Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
21(1988), 271-317
Manasagangothri,
Mysore, India
INTRODUCTION
Speech and hearing is a young profession that began half a century ago,
concerned with the most human characteristic-speech.
The field makes
unique contributions to the understanding and care of the most important
of all the human functions -speech
and hearing. In brief, the field covers
the areas of speech production, transmission, reception, speech and language disorders, their causes and treatment, as well as disorders of hearing
and their causes, symptoms, and treatment.
The field of speech and hearing had its birth and developed in a number
of countries, especially in America. It is only about twenty years old in
India. Hence most of the contributions can be attributed to Westerners,
primarily to Americans. However, Sanskrit literature is rich and goes back
3500 years, and it deals with the areas concerned with speech and hearing.
Using knowledge obtained from Sanskrit literature, great and surprising
achievements have been made in many other fields such as cardiology.
However, the young field of speech and hearing has not yet paid much
attention to the information contained in the Sanskrit literature.
From early times the Indian system of medicine has been known as a
vast storehouse of literature and hereditary knowledge. Centuries ago,
when Indian culture was the center of international attention, Ayurvedab
shone in its full glory and attracted scholars from many parts of the world.
271
OOZI-9924l88lS3.50
272
S. R. SAVITHRI
SCIENCE IN ANCIENT
INDIA
273
d A report of the All-India Ayurvedic Conference and Exhibition held at Mysore during
December, 1936.
Deccan Herald (a daily newspaper), 13th April, 1978 p. 1.
S. R. SAVITHRI
274
Areas under Study. The study is mainly concerned with three broad
areas, namely, diseases in general, speech pathology, and audiology.
Under speech pathology the following are studied: Definitions of normal
and abnormal speech, production of voice, perception of speech, phonetics, intonation and rhythm, speech disorders and their causes, and
treatment of speech disorders.
Under audiology the following are dealt with: Diseases of the ear, their
causes and symptoms, and treatment of ear diseases.
The first section is an introductory part, the second section deals with
the method, and the third section deals with diseases in general and the
place of speech and language disorders. The fourth and fifth sections deal
with speech and hearing disorders and their treatment, and the final section is a summary with recommendations.
The present study has many advantages. First of all, it is hoped that it
will give us a picture of the information available in the Sanskrit literature.
It may make people aware of the information available in the field of
speech and hearing, which may be beneficial to them.
Because the field of Speech and Hearing is very young and because
not much has yet been achieved, any extra information that could possibly
be revealed by this survey should lead to its development. Under the
inspiration of ideas borrowed from the Sanskrit literature, good achievements have been made in the areas of modem medical science. Hence
we can assume that the ideas borrowed by the field of Speech and Hearing
may also help in the development of the field.
Such a study may be helpful in comparing two literatures of different
languages, whether in the same country or in two different countries.
Further, one may also hope that it can stimulate clinical trials and applications to research that may be appropriate to our country.
The present study was limited to books from a few libraries.
Since the time available for the study was very short (6 months), many
books were not referred to. The books available in the following Libraries
were the only ones used: the Oriental Research Institutes Library, the
Maharajas Sanskrit College Library, and the Government College of Indian Medicines Library, all in Mysore, Kamataka, India.
MATERIALS
ANTI METHOD
The materials used in this study are taken purely from Sanskrit books
written between 1500 BC and 1904 AD. On only one occasion was the
original Sanskrit book not available, and hence in that case an English
translation was used. The materials were selected as follows: (1) The
diseases and the treatment are dealt with in the same way as in the medical
books that were used as sources for the materials. (2) The subject of voice
is exclusively dealt with in books concerned with music. Hence these
275
books were also referred to. (3) Books concerned with logic also formed
part of the source since they cover the definitions of speech and language
and the propagation of sound. (4) Books on grammar deal with phonetics
and the rules of pronounciation, so these were aso used. (5) In addition,
since the vedas, upanisats, samhitas, and puranas are supposed to be the
oldest available Indian literature, these were also consulted.
Some of the books may not be mentioned in the body of the paper,
since the materials taken from several books were the same. The selection
of speech and hearing subjects in the books mentioned above was carried
out as follows:
In some books, an index was available. Most of the books concerned
with medicine include a separate chapter concerned with the diseases of
the ear, their etiology, symptomatology, and treatment. So, selecting the
subject concerned with hearing was done mainly from these chapters. But
the same was not true for speech pathology. It is nowhere dealt with as
an independent chapter. Voice disorders are mentioned separately in
some books. For the other areas under speech pathology, the chapters
dealing with neurological disorders and their treatment were mainly referred to, because speech disorders and their treatments were mentioned
in them.
When no index was available, the books were scanned from beginning
to end and anything concerned with speech and hearing was collected.
Translation from Sanskrit to English was done as follows: (1) Whenever
a Sanskrit-English
translation was available, it was used. Sometimes it
was modified when the present investigator felt that the original translations were not clear. (2) When translations were not available, they have
been done by the investigator. (3) Whenever extra difficulties were encountered, professional help was sought. (4) When suitable translations
were not obtained by the abovementioned
methods, the following were
used as guides: (i) Sanskrit-English
Dictionary by Monier Williams; (ii)
Indian Materia Medica by A. K. Nadkami. (5) When equivalent terms
were not found in English, the Sanskrit terms were retained. For the
transliteration, the system used by Julius Jolly was used, since it is the
one most commonly used (Appendix A).
Those Sanskrit verses that could not be understood by any of the above
five methods were left untouched. For some words that have two or three
meanings, the appropriate meaning was obtained by consulting a professional person. For some words like v%ta, pitta, etc., where direct translations like wind, bile, etc., were found useless, interpretations of these
were obtained from modem books.
In some verses, when the meaning of a particular word could not be
properly understood, that word was left untranslated. But when the same
situation was met with in the verses that deal with the treatment and hence
mention names of medicinal herbs, the whole verse was not translated,
as it would have severely hindered the meaning.
S. R. SAVITHRI
276
Areas such as piercing the ear and surgery concerned with the mistakes
done in piercing were not included in the present review.
DISEASES IN GENERAL
Health is defined by Caraka as a state in which the function-structure
relationship is in a state of equilibrium.
SuSruta defines health as follows: He is known as healthy in whom
the threefold functions of the body are in a state of equilibrium and the
basic and supporting tissues are in a proper state of integrity, whose soul,
sense organs and the mind are clear and bright.2 These definitions of
health lay emphasis on the physical, mental, and spiritual constituents of
an individual. In contrast disease is defined as follows: Disease is the
imbalance of the function-structure
relationship.
Caraka says that
health is characterized by a sense of ease and pleasure and disease is
characterized by a sense of pain.3
All diseases are classified under the following seven categories, according to Susruta:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Adibalapravata (hereditary);
Janmabalapravcta
(congenital);
Dosabalapravltta (chemical);
Sanghatabalapravltta
(traumatic);
K%labalapra@ta (seasonal);
Daivabalapraltta (parasitic);
Svabhivabalapravltta
(natural).4
~dibalupruv@z.
The origin of diseases included under this heading is
attributed to defects inherent in either the male or the female reproductive
elements that form the primary factor of the embryo, for example: leprosy,
hemorrhoids, etc.5
Junmabulupruv~tu.
comprise congenital
of the mother during
such as congenital
dwarfism, etc. This
of
Do~ubulupruvgtu.
These include the disease that are due to the disturbed action of the three dosfis-vata,
pitta, and kapha. These are disturbed owing to errors in diet. They are of two types:
1. Amacaya (part of tthe stomach where food is not yet digested). This
is of two types: (a) physical, and (b) psychological
2.
SCIENCE IN ANCIENT
INDIA
277
Pakkacaya (part of the stomach where food is converted into constituent elements of the body like blood, flesh, etc). This is also of
two types: (a) physical (b) psychological.
a subcategory called neurological disorder is menincluded both speech and hearing disorders. Howspeech and hearing disorders are also mentioned
congenital diseases.
Sa~ghtitabalupr~vflta.
Diseases belonging to this category include
those caused by trauma such as external and internal injuries, due to blows
or inflicted by sharp instruments, or due to overstrain by wrestling with
opponent of superior strength. These are of two types:
1. Diseases caused by external injuries;
2. Diseases caused by the bite of a wild animal or poisonous
reptile.6
Kdabalapravflta.
These include diseases that are caused by meteorological changes such as variations in the atmospheric temperature, humidity, dryness, rain, wind, and changes in seasons. These again are of
two types:
278
S.
R. SAVITHRI
The actions of Kapha are smooth working of the joints, general stability
of the body, build, strength, courage, and greedlessness.14
Hence it not only includes mental phenomena such as courage and understanding, but also
bodily phenomena such as production of bodily strength and maintenance of smooth working
of joints. These are included under the activities of the skeletal and anabolic systems. So
the word kapha includes or refers to the activities of skeletal and anabolic systems.
These three-vata,
pitta, and kapha-are
designated as dosas because
of the capacity to vitiate others or of themselves vitiated by other factors.
They are also known as dhatu, which means an essential element, a constituent, a humor, or a supporter.
These three do@ are found everywhere in the body. There are however, certain areas in the body that are stated to be their special seats.
The seat of vata is the umbelicus, that of pitta is between the umbelicus
and the heart, and that of kapha is above the heart.
Whatever may be the nature of exciting factors of the disease, the actual
intrinsic factors that become excited are the three do@. Hence, a state
of disease arises when the action of any of these three is disturbed.
SPEECH PATHOLOGY
Communication is mainly with the help of speech. Hence the action of
the whole universe is solely based on sounds.
and
SCIENCE IN ANCIENT
INDIA
Normal speech is defined as that which is not insufficient and redundant, not meaningless, not incoherent, not inconsistent and which contains sufficiently expressive and suitable words and is unobjectionable.
More emphasis is laid on meaning in another definition: A good speech
is that which has sense and which is unequivocal, fair, pleonastic, smooth,
determinative, not bombastic, agreeable, truthful, not harmful, refined,
not too brief, not hard to understand, not unsystematic, not far-fetched,
not superfluous, not inopportune and not devoid of an object.*
In addition to these qualities, if its words are neither inadequate nor
redundant then it is said to be excellent speech.
With further emphasis on communication clear speech is defined as
that in which there is agreement between it on the one hand and the
speaker and the listener on the other. A speech, though clear to the
speaker himself, if uttered without any regard for the listener produces
no impressions in the latter.
The description of a speaker he alone is a speaker who employs words
which, while expressing his own meaning, are also understood by his
1istenerl also conveys the same awareness of the importance of speech
being appropriate to the listener.
It can also be noted that speech, if it is to be free from faults of
judgment, should not be prompted by lust, wrath, fear, greediness, crookedness, shamefulness or conceit.
Speech has been categorized into three grades; Normal, good and excellent. Table 1 indicates
the characteristics that go to form normal, good, and excellent speech. The plus and minus
signs in the table indicate, respectively, the presence or absence of that characteristic.
Table 1.
Characteristics
Meaning
Amount of information
Efftciency
Intelligibility
Acceptability
Nonredundancy
Moral values
Appropriateness for situation
Aesthetic values
Normal
sneech
Good
soeech
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
Excellent
soeech
280
S. R. SAVITHRI
and moral values of speech. These definitions also consider the speaker,
the listener, the message, and the situation but not articulation and voice.
But it is not as if the ancient writers were unaware of the speech process.
It can be noted that Rama compliments Hanumanthas speech in terms
of articulation, gestures, and facial expression, in addition to choice of
words, grammar, and scholarship. 23 Description of defective speech also
indicates this awareness. Further, the ancient writers have described articulatory phonetics in detail.
Defective Speech.
Speech is said to be defective where there is insufficiency, redundancy or want of meaning or misjoinder in utterances.24
Redundancy is repetition of matter that is even relevant. It may be of two
kinds: Repetition of meaning and repetition of words.25 Repetition of
meaning is where one insists on different words expressive of the same
meaning and repetition of words is a repeated use of the same word.26
Unmeaningfulness
is where speech affords no sense but consists of a
group of letters.27 NZlg&juna defines defective speech in a similar
way.2m
Incoherence is a combination of words each of which has a meaning,
but the meanings are not connected with each other. For example, curdsfamily-Diamond-sun etc.28
It is said that shyness, fear, extreme loudness, indistinctness, undue
nasalization, repressed tone, undue cerebralization, nonobservance to the
places of articulation, improper accent, harshness, creating undue separation between words, uneven tone, haste, and palatalization are the 14
faults in a reader.2p
The words indistinct, undue nasalization, undue cerebralization,
nonobservance
of places of articulation, and palatalization refer to the articulation component of speech
and hence any defect in articulation is considered a speech disorder. The terms extreme
loudness, repressed tone, and harsh tone refer to voice disorder.
281
other voices that are seen to be appropriate to the ancestral lines of persons, however much they may differ from normal, should be regarded as
normal voices.31 In summary, the pitches of persons that resemble the
pitches of these birds and instruments are considered to be normal. It is
also clearly said that if a particular group of people have been using a
particular voice, it should be considered normal, thus giving importance
to social values and group norms. As far as this definition goes, society
is apparently the best judge of the normalcy of voice.
In contrast, the following voices when observed in patients are regarded
as abnormal: 1) that which resembles the voice of a parrot, 2) that which
is very low, 3) that which is totally choked in its utterance, 4) that which
is indistinct, 5) that which is half-uttered, 6) that which is weak, 7) that
which is uttered with pain, and 8) that which is the result of repeated
efforts.32
Any deviation in pitch, clarity, or loudness, is a voice disorder. Ease of utterance is also
regarded as one of the factors in normal voicing. Organic conditions are considered as well.
Production of Voice
The production
philosophy:
of voice is described
as follows according
to Indian
S. R. SAVITHRI
282
The soul inspires the mind, which being set into action, activates the
fire in the body. This fire stimulates the wind.38 The stimulated wind in
the brahmagranthi travels upward [There are three granthis (glands), situated in the regions of the stomach (diaphragm?), chest, and head, among
which the brahmagranthi is the one situated in the region of stomach
(diaphragm?)]. This air while traveling upwards generates n&da (an allpervading eternal sound) at the levels of the stomach, heart, throat, head,
and tongue (mouth).39
The nada produced at these different levels are named differently. That
generated at the level of the stomach is designated as atisiik$ma (fine)
and that generated at the level of heart is called stiksma (minute). At the
level of the throat it is known as apqfa (soft). Pqta (loud) is the name
given to it at the level of the head and k$rima (artificial) at the level of
the tongue.&
The words atisOkSma and siik$ma convey that the n&la at the levels of stomach (diaphragm?) and heart is so minute that it is inaudible under normal conditions, whereas that
generated at the level of the tongue is perfect, loud, and rich.
It is said that the whole universe is filled with n&da. Hence ntida may
be thought of as a sound that is not audible, or it may be an all-pervading,
preexisting condition of sound that may not be audible.
(artha)
(indriya)
(indriya
adhistana)
..
(mana)
(Htma)
SPEECH
AND HEARING
SCIENCE
IN ANCIENT
INDIA
283
Applying this to speech perception: The Sensory object (sound) reaches the sensory nerve
(auditory nerve) through the sensory apparatus (the ear). From the sensory nerve it reaches
the storage or memory and from there it goes to the mind and soul, after which sound is
perceived.
Sound is said to be perceived when the sound (speech), the mind, and
the soul unite. This is summarized in Figure 2.
Sound is defined as a quality perceived by the ear.45 Nyaya-vaiSeSika
theories distinguish three vaieties of sound in view of the three kinds of
causes that may produce them. These are (1) sound caused by contact
(samyogaja), (2) sound caused by disjunction (vibhagaja), and (3) sound
caused by another sound (Sabdaja).&
The first variety arises when a drum is beaten by a stick. The second
variety arises when a bamboo is split. The third variety is to be found in
the series of sounds successively arising in the space (CikaSa) intervening
between a drum, for instance, and the sense of hearing. In Indian philosophy, a considerable measure of speculative value is attached to the
Nyaya theory of Sabdaja Sabda or series of successive and exactly similar
sounds arising in a continuous chain, beginning with the first sound,
caused in the portion of space determined by the substance that is struck,
such as a drum, and ending with the last sound, caused in the portion of
space representing the sense of hearing, which is actually heard.47
The naiyayikas explain the way in which the sound series is produced
by means of two illustrations: (1) illustration of a little wave and a big
wave (Vicitaranga nyaya), and (2) illustration of the flowering of a kadamba filament (Kadamba mukula nyaya).
These two illustrations suggest two ways of explaining how a sound is
heard on all sides and in all the ten directions, including the intermediate
points and up and down, A little circular wave springs up: around it a
bigger wave arises; around it a still bigger wave, and so on. In this way,
a circular wave of sound is caused around it, a bigger sound wave and
so on, until at least a certain sound wave is produced in such a way that
it reaches the sense of hearing, which may be ready to perceive the sound.
In this explanation there is only one series consisting of several circular
sound waves each moving outward in all the ten directions. The second
explanation is illustrated by the kadamba flower, in which one filament
first shoots up, thus causing several filaments to shoot up simultaneously
in all the parts of the flower. In the same way the first sound produced
(vlk)
(karlfa)
indriyI
dhiafana
(mana)
(Htma)
S. R. SAVITHRI
284
According tciPitch
Some consider that there are seven different pitches. These are Sadja,
Eabha, gandhara, madhyama, paticama, dhaivata, and ni@da.52 These
seven correspond to the notes used in the musical scales. Others accept
only three pitches, udatta (high), anudatta (low), and svarita (high-low).53
However, of the seven pitchs mentioned, n&&da, and gandhara arise
in the high pitch and hence can be included under udatta. Similarly $abha
and dhaivata arise in low pitch and can be included under unudatta. Sadja,
madhyama, and paiicama can be included under svarita(?). Variations in
pitch lead to variations in inflection, thus changing the meaning of a
sentence.
In an utterance there can be nine kinds of inflections, which are as
follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
285
Amding
Quantity is the time taken for the utterance of speech sounds. On the
basis of quantity vowels were classified as short (Hpsva), long (dirgha),
and prolated (pluta). 57 Those sounds that are uttered in the time of one
matra (a unit of time) were called hrasva, those that took two matras for
their utterance were called dirgha, and those which took three matras
were termed pluta.58
The stop and nasal consonants were considered to be I/q, 1/2, and
1 matra by various authors.59 Paniniya Siksa opines that voiced consonants
were one-half the duration of voiceless consonants.m
S. R. SAVITHRI
WrSa)
Wta
(velar
glottal?)
T%hl
(palatai)
Miirdhna
(cerebral/
retoflex)
Dan@
(dentals)
Osta
(lab&)
Dantosta
(labiodental)
KalJtat&l
(palatovelar)
Kantosta
(velarlabial)
Vowels
(Svara)
Unvoiced
(aghosa)
Voiced
(ghosa)
Nasals
(nasika)
k, kh
g, gh
it
c, ch
j,jh
?Sh
P, dh
I?
t, th
d, dh
P, ph
b, bh
Semivowels
(Antastha)
Sibilants
(usma)
h
e,ai
0,au
of /d/ and /dh/ sounds the venal plexus in the neck surrounded by 105
veins is responsible. 64The /r/ sound is produced with the help of the venal
plexus in the lips, which is surrounded by 16 veins.65 The venal plexus
in the dental region is surrounded by 30 veins and is helpful in the production of lksl. S The two venal plexuses in the palatal region are surrounded by one vein each and are responsible for the production of the
/s/ sound.67 The venal plexus in the vacaspati region(?) is surrounded by
the veins and is responsible for the production of /l/.68 Surrounded by
the two veins, the plexuses in the region of the salivary glands activate
the production of the /y/ sound.69
This has not been dealt with in any other text. West, Annsberry, and Cat-r (1956) attribute
the production of different sounds to the action of different muscles, supplied by nerve
endings, whereas here it is considered that venal plexuses in different regions are responsible
for the production of sounds. However, it is not clear whether the word sir& in this context
refers to vein or nerve ending.
1.
2.
3.
4.
287
Internal effort is the effort made before the production of speech sounds
within the oral cavity. It refers to the degree of contact between the
articulator and place of articulation and the degree of opening between
the articulator and the place of articulation.
In the production of stop and nasal consonants, there will be close
contact between the articulator and the place of articulation. This effort
is termed Sp@a.
In the production of semivowels the articulator approaches the place
of articulation and a slight contact will be made. This effort is known as
isatsp@a. 73 While producing sibilants and vowels the mouth is open and
the effort is termed vivrta.74 In the production of the /a/ sound, the mouth
is contracted and this &fort is known as Sarhvlta.75
External efforts of eleven types were mentioned: (1) samv&ra, (2) vivka, (3) Svasa, (4) n&da, (5) ghosa, (6) aghosa, (7) alpaprana, (8) mahaprana, (9) udatta, (10) anudatta, and (11) svarita.76 External efforts are the
efforts taking place after the production of (mental) speech sounds. Sarhvka and Viv&ra are the efforts related to the movement of the vocal cords.
Samvara denotes the closure (contraction, vibration) and vivka denotes
the open status of the vocal cord. For voiced sounds vocal cords will be
vibrating or perform an effort called sarhv&ra, and for voiceless speech
sounds they are wide open or perform the effort viv?ua.76a Svasa/aghosa
and nada/ghosa are the efforts concerned with the type of source utilized
in speech sound production.
In the production of voiced speech sounds the vocal cords vibrate (perform the effort samvara) and thus modify the airstream. Hence modified
air forms the source for voiced speech sounds. This effort is termed nada/
ghosa. In the production of voiceless speech sounds, the vocal cords are
wide open (perform the effort vivara) and the airstream is not modified
at the level of glottis, or the unmodified airstream passes through the
glottis. This effort is termed Svasa/aghosa.76b Alpaprana and MahiiprQa
are the efforts concerned with the amount of air utilized in speech sound
production. Alpaprana is when the volume of air utilized is less and mahapr&na is when the volume of air utilized is more. /k/, /g/, /c/, /j/, /t/,
Id/ It/, Id/, lpl, lb/ are considered to utilize less air and /khl, lghl, /&I,
/jh/, /th/, /dh/, /th/, /dh/, /ph/, /bh/ and sibilants are considered to utilize
more air.76c
Udatta, anudatta, and svarita are the efforts taking place when high,
low, and high-low pitches are produced. In the production of high-pitched
voice the effort involved is udatta, i.e., when the speech organs are stiff-
288
S. R. SAVITHRI
ened, the aperture of the vocal cords become small, and air travels fast,
and the voice is hard and high pitched, then the effort taking place is
termed udatta.76d When the speech organs are loosened, the aperture
of the vocal cords is expanded, the air travels slowly, and voice becomes
soft and low pitched then the effort taking place is termed anudatta.76
When in a syllable first udatta or high pitch is used and then anudatta
or low pitch is used, then it is termed svarita.76f
These three efforts apply only to the vowels as pitch applies only to
them. Hence any vowel can be intoned in any pitch.
effort,
289
It can be noted that both high-excited-fast and low-excited-slow intonations are said to be
of use in rejoinder, which is either a contradiction or an indication of acceptable alternatives.
These descriptions of intonation and pauses have been taken from the
treatise on dramatics, and refer primarily to instructions to actors in the
use of speech in drama. It is not clear whether they are based on the
observation of intonation of different people, or are stylistic devices following accepted patterns.
290
S. R. SAVITHRI
of harmony between the sense and object (hence one cannot hear, speak,
feel, etc.), or effects of time.
Most of the speech disorders come under the category of neurological
disorders. Hence, in general it can be considered that speech is disturbed
whenever the functions of the central or sympathetic nervous system is
impaired. Specifically, the causes of speech disorders are as follows:
Causes of V&s&ga. SuSruta is of the opinion that bulb poison causes
vaksariga. 88 Carrying heavy weight, making too many jokes, and chewing
hard substances disturbs the neural force and this leads to asymmetry of
the face. The patient looks as though he is laughing. His head starts shaking. Sneezing will be suppressed. He develops hearing loss, loss of sense
of smell, and amnesia, and he will have v&ksa.riga.89
When both the functions of the central and the sympathetic nervous
systems and thermogenesis are attenuated, the doss (kapha) concerned
with the functions of thermogenesis (heat regulation) brings on suppression of voice and v&ksatiga.gO (According to the Indian system of medicine, it will be recalled, there are three dosas in the body maintaining the
state of health. Kapha is one of them.)
This can be compared with some Western statements. Seeman (1934)
constructed a theory of the nature and causes of stuttering based on the
malfunctioning of the subcortical areas of the brain. He believes that the
sympathetic part of the autonomous nervous system becomes hyperactive, in part because of emotional stress or because of lack of inhibition
from the cortex, and that this produces disturbances in all of their fundamental processes on which the speech is based.
Sovak (1935) gave adrenalin to stutterers, which increases sympathetic
arousal, and found that his stutterers got worse, while pilocarpin, which
activates the parasympathetic system, caused a reduction of stuttering.
The ancient Sanskrit scholars, however, opine that the reduced action
of the sympathetic nervous system causes stuttering, whereas the theory
of Seeman states the opposite. Perhaps there is a certain optimum level
of action for the sympathetic nervous system (for each individual), above
and below which stuttering may be caused.
In hemiplegia or paralysis of one side of the body, the neural force
seizes the nerves controlling the function of one side of the body and
produces loss of movement, pain, and v5iksatiga.
SCIENCE IN ANCIENT
INDIA
291
Causes of Miikata(Speechlessness)
This may be either congenital or acquired. The congenital diseases follow
such causes as chemical inbalance in the mother and ungratified cravings
of the mother during pregnancy. This can produce deafness, blindness,
and miikata in the child.95 The woman who is addicted to sweets gives
birth to a child that is mentally retarded or unable to speak% (mtikam).
Faults caused by defects of the womb, timing and defects of food, and
defects in the movement of the mother during the period of gestation cause
defects of the body, complexion, or organs (both of sense and action) in
the embryo. Hence the child will be unable to speak.97
Among the acquired causes, snake bite is found to cause loss of speech
in most cases.98 A strongly provoked neural force localized in the back,
the sides of the neck, and constricting the external vessels, causes a bowlike ridigity of the body, which is called dhanustamba (tetanus). The body
being bent like a bow, the head of the patient gets retracted, almost touching his back, and his chest is thrown forward, the sides of the neck become
rigid, and there is a squeezing pain the neck. The attack c%tises speechlessness (vaggraha), or it may even kill the patient.This may either refer to aphasia or stuttering as a form of tetany. A number of researchers
have investigated the biochemistry of stuttering-primarily
the composition of the blood,
urine, and saliva. The rationale for these studies has usually been that these secretions,
which are controlled primarily by the autonomic nervous system, might reveal an organic
pathology or malfunctioning of that system that could make the person more prone to stutter.
Stuttering is characterized by excessive tension, or clonic and tonic behaviors. So also is
tetany, a calciometabolic imbalance that results in hyperirritability of neuromuscular activity
causing clonic and tonic spasms. Tetany may also be latent, appearing only under stress.
Kopp (1934) in his biochemical study of blood composition in stutterers, interpreted his data
as supporting the concept of stuttering as a term of latent tetany. Shackson (1936) interprets
his results as indicating a possible latent tetany in stutterers.
From eating dry substances, from any external injury, the neural force
in the temporomandibular
space is disturbed, and this causes dislocation
of the temporomandibular joint. In this condition one cannot take food,
nor can one close or open the mouth. One will be unable to speak (abhasanaxh).OO When there is a ranula on the tongue, the patient will not
be able to speak (vakyavighata) . lo1
Specific kinds of food are also thought to cause speech disorders. For
example, meat of domesticated animals, of those that live in marshy regions, and of those that are acquatic should not be consumed in conjunction. With honey, lotus stalks, seseme oil, molasses, milk, garden
radish, and paddy that have put forth sprouts. If these are consumed,
diseases such as deafness, rigidity, loss of speech (miikata), and nasal
voice (minmina) are caused. It may even lead to death.lo2
In the second and third stages of alchoholic drunkenness and in the
292
S. R. SAVITHRI
coma stage, one loses ones speech and loses control over all ones
actions. lo3
Improper administration of oil to the parts of the body causes stoppage
of speech.lM When the tongue is paralyzed it causes inability to take food
and to speak. A hysterical patient will also lose his speech.lM
Facial Palsy (Arditah). This has been known to result from excessive
hemorrhage or loss of blood. The neural force that is disturbed by continuous talking in an extremely loud voice, chewing of hard substances,
loud laughter, yawning, carrying extremely heavy loads, and lying down
in an uneven position on the ground, lodges in the region of the head,
nose, upper lip, chin, forehead and the joints of the eye and produces
facial palsy (arditam).13 Old and enfeebled persons, infants, and pregnant
women are most prone to fall victims to this disease.l14
SYMPTOMS. The neck and half of the face longitudinally suffer distortion
and the head shakes. One will be having misarticulations. Eyes are distorted. Portions of the neck and the chin as well as the teeth on the affected
side become painful. *
SuSruta refers to it as facial palsy (arditam) where one half of the face is paralyzed. Caraka
uses the term arditam when one or both halves of the face are paralyzed.
293
PREMONITORYSYMPTOMS.The disease usually commences with shivering, dimness of vision, anaesthesia, a pricking pain in the affected locality, and paralysis of the jaw or of the cervical muscles of the neck.16
PROGNOSIS.
When the patient is very old and exhibits such symptoms
as unblinking vision, or misarticulated speech that barely seems to come
out of the throat and when it persists for more than three years, it will
have a very poor prognosis. 1l7
Treatment of Speech and Language Disorders
Preventive and curative treatments have been advocated. Preventive
treatments are those that cause the speech of a child to be clear and that
prevent any speech disorder that may occur in time. These are given to
the child usually at an early age. Curative treatments are those that are
given to overcome existing speech and language disorders. They are administered during the course of the disorder. This may further be of two
types, medical and surgical. Drugs are used in some of the disorders such
as misarticulation, voice disorders, mtikata, and vakstambha. Surgery is
advised in cases of cleft lip. The following preventive measures were
advised:
1. Tongue exercises: Tongue exercises such as the lateral movement,
elevation,
and protrusion
of the tongue
help in speech
development. *
2. Drinking clarified butter daily helps in improving voice, strength,
and complexion and lengthens the life.19
3. One who has taken oil and digested it already should avoid physical
exercises, loud speech, exposure to cold and heat, and all places
that are breezy. izo
4. Bitter things should be consumed very often as they have the capacity to enhance speech.*
5. One should suppress the rising impulses of harshness and speech
that is disagreeable to others.**
6. The companionship of those who are sinful in conduct and speech
should be avoided. *29
Curative
Treatment.
1. Treatment
2. Treatment
294
S. R. SAVITHRI
gargling with tepid oil, use of oily errhines, use of meat soup, milk, and
clarified butter, use of oil or other food, use of all kinds of acid fruits,
salt and lukewarm washes, gentle massage and use of saffron, wearing
of wool, silk, cotton, or any other thick kind of garments, living in a warm
room or in one not exposed to air or in an inner chamber, and use of a
soft bed. 12
oil of Chagaladya
This is very useful in cases of miikata, minmina (nasal voice), and gadgada
(misarticulation/stuttering?).126
In diseases brought about by improper administration of oils, the following are the treatments:
1. Vomiting by administration of emetics;
2. Production of perspiration through heat; and
3. Abstention from food till the oils taken are digested.27
In conditions where speech is obstructed, thin gruel prepared with ghee
and meat, application of medicated ghee, oil, fat, which serves to lubricate
the body, and application of heat are useful.28
Treatment of M&ata
Kaficika mixed with salt should be gargled. Aniseed, brahma beeja, and
salt of equal proportions should be mixed with the same proportion of
achorus calamus and should be made into a paste with ghee and honey.
Ten grams of this should be taken after the consumption of milk with
rice. The person who does not have any speech and who takes this becomes such a good speaker as to master thousands of books.129
KaIyiiqaka leha
295
voice disorders, honey mixed with ghee should be given. Rice can be
mixed with milk and taken, after which ghee should be consumed.13*
Clarified butter should be constantly used with milk in these cases.133 In
cases of the kaphaja types of voice disorders, gargling of salts and bitter
elements is very useful. By this the phlegm in the neck, tongue, and roof
of the teeth will come out and the voice becomes clear.134 Powders of
pungent drugs can be taken with oil and honey in these cases.13
In cases where one has a high-pitched voice, milk prepared with the
drugs of the madhura group, fried bengalgram, and honey should be mixed
and taken.36
An oil called nar-ayana taila is said to be of use in cases of
misarticulation. 13
Devadaru, honey, and seeds -of brinjal egg plant made into a paste is
very good in cases of lisping/stuttering (vacaskalana).13
Surgery for Cleft Lip. SuSruta and Vagbhata mention cleft lip and describe the surgical procedures in such cases. Vagbhala opines that the
two borders of the separated lip should be brought close and stitched.
SuSruta describes rhinoplasty, which he states can be applied in cases of
cleft lip also.
Most of the treatments are purely medical in nature. It is noteworthy that the theory and
treatment correlate with eachsother. But the treatments of voice disorders appear to be like
those for colds and coughs. However, without experimental testing of these medicines, no
definite conclusions can be drawn regarding their use.
AUDIOLOGY
Diseases of the Eur. According to Caraka, Susruta, and most of the
other authors, there are 28 types of ear diseases. In addition to these
Madhavacarya and Vaghbhata mention parilehi and kucikarqaka.
The 28 diseases are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
tube);
S. R. SAVITHRI
2%
14. Arbudam (tumors)-seven
types;
15. Sotha (swelling or inflammatory
types.39
condition
of the ears)-four
in the ear,
SCIENCE IN ANCIENT
INDIA
297
S. R. SAVITHRI
TREATMENT
OF EAR DISEASES
The treatment of the ear diseases can be dealt with in two broad categories, namely, general treatment and treatment of particular diseases.
This section deals with both the general treatment and the treatment of
specific diseases, which include medical and surgical lines of treatment.
SPEECH
AND HEARING
SCIENCE
1.NANCIENT INDIA
299
General Treatment. In most of the ear diseases the following are usually
advised: use of ghee, renunciation of all sorts of physical exercises, baths
without immersing the head, abstinence from talkativeness. 167
Treatment of Earache, Tinnitus, Deafness and Labyrinth&is. In cases
of earache, application of fomentation with the fumes of barley, and bamboo boiled in kanala (fermented rice gruel) is very helpful.168
A bowl-shaped cup should be made with the leaves of Asvattha soaked
in curds and it should be heated by flames of charcoal fire. The oil thus
obtained should be used as an ear drop. This gives instantaneous relief
in cases of earache. The affected ear should be fumigated with the fumes
of burning pieces of linen cloth and with clarified butter and bdelium mixed
together. 169
A rice diet should be forgone in the night and clarified butter with milk
should be taken. The Sata pakavala oil should be prescribed as Sirovasti.
It may also be given internally in cases of earache.17
In case of tinnitus and labyrinthitis the following is the treatment: Oil
should be first administered and the patient should be purged with purgatives. He should be given antibiotics in the manner of nadi sweda (fomentation through a pipe). 17
Treatment of Deafness. Oil cooked with water, milk, and bilva and
made into a paste with cows urine should be used as an ear drop. Oil
should first be cooked with goats yastimadhu and vimbi fruit. When
cooked down, it should be churned by hand and the oil should be separated. The oily part, after being stirred in the decoction of bilva, should
again be cooked with milk weighing ten times and sugar, yasfimadhu(?),
and sandal wood. It should be thickened and used as an ear drop in these
cases.172
Treatment of Discharge, Vermin-Znfested Ears, Fetid Discharge. Erhines, fumigations, and cleaning of the cavity of the ear are employed.
The affected ear should be washed with the decoction of the drugs of the
rajavcksadi or the surasadi group and filled with powders of these drugs. 173
In case of discharge, the cavity of the ear should be filled with the
powders of the pafica kasaya drugs mixed with honey and juice of
kapitta. 174
RasMjana rubbed and dissolved in breast milk and mixed with honey
is very efficient even in chronic and long-standing cases of fetid
discharge. 17
Fumigation with the fumes of vartaku or mustard oil, administration of
emetics, smoke, inhalation, and gargles are beneticial.N
300
S. R. SAVITHRI
301
302
S. R. SAVITHRI
A: SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION
an
ai
au
t
kh
ah
sh
v
B
ch
Ep
jh
R
th
i5
dh
a
th
dh
(9
ph
v;
bh
I thank Dr. N. Rathna, Director, Ali Yavar Jung National Institute for the Hearing Handicapped, Bombay, Dr. S. Nikam, Head, Department of Audiology, AIISH, Mysore, Dr. B.
G. Gopinath, Lecturer, P. G. Section, Government College of Indian Medicine, Mysore. I
also thank Vidwan Seshachala Sharma, Assistant Professor, Maharajas Sanskrit College,
Mysore, Dr. Surendracarya, Lecturer, Department of Anatomy, Government College of
Indian Medicine, Mysore, and Mr. Samba Murthy, Head, Department of Sanskrit, Yuvarajas College, Mysore.
SELECTED
BIBLIOGRAFHY
and exhibition
Oxford University
held at Mysore
1936
Press.
Poona: Bhandarkar
Institute
SPEECH
AND HEARING
SCIENCE
IN ANCIENT
INDIA
303
Poona: Bhandarkar
In-
Sree Bhar-
Bharatamuni (100 B.C to 200 A.D; 1967). Bharata ndfya Sdstra. Calcutta: Granthalaya, Pvt.Ltd.. Calcutta.
Bhattoji diksita (1600 A.D; 1941). Vaiyydkaraga
Bombay Sanskrit Press.
Bhavamisra,
Bodhisatva
Siddhtinta Kaumudi.
Calcutta:
Calcutta Press.
Bombay:
&istra.
Varanasi:
Chaukamba
Bombay: Nimaya
Sanskrit
Sagara Press.
C. (1959). Introduction
Principles ofAyurveda.
to Kriyacikitsti. Bombay:
Popular
Linguistics.
Calcutta: Narayana
Jinendrabuddhi
(725-750 A.D; 1913). KtiSika Vivaranaparijik&
dra Research Society of Rajshah.
Jolly, J. (1951). Indian Medicine.
to Descriptive
(1896). Rasendrasrirasatigrahafi.
Oriental
New York:
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Rajshah: Varen-
Poona.
Bhisagratna
Bombay:
Kgnadvaipayana
Vyasa (900 A.D; 1966). Aghipurlinati.
Sanskrit Series.
Ladefoged, P. (1975). A Course in Phonetics.
anovich, Inc.
Lolimbaraja
Varanasi:
Chaukamba
Brace Jov-
Ayurveda Khanqati.
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304
Williams, M. (1963). Sanskrit-English
Nadkami,
I.
Dictionary. London:
University
Press.
Narasimha Sastri (1570 A.D; 1953). Vaidya Srirusumgruhuh. Madras: Govemment Oriental Manuscripts Library, Vol. II.
Nayana Suka (1593 A.D), Vuidyamunotsuvu.
Nftgesa Bhafla (1670-1750 A.D; 1935). Muhdbhdsyaprudipodyotu.
inatha Press.
Kashi: Kash-
Kashi: Kashinatha
Ravaqa (1924).
Publishers.
Ticumbji
Nudipuriksci.
Bombay:
Vaidya
Jadavji
Acharya
Rockey, D., and Johnstone, P. (1979). Medieval Arabic views on speech disorders: al-Razi (c. 865-925), J. Commun. Disord. 12:232 (line 24), 240 (lines 7
and 34).
Satish Chat&a Vidya Bhusan (1971). A History of Indian Logic. Delhi: Motilal
Banarasidas Publishers.
Sartigadeva
Press.
(900-1300 A.D;
Calcutta:
Sartigadhara
Press.
B.C.;
1903). Athurvuvedu
Prritisrikhyum.
Century
A.D).
Baneres:
Cikitsdkriliku.
Lahore:
New Arya
Yantra
Press.
Benares:
Vidya
Ayurvedic
Bombay: Nimaya
Sagara Press.
Poona: Madadeva
Chimanji Apte
S&igrahal~.
(1894). Rusurutnusumuccuya.
Publishers.
ViSvanatha Patic8nana Bha@&&rya (1553 Saliv8hana Saka) (14% A.D; 1968). Kuritivuli with the muktdvuliof stityundruyupa Sukla. Varanasi: Vidyavilas Press.
Vmda (1854). Vpda Mcidhavu. Poona: Anandasrama
Vedavyasa
(1967). Mahdbhdruta.
Bombay: Nimaya
Press.
Sagara Press.
Vrajanatha
&ma
SCIENCE
IN ANCIENT
305
INDIA
Navjivana
Press.
West, R., Annsberry, H., and Can-, Rehabilitation of Speech. New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston Inc.
Winitz, H. (1975). From Syllable to Conversation.
Press.
Winternitz, M. (1962). A History ofIndian
University of Calcutta.
Baltimore:
Literature,
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Park
Yajiiavalkya (800-508 B.C.; 1893). Ytfijfiavalkya Sik@, in Siksa Sarhgrahah. Benares: Benares Printing Press.
Books of
UuknownAuthors
Madras: Ramakrishna
siksci. P. Manmohan
Mutt (1920).
University
of Calcutta
(1938).
Tairririya Upani+ar. Madras: Ramakrishna
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Poona: Anandasrama
Mutt (1921).
Press (1888).
The dates stated above are taken from New Catalogue catagorum, University of Madras, Madras. Regarding the dates of vedic literature Wintemitz (1962) states the following:
We cant however, explain the development of the whole of this great literature if we assume as late a date as round about 1200-1500 B.C as its
starting point. We shall probably have to date the beginning of this development about 2000-2500 B.C and the end of it between 750 and 500 B.C.
The more prudent course, however, is to stear clear of any fixed dates and
to guard against the extremes of a stupendously ancient period for a ludicrously modem epoch (pp. 271).
Varma places the PratiSakhyas in the period 500-1500 B.C and the extinct
Siksa literature between 800 and 500 B.C (Allen, 1953, p. 5).
The dates given in the parentheses for Sanskrit treatises in the bibliography
indicate the time of the author and the year of publication, respectively.
However, wherever only one year is provided, it should be considered as
the year of publication and not as the time of the author.
Astatiga kdayarh
Agrii purana
306
S. R. SAVITHRI
A.S.
A.Su.
Apisali Sik@
Ayurveda &itrati
Bharata n@ya Gstrati
B&lattitrati
Cakradatta
Caraka Satihita
KBsik2 Vivaraga paiijika
MahabhBrata
Mgdhava nid&na
PBniniya Sik$t
Sabda Kaustubha
Satigita ratntiara
SuSruta StihitSt
Tarka Stigrahab
Taittiriya UpaniSat
Vaidya manorama
Varqa ratna pradipika Sik@
Vai y y&araea SiddhFmta kaumudi
Viad yasara Safigraha
Yajfiavalkya $ik@
B.N.S.
B.T.
C.D.
C.S.
K.V.P.
M.B.
M.N.
P.S.
S.K.
S.R.
S.S.
T.S.
T.U.
V.M.
V.R.P.S.
V.S.K.
V.S.S.
Y.S.
Sanskrit References
1. . . .
s&nyti
prak#rucyate.
C.S. l-9.2.
2. samado&
sam@riisca samadhZitumalalcriyah
svastha ityabhidiyate. S.S. 1-15.41.
3. VikLo dhatuvaisamyam
meva ca. C.S. l-9.2.
prasannatmendriyaman~
. . . sukhasari?jtiakam&rogyam
vikaro
dhuhkha-
ku@rgaprav~taya&.
tepi
ye mHturapacWt pariga-jatyandhabadhiramiikaminmina
jayante tepi dvividhah. rasak@auhIdapac&rak@ca.
7. dosabalaprav@
ye ataiikasamutpann~
mity&h&a k$%ca tepi dvividhe.
&nn%Sayasamutpanna,h pal&iiSayasamutpannaSca.
punasca dvividha.
sarlra
manasasca. S.S. l-24.5.
8. sanghatabalapravItt&h
ya agantako durbalasya
vidh@ SastrakImh vy&lak$%ca. S.S. l-24.6.
balabuddhigrahat.
tepi dvi-
9. kalabalapraqttah
SCIENCE IN ANCIENT
INDIA
Sitosnavatavarsatapa
prabhainimitta
avyapanna-ka.rt$@sca.
S.S. l-24.7.
vyapannakart~k$%h
307
tepi
dvividhe.
10. daivabalaprav$ta
ye daivadrohat abhisaptaklh
atharvanak@
upasargajasca. tepi dvividhah. vidyudaSanik+b
piSacadik@%ca. punasca dvividhah. samsargaja %kasmikaSca. S.S. 1-24.7.
11. svabhavabalaprav$a
ksutpipasajaram$yunidra
12. utsahocchvasanihSvasaces@
dhatugatih
vayoh karmavik&rajam. C.S. l-18.40.
prabhgayab
samah.
samo mokso
gatimatam
lokayatra pravartate.
Dandins kavyadarsa.
1-3.
pancaitanyar-
arthavadanaparthakath
18. upet&rthamabhinn&rtharh nyayav@tam na cadhikarh. ca&ksnarh na ca sandigdhath vaksyami paramam tatah na gurvaksarasamyuktarh
paratimukhasukath na ca. n@-tath na trivargena viruddam napyasamsk@ir.
na nyiinam
nastasabdam va vyutkramabhihitarh
na ca. sa dosamabhikalpena
niskiuanamahetukarh. M.B. 12-320.87 to 89.
19. upaya kausalya hfiayam.
Chap. 1.
SrotuScaivMmanaScaiva
22. kamatkrodadbhay&llobh8ddainyacc&naryakWadL
anna vaksyami kathaficana. M.B. 12-320.90.
23. nQ-gveda vinitasya . . . . uccfirayati kalyftnim v&un
miki ramay.yana, kiskind&@da.
2-28.
24. atha vakyadosah.
karh, anarthakam,
hritonukrogato
kdayaharsinim.
sa
manv&ladhi-
Sabda-
308
S. R. SAVITHRI
vi% syatpaiicavarga-
27(b). Bodhisatva
Chapter I.
28. aparthakarh
cayujyam&Xrtham
yatha tak-
hathsakrautica
prak@svar@.
nemidundhubhikalavinka
C.S. S-1.16.
vidyadanuktilatonyatha
kakakapo-
vapi nirdisyam%n-
32. edakagrastavyaktagadgadaksamadTnsnukirnastvaturi?th
svaravaikarik~.
yamScapar%nupeksam~opi
vidy&dpragvik$%rabhiitvotpannamiti
prak$ivik$isvar%h vyakhyatah C.S. 5-1.17.
svat%namaSvabhinivI-ttarh.
svaranekatvarh
33. tatra prak@vaikfuikanti
sya canekatvam aprastamiti svaradhik%rah. C.S. 5-1.18.
34. aspastavarnasathyuktatir
bf&Wuh tu kalasvanarh
B.N.S. 25-101.
35. mandasvarasaric%ravyaktavyaktathdviruktavacanarthath.
nak$ath k&t-yam svapnlntitapaparh.
B.N.S. 25-98.
36. VI-ddhanam yojayetpadmarh
gadgadam salilaksararh.
pfuvanusmaraB.N.S. 25-101.
sotha kramadiirdhvapathe
39. brahmagranthisthitah
mtirdhnasyesvavirbhavayate
dhvanim. S. R. 3.4.
40. nadotisiiksmah siiksmasca pustopusfasca
paiicasthana sthitah kramat. S.R. 3.5.
eka-
k$imah
caran.
n%bhikItkaptha-
iti paitcabhidhfuh
datte
paiiC.S.
ce-
SPEECH
AND HEARING
SCIENCE
IN ANCIENT
309
INDIA
44. na ctiekatvath
nfmekath hyekakftlamanekesu
pravartate manah purahsaraqanindriyanyathagrahani
samarthani bhavanti. C.S. l-8.4.
45. Srotragrahyoguno
46. Sabdastrividhah
Sabdajasceti.
adyo
bherldandasamyogajanyah.
dvitiyo
varhse
47. tatra
daladvayavibhfigajanyascamcatasabda
bheryadidesadfuabhya
paryantam dvitiyadi Sabdajah. T.S. dipika, Chap. I.
pacyamane
SrotradeSa-
kadaihbamukulanyayena
va Sabdantarotpattikramena
48. vicitaratiganyayena
Srotre jatasya Srotre sarhbandhat pratyaksasambhavah
T.S. dipika. Chap.
I.
49. orb Siksftrh adhyasyamah. var@ svarah matra balarh sama santfmah ityuktab Siksadhyayah. T.U. 2-2.1 to 32.
50. trisastircatussastirvfi
var@th Sambhumate
mat&h. P.S. 3.
51. vaqMjanayate
svaritasca
gandli&unadhya
svarastrayah.
mapaiicamadaivatanisad-
P.S. 11.
kanthena
Samanath
kuryat
57. hrasvo dhghah pluta iti kfdato niyama aci. P.S. -11.
58. ekamatro hrasvah. dvimatro dirghah trimatro ~1~1%ucyate.
V.S.K.; 23-V.R.P.S.
59. vyafijanamardhamatra.
Y.S.
grlvapadmam
sodasasirav$am.
A.Su. 2-30.
310
S. R. SAVITHRI
64. dadhavarqotpadakarh
kanthadesapadmaxh.
65. rephavaqotpadakamosthapadmath
66. kgavaqajfiapakaih
43.
70. prayatno
vacaspatipradesastharh
rasabandhapadmam
dvidha. abhyantaro
71. Myascaturdha
trimlatsirav+h.
tZlludvayapadmamekaikasiravItarh.
69. yavarnajtiapakarh
73. isatspI#unantasthan~.
2-29.
V.S.K.
A.Su. 2-36.
b&hyasca. V.S.K.
spa.rS%nti.
A.Su. 2-
A.Su. 2-39.
dvisiraqtam.
1-1.9.
sp~legatsp~taviv~asamv~abhedat.
A.%.
dantapanktipradesapadmath
67. savarnotpadakarh
68. lavaqajanakam
paiicasat sirfqtam.
V.S.K.
V.S.K.
1-1.9.
1-1.9.
1-1.9.
74. vivItamtismanlm
1-1.9.
75. hrasvasyavaqasya
prayoge samv@tir.
V.S.K.
1-1.9.
76. bahyaprayatnastvekftdasadha.
vivlah
sathv&rah Svasanadoghoso
papranomahap.priir;la udattanudatta-svaritasceti.
V.S.K. 7-2.1.
ghosol-
1-1.6.
bhavati tada gatrasya nigrahab kanthaviv%rasya cfinutvam svarasya ca vayoh tivragatitvat rauksyath bhavati
tamudattamacaksate.
K.V.P. l-l.6
1-1.6.
SPEECH
AND HEARING
SCIENCE
IN ANCIENT
INDIA
311
hi ekadvicaturaksara
vir-
visamastadartha
hetustaiyah
88. grivadaurbalya
Wiksarigau palakenumataviha.
parinamak&lah.
C.S. 4-2.37.
S.S. 5-12.18.
vs. kuryaccestaniv+h
bhavecca
dtisyodaralirigajustah.
grahanidosah
96. madhuranitya
pramehinarh
mtirhi
dgadavakyam . . . bhav-
cestapranasarh
staimityarh vagnigrahah.
. . . gadgadatvani
S.S. l-24.5.
S.S.
ksi-
312
S. R. SAVITHRI
97. bIjatmakarmasaya
k&lado@rmatustad%h&ravih&radosairkurvanti
idhani duslah sathsthanavarr.tendriya vaik@&. C.S. 42.27.
98. tatra sarvesam s%manyata eva dasm laksanam
miihamanusartum.
S.S. 5-4.44.
vaksyamah
vitah SosayitvaSirfivallh
. . . kuryaddhanustambham
ba99. pIslamany&itZi
hiray?imasajfiakath. capannayamanasya
pIslat nIyate Sirah ura abhipyate
manya stabdha grlva ca nqdyate. da.nt&nti darhSanath jImbha l%lhravaSca
vaggrahah. C.S. 5-23.43 to 45.
100. jihvanirlekhanatyuca
bhasanadabhighatatah.
kupito hanumulasthah
srathsayitvftnilo ham&. karoti viv@syatva mathava samvIt&syat%rh. hanugrahah
sa tena syatk@ra
ccarvanabhasanam.
M.N. vatavyadhinidana.
49.50.
101. adhijihvah
. . . v&kyZih~avighatak$
102. gr&myanupaudakapiSitani
103. avyaktabuddismt$vagvices@
sonmattalil%k@rapraS8ntah.
alasyanidrabhihatomuhusca madyenamattah puntso madena M.N. madatyayanidana
7.
visathjiiah pastime Sete nastakarmakriy&unah
S.S. 6-47.10.
vftgdehamanasfuh
cesfa &ksipyatitalamal%h
sanyasyamtyabalarhjathtum
pranyayatanam&it~.
M.N. mtirchanidatta. 22.
104.
snehavibhramat.
C.S. 1-13.73,
74.
105. .jihvastambhah
satenannapanavz%kyesvanisatL
M.N. vatavyadhinidana.
52.
M.N. vatavy&dhinidana.
30.
A.H. 3-15.31.
106. kapota iva kiijecca nihsamjiiah
sopatantrakal.i.
A.H. 3-15.19.
107. atyuccabhas~avigadhyayanabhighMasamdtisat&
srotassute svaravahegugat@t
sah. S.S. 6-53.7.
108. vatena
prakupita pavanadayah
pratislam hanyussambhavati
capi hi sadvidhah
~snanayan&muwniltravarc~bhinna
aiica. pittena pitavadan&ksipurIsamtitro
tena. S.S. 6-53.8.
satatath kapharuddakaptho
manda Sanairvadati capi diva
vise&.
sarvatmake bhavati sarvavikftrasampadavyaktata
ca vacasastamasadhyarnahuh. S.S. 6-53.9.
110. dupyeta
v&kgayakIte
kgayamapnuyacca
vagesacapi hatavik parivatjaniYale. antargalath svaryamalakgapadaih
cireqa medasca yadvadati digdhagalausthataluh. S.S. 6-53.10.
111. . . . svarabhedorucih
313
ksamasvarah
112. v&tadug@Q Sisuh stanyampibanvatagadaturah
syadbaddavinmtihram&rutah.
M.N. BfdarogBdhyBya. 2.
k@igah
ksinesvas$ksaye.
S.S. 2-1.68.
na sidhyatyarditam
gadham
118. savyapasavyayogena
pratastu vagbhavet.
pravartayedayatnena
sftyath
pibeyuh sarpirartasca
d&has-
jihvam dantagrayorbahih.
vaidyamanorama.
14-23.
vaktram
Sodhayati
himatapau.
. . . sphutikaroti
siicakasyaqtasya
122. parugasyatimatrasya
etvegamutthitath.
C.S. l-7.26.
indriyfqi
marmopahasino
%h&mirvatarogipah.
ca
. . . . C.S. l-
ca. vakyasyakalayuktasya
sticakah kalahapriyah.
123. p&pav@tavaca&atvah
paravcddhidvig&h Sath@. C.S. 1-7.34.
snigdhaih
124. svadv&mlalavanaih
C.D. v&avyadhicikitsa.
22.1.
vatjayedapravatarh
dhfiraylubdh@r
sarv&nevopap&Iayet.
dadyat
snehasvedau
ca bud-
S.
314
132. ksIrannap&nam
dacikitsa. 3.
133. alniyacca
pittenupibet
sarpiratandritah
sasarpiskarh yasfimadhuka
R. SAVITHRI
yasyoccair-
c&its& 120-129.
vacaskalanata
32.
hanti pittami-
venughosopanaihsvanam
M.N. karnaroganidana.
3.
karnayorbh@am
bhavetsrotasi
kaqasamdrava-
148. yadagato
vilayito ghr%muru&haih prapadyate.
tada
satijfiito bhavedvikfuah Siraso bhit&par@. S.S. 6-20.10.
sakaqapratini%ha
makWh.
s&.
S.S.
620.11.
150. ksatabhighataprabhavastu
vidradhirbhavettatha
dosakIn@ punah punah sa
raktapitarqamasra
masravetpratoda
dhQmayatanad&hacosavan.
S.S. 620.12.
SPEECH
AND HEARING
SCIENCE
IN ANCIENT
INDIA
151. bhavetprapakah
152. avedano
vapyathava
20.13, A.H. 6-13.
153. sa sadvidho
savedano
vedanavisesa
bhavanti.
saptitikaqtakah.
vatapittakaphasonitasannipatagantunimittah.
ghanam sravetpiiti
bhavanti.
S.S. 1-17.
156. SlesmaSophah
cosadayascatra
vedanavesesa
vadayascatra
157. sarvavaqavedanah
sannipatajah.
158. pittavatchonitajotikgnasca.
159. pittaraktalaksana
S.S. 6-
kapd-
S.S. 1-17.
S.S. 1-17.
aganturlohitavabhasaSca.
S.S. 1-17.
yaviparyayadbahulatvadva
161. tatra
mandosmata tvaksavatqata
pasophata clmalaksanamuddistam.
Sitasophata sthairyarh
S.S. 1-17.
mandavedanatal-
162. sucibhiriva
163. vedanopasantih
164. garbhenilat
A.H. 6-16.
165. kaphPsIk;kkInrisambhtitassavisarppannitastatah.
parilehiti.
sasmaah.
M.N. kusfarogadhyaya.
lihetsasaskum.
166. atyugraSabdaSravag?itsravanat
167. samanyam
karqarogesu
brahmacaryamakatthanarh.
lip&lim
21.
ghItap%narh rasayanam.
S.S. 6-21.1.
bhav-
avyr%yamoSirahsnanath
S. R. SAVITHRI
168. ftmnitlai~s@rebhirnfqlisvedah
SDlarh nirasyati.
prayojitah.
kaphavatasamutth&nti
karna-
S.S. 621.5.
169. aSvatthapatrakhallarh
vanidhsiya bahupatrakarh.
tail&kramastusamptirqa&
nidadhyricchravanopari.
yattailarhcyavate tasmat. khalladairg&rasHdhitat. tatpr%ptam Sravagopetah sadyo g6hnati vedanti.
ksemagugguluvagurubhih
saghl-tairddhapayeccatarh.
bhaktopari hitarh sarpavastikarmaca
ptijitam.
S.S. 6-21.7-9.
170. niranno nisi tatsarpih pitvoparipayah
mastiske parisecane. S.S. 6-21.10.
. . . . nasye ca
pibet. mtirddhnavastisu
nadisvedairupacaret
172. gavam mtitrena bilv&ni pistva tailam vipacayet. sajalafica sadugdharica badhiryekaqa ptiranarh. sitamadhukavimbobhih
siddharhvajepayasatatha.
siddharir vl bilvanikvathe Sothlbhiitam taruddhIt?am. punah pacedasaksorarh sitlmadhukacandanaih.
bilvarnbugadharh tattailarir badhirye karqaptiranarh.
S.S. 6-21.11-13.
173. SirovirecanSiticaiva dhupanarhpiiramunatha.
sya vlksyavacarayet.
rajavIk;ksldi toyena
39.
174. karnaprak@lanam
kapitthasayojitarh.
pram&janam
surasadiganena
k&yam c0rqairisaiicaptiragarir
S.S. 6-21.40.
ctirnapaticakasayottharh
prasasyate
Sirot-
176. vartakudhtimasca
hitah saqapasneha
eva ca. gugguluh kaqadaurgandhyo
dhtipanarh Srestamucyate. chardanam dhiimap&natica kavadasya ca dhftranarh. S.S. 6-21.49.
177. karnaksvede hitarh tailarh Grgapancaiva ptiranarh. vidradho v&pi km-vita vidradhyuktam cikitsitarh. prakledya dhimamsthailena svedanapravilapya
ca.
Sodhayetkarnarh vitkantu bhisagsamyak Sal&kayl. S.S. 6-21.52, 53.
178. nadisvedotha
vamanarh dhtimomiirddhociricanarh.
sarvah kaqakandtimapohati.
S.S. 6-21.54.
179. atha karnapratinahe snehasvedo prayojayet.
tam samacaret. S.S. 6-21.55.
180. kaqacchidre
vartamanam
vidhisca
tato tiriktasirasah
kitam kledamadadi
kaphaha-
kriyti
prap-
dhanyarasau
V.S.S. 284.
183. abhyantaradirghairkapiliritaralpapalih
opyaharyyah
S.S. 1-16.19.
nivesayet.
saptfUrudrutarh
kapatasandhikah.
iepyarh
apahrubhayat-
317
The editors would like to acknowledge gratefully the help and assistance that Dr. JefTrey Wollack has given to us in the preparation of this
manuscript. We would also like to acknowledge that he has provided
footnote d.