
strained learning climate effective learning can not occur. So, class order must be
establishedandmaintainedbythestudentsthemselves.Inordertoachieveaclassorder
whichpermitsbotheffectivedisciplineandactiveparticipation,somegeneralgroundrules
toachievethatcouldbetosetupafriendlyrelationshipwiththestudents.Ateacherwitha
caringattitudetowardsthestudentsismorelikelytowinthetrustandcooperationfrom
thestudents.Sotheteachermustbesensitivetothestudentsneeds.Hemusttreatthem
equally,lovethemandcarethem.Inturn,thestudentsrespecttheteacherandwouldbe
morecooperative.Theyalsoformapeersimpactonthosewhotendtomisbehaveinthe
class.
Itisalsoimportanttofosterandmaintainahighselfesteemofthestudents.Astudentwith
high selfesteem tends to display positive traits such as expectation of achievement,
boldnessinattemptingtocommunicateandanegostrongenoughtowithstandfailureand
setbacks.ThesetraitsallcontributetosuccessfulEFLlearning(Littewood,1984).

A person with low selfesteem generally exhibits anxiety, hesitancy and a tendency to
withdrawfromcommunicatingwithothers(Wang,1985).Tofosterandmaintainahigh
selfesteemofthestudents,theteachermustridhimselfofanypreconceivedassumptions
aboutastudent.Theteachershouldconstantlyexpresshisconfidenceinthestudentthathe
canlearnEnglishaswellasanyotherpeers.
Anotherimportantissueistogivepromptencouragementtothestudents.Nolearningisso
emotionallyinvolvedasforeignlanguagelearning,becauselanguageissuchanintimate
partofusthatweriskhavingthispartofusmadefunof(Brown,1987).AnEFLlearner
especially needs encouragement. So the teacher should be always ready and generous
enoughtoencouragethestudentsbyusingpositivelanguageinsteadofdiscouragingthem
withalotofcriticisms.Whenastudentperformswellinclassorinexercises,theteacher
shouldexpressgenuinedelightandofferawordofpraise.Ifastudenthasdifficulty,the
teacher should show concern and sympathy and never ridicule his failure. When the
studentsareencouraged,theytendtobemoreinvolvedinclassroomactivitiesandcause
lesstroubleinclass.
Wealsoneedtohaveaccesstoeverystudentintheclass.Duringoralwork,theteacher
needstobenearthespeakerinordertohearhimclearlyandmakepromptcommentsor
correctionsometimes.Duringreadingandwriting,theteacherneedstobeabletoanswer
individualswithoutdisturbinganyoneelse. Whentheteachermayappearbyhissideat
anymoment,astudentwouldnotfeelsoeasytoplay,talkorpassthingsaround.
Teaching on the move is an effective strategy to prevent discipline problems in the
classroom(AbbottandWingard,1985).Walkingaroundintheclassroom,theteachercan
reducehisdistancefromthestudentssothathecannotonlygivepromptresponsetothe
studentsperformance,butalsokeepthestudentsattentionfixedonthelearningactivities.

20.ASSESSMENT(21)
Theassessmentwillbecontinuousandglobalandwilltakeintoaccountprogressinall
subjectareas.
Theevaluationcriterianeedtobedevelopedalongwiththeobjectivesandcontentofeach
of the areas for each cycle. They determine the acquisition of the objectives and key
competencesbythestudents,thatiswhytheymustbespecific,observableandmeasurable
toallowustomakeajudgementofthestudentslearning.
Theassessmentcriteriadonotreflectthetotalityofwhatastudentcanlearn,but
onlythoseparticularpointsnecessarytocontinuewiththelearningprocess.
Beingcompetentmeanstobeabletorespondtoarealsituationinaneffectiveman
ner,soitseemsobviousthattheinitialpointofanyevaluatingactionneedstobeasitu
ationsimilartoareallifeone,servingasmodelsofthatonesthestudentswillfaceoutside
theschool,intheydaytodaylife.
Thisapproachseeksthatstudentscanactinpunctualactionsbutalsomakethem
competent to respond to situations when the knowledge, attitude or ability learned is
neededandthereforetobeabletousetheminothercontexts.
Toevaluate,weneedtousedifferentassessmenttoolslikeobservation,projects,oral
and written tests, etc. Bearing in mind that the assessment needs to be formative and
summative, ensuring a permanent learning. Students must learn to autoevaluate
themselvesintegratingknowingandskills.
The evaluation should address the whole teaching and learning process and,
therefore,notonlytheresultsachieved bythepupils,but toany of the keyvariables
involvedintheteachinglearningprocess,fromtheactivitiespromotedbytheteachers,to
theexperiencesmadebythestudentandthelearning'scontents.
AsS.IoannouGeorgiouandP.Pavlouexplain,thetermsevaluation,assessmentandtesting
areoftenconfusedandusedinterchangeably.Theydonot,however,meanthesamething.

Testingisjustonepartofassessment.Assessmentandevaluationaremoregeneral,more
globalprocesses.
Evaluation is the processof gathering information inorderto determinetheextent to
which a language program meets its goals. Relevant information can be teachers' and
parents'opinions,textbookquality,examresultsandchildren'sattitude.Someofthetools
oftheevaluationprocessaretest,questionnairesandobservation.
Assessmentisageneraltermwhichincludesallmethodsusedtocollectinformationabout
children'sknowledge,ability,understanding,attitudesandmotivation.Assessmentcanbe
carriedoutthroughanumberofinstrumentsandcanbeformalorinformal.
Testingisoneoftheproceduresthatcanbeusedtoassessachild'sperformance.Atesthas
a certain objective, it checks whether the child has achieved the objectives set or not.
Testingusestasksorexercisesandassignsmarksorgradesbasedonquantifiableresults.
Childrenaredifferentfromothergroupsoflearners,therecognitionthattheyhavespecial
needs has led to the development of effective teaching methodologies that take into
account children's creativity and their love of play, songs, rhymes and roleplay among
others.Thesemethodologiesalso recognizechildren'slimitationsintermsoftheirshort
attentionspan,theircognitivedevelopmentandtheirspecificareasofinterest.Classrooms
arenowmorelearnercentredandchildfriendly,but,ontheotherhand,assessmenthas
notdevelopedinthesameway.
However,assessmentisanecessarypartoftheteachinglearningprocessbecauseitserves
tomonitorandaidstudents'progress,helpingteachersbeingawareofwhatstudentsknow
andwhatdifficultiestheyareexperiencing.Italsoprovideschildrenwithevidenceoftheir
progress,enhancingmotivation,becauselearningalanguageisalongprocess,achieving
shorttermgoalscanboostchildren'smotivationandencouragethemtopersistintheir
efforts.Becomingawareoftheirprogresscanmotivatestudents,astheyseethemselves
gettingclosertotheirgoal.Thismakesthemtryhardertoachievetheirgoal.

Assessmentalsoprovidesinformationforparents,colleaguesandschoolauthorities.Many
otherpeoplebesidesthechildrenandtheteacher,needtobekeptinformedonthestudent's
progress.Parents,forexampleneedtoknowwhethertheirchild'seffortsandtheschool's
languageprogramareyieldingsatisfactoryresults.
TofinishthislastpointIwillfocusonwhatneedtobeassessedinEFLlessons.
Although language often involves the use of all four skills in an integrated way, in
assessmentwemaywantto considereach skillseparately,so thatwecanexamine the
student'sprogressordetectproblemsinaparticularskill.
Listening is an active skill that includes the use of many subskills such as predicting
content,inferringmeaningfromcontent,listeningforthegeneralmeaningandlisteningfor
detailedinformation.
Speakingalsoconsistsofanumberofelementssuchaspronunciation,intonationandturn
taking.Buttheoverallaimofspeakingistoachieveoralcommunication.
Reading involves various subskills similar to the ones in listening. Reading for detail
(intensive reading), reading for the general meaning (skimming), reading for specific
information (scanning), predicting content and inferring meaning from content and
context.
Writing is considered the most difficult language skill since it includes so many other
elements such as handwriting, spelling, syntax, grammar, paragraphing, ideas, etc. For
younglearnersthemostimportantwritingskillsarecopying,handwriting,spellingand
basicsentenceformation.
Assessingskillsseparatelymybejustifiedforassessmentpurposesbutoftenitdoesnot
reflectreallifeandrarelyusedinisolation.Forthisreason,theyshouldalsobeassessedin
anintegratedway.

21.CLIL
ContentandLanguageIntegratedLearning(CLIL)involvesteachingacurricularsubject
through the medium of a language other than that normally used. The subject can be
entirelyunrelatedtolanguagelearning,suchashistorylessonsbeingtaughtinEnglishina
schoolinSpain.CLIListakingplaceandhasbeenfoundtobeeffectiveinallsectorsof
education from primary through to adult and higher education. Its success has been
growingoverthepast10yearsandcontinuestodoso.
TeachersworkingwithCLILarespecialistsintheirowndisciplineratherthantraditional
languageteachers.Theyareusuallyfluentspeakersofthetargetlanguage,bilingualor
native speakers. In many institutions language teachers work in partnership with other
departmentstoofferCLILinvarioussubjects.Thekeyissueisthatthelearnerisgaining
newknowledgeaboutthe'nonlanguage'subjectwhileencountering,usingandlearning
the foreign language. The methodologies and approaches used are often linked to the
subjectareawiththecontentleadingtheactivities.
BenefitsofCLIL

buildsinterculturalknowledgeandunderstanding

developsinterculturalcommunicationskills
improveslanguagecompetenceandoralcommunicationskills
developsmultilingualinterestsandattitudes
providesopportunitiestostudycontentthroughdifferentperspectives
allowslearnersmorecontactwiththetargetlanguage
doesnotrequireextrateachinghours
complementsothersubjectsratherthancompeteswiththem
diversifiesmethodsandformsofclassroompractice
increaseslearners'motivationandconfidenceinboththelanguageandthesubject
beingtaught

22. INTERACTIVEWHITEBOARD(PDI)(24)
Aninteractivewhiteboard(IWB)isaninteractivedisplaysystemthatiscommonlyusedin
educational settings. The IWB forms a link between a teaching surface and a digital
projectorand computer.Theteaching surfaceismost frequentlya large wall mounted
panelthatallowstheusertooperatethecomputerviainteractingwiththeprojectedimage.
Historically,IWBscouldonlybeusedbyasingleuseratanyonetime.Recenttechnical
innovationsnowallowformultipleuserstointeractwiththeIWBonsomeproducts.
The interactive blackboard is a very useful and attractive resource that most schools
alreadyhave.
Itallowsthestudentstoparticipateactivelyinthelessonsnotmerelyasapassiveaudience,
whichisverymotivatingforthem.Italsoincreasesthepupilsinterestduetothepossibility
ofmakinglessonsattractiveandcolorful,fosteringcollaborativework,discussionsandthe
presentationofthetopicsinafancyway.
The useoftheinteractiveblackboard facilitatescomprehension,speciallywith difficult
conceptsbecauseexplanationscanbereinforcedwithvideosandimageswhichstudents
caninteractwith.
Itisanextremelycompleteresourcebecausewecanuseitasatraditionalblackboardand
in addition we can use it to project images, watch films, documentaries, interactive
activitiesanddirectaccesstotheInternet.

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