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Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e13

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Quaternary International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quaint

Paleoenvironmental studies of Alfar archaeological site (mid-Holocene;

Southeastern Pampas of Argentina): Silicophytoliths, gastropods and
archaeofauna
Q7

Mariano Bonomo a, b, *, Diego Catriel Leon b, Margarita Osterrieth c, d, Pamela Steffan a, e, Natalia Borrelli c, d
a

CONICET (Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientcas y Tcnicas), Argentina

Departamento Cientco de Arqueologa, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina
Instituto de Geologa de Costas y del Cuaternario, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Mar del Plata, Argentina
d
Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata-CONICET, Argentina
e
INCUAPA-Departamento de Arqueologa, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, UNCPBA, Olavaria, Argentina
b
c

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Available online xxx

The rsts results of the silicophytolith research carried out for the sedimentary sequence of Alfar
archaeological site are presented. The aims of this study were to identify the vegetation associations and
to contribute to the reconstruction of past environments during the hunter-gatherers occupation of the
site in the mid-Holocene. This siliceous microfossil data is also complemented with other proxy evidence
derived from the freshwater gastropods recorded throughout the stratigraphic sequence and the
zooarchaeological study of the bone remains recovered from the site. The results of this multi-proxy
approach show the existence of a permanent cover of gramineous communities on a lagoon margin
and a considerable pedogenetic activity during human occupation. The obtained data indicates that the
human populations occupied Alfar site under dry conditions, but with the warm climate of the midHolocene Hypsithermal.
2012 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA.

1. Introduction

2e6 m asl. From the analysis of different regional curves for the
variation of sea-level in Buenos Aires province, it was recently
suggested that the mid-Holocene marine transgressive maximum
took place between 6500 and 6000 BP (Schnack et al., 2005). This
rise led to the overow of river basins, forming freshwater bodies
(Stutz, 2000; Espinosa et al., 2003) and estuaries at the mouths of
the main watercourses owing into the sea (Fidalgo and Tonni,
1983; Fasano et al., 1987; Isla et al., 1996; Espinosa et al., 2003;
Vilanova et al., 2006). After 6000 BP, the regressive phase began.
With the withdrawal of the sea, shallow estuary lagoons were
formed with restricted connection to the sea (i.e. marshes)
(Osterrieth, 1998; Espinosa et al., 2003; Ferrero et al., 2005;
Vilanova et al., 2006).
Coinciding with these mid-Holocene climatic and environmental changes, signicant cultural transformations took place in
America and round the world, from the migration of entire populations to new regions to changes in patterns of adaptation, the
system of settlement, and socio-political organization (Sandweiss
et al., 1999; Anderson et al., 2007a; see also papers compiled in
Zrate et al., 2005). Several authors (Grosjean et al., 1997; Nuez
et al., 2001; Bern, 2004; Barrientos and Prez, 2005; Gil and
Neme, 2010) observed that during this period of rapid climatic

Palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental information indicates

that in the mid-Holocene, between 7500 and 5000 BP, there occurred
a global temperature increase that, in most cases led to a rise in
aridity, and other times in humidity (e.g., Mayewski et al., 2004; Vivo
and Carmignotto, 2004; Behling et al., 2005; Ackerley and Renwick,
2010). In the Pampean region, some authors (Prieto, 1996; Mancini
et al., 2005) have held that this change to a warmer climate
produced an increase in humidity due to more frequent rainfall.
Other researchers (Tonni, 1994; Vizcaino et al., 1995; Tonni et al.,
1999) have suggested arid regional conditions and limited sectors
with humid conditions that would be a result of local situations, or
the alternation of humid moments amid lengthy arid periods.
In the littoral sector of the Interserrana area, the temperature
increase at the outset of the mid-Holocene generated a rise in sealevel, producing Holocene beach ridges with values of up to

Q1

* Corresponding author. CONICET, Divisin Arqueologa, Facultad de Ciencias

Naturales y Museo, UNLP, Museo de La Plata, Paseo del bosque s/nro., 1900 La Plata,
Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
E-mail address: mbonomo@fcnym.unlp.edu.ar (M. Bonomo).
1040-6182/$ e see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA.
doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.03.039

Please cite this article in press as: Bonomo, M., et al., Paleoenvironmental studies of Alfar archaeological site (mid-Holocene; Southeastern
Pampas of Argentina): Silicophytoliths, gastropods and archaeofauna, Quaternary International (2012), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.03.039

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M. Bonomo et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e13

variations a hiatus in archaeological evidence existed in some

regions of South America, sometimes called the archaic gap or
archaeological silence. On this basis, the withdrawal from entire
areas by human populations and their migration to other sectors
offering more benign conditions was proposed (see discussion in
Araujo et al., 2005e06). In the southeast of the Pampean region, the
decrease in the frequency of archaeological sites related to the
Hypsithermal (above all between 6000 and 5000 BP) was
explained, on the one hand, by a demographical decrease caused by
a decline in the main food sources, such as the guanaco (Politis,
1984) or the local emigration or extinction of the Pampean
foragers (Barrientos, 1997; Barrientos and Prez, 2005). On the
other, it was identied with a rise in residential mobility that
generated less visible occupations owing to the exploitation of
specic resources in different environments (Martnez, 1999). It is
in the context of these alternative interpretations and supraregional problems that the palaeoenvironmental information derived
from the study of the Alfar archaeological site, occupied by huntergatherers during the mid-Holocene, becomes relevant.
The aim of this study is to contribute to the reconstruction of
past environments especially during the hunter-gatherer occupation of Alfar archaeological site in the mid-Holocene of the
Pampean region. In order to identify changes in plant communities
over time, silicophytolith research was carried out in the sedimentary sequence of Alfar. This amorphous silica data is complemented with other proxies that also offer palaeoclimatic and
palaeoecological information: freshwater gastropods recorded
throughout the sequence and the faunal remains associated with
the archaeological occupation.
The process of biomineralization is a widespread phenomenon
in nature. Biomineralizations are mineral or amorphous structures
of biogenic nature generated by the metabolic activity of different
organisms (Jahren, 1996). Amorphous silica biomineralizations are
generated by different organisms such as diatoms, chrysophytes,
sponges and plants. Silicophytoliths (hydrated amorphous silica)
are biomineralizations of vegetal origin and, due to their intrinsic
characteristics (e.g., production related to physiological and environmental conditions, resistance to decay, ubiquity), can be good
indicators of former vegetation cover, environmental conditions
and pedogenesis (Osterrieth, 2000, 2008a, 2008c; Blinnikov et al.,
2002; Strmberg, 2004; Iriarte, 2006), as well as of diagenetic
and taphonomical processes (Osterrieth et al., 2009). From the
phytogeographical point of view, the Southeastern Pampean region
belongs to the Pampean Province within the Chaco Domain in the
Neotropical Region, where the prevailing vegetation is a grass
steppe (Cabrera, 1976). In the Pampas, the pristine vegetation
throughout the late Quaternary was composed of Poaceae (Cabrera,
1976), one of the most productive of silicophytoliths among plant
families (Piperno, 1988; Epstein, 1994).
Silicophytoliths were observed in the Pampean loess (Frenguelli,
1930; Teruggi, 1957; Osterrieth, 2008c). In Argentina, particularly in
the province of Buenos Aires, numerous silicophytolith studies of
Quaternary pedosedimentary sequences, especially in coastal areas
have been completed (Osterrieth, 1998, 2008a, 2008b; Osterrieth
et al., 1998, 2008). In pedoarchaeological sequences the silicophytolith studies were carried out only on some archaeological sites of
the Southeastern Pampean region (Osterrieth et al., 2002, 2008;
Zucol et al., 2002; Bonomo et al., 2009; Mazzanti et al., 2010;
Gutirrez et al., 2011). They have contributed to a complete paleoenvironmental interpretation, in some cases associated with the
Hypsithermal. During this climatic event, in several pedoarchaeological levels of this sector, high silicophytolith content was
observed and, at the ancient levels, there was observed a high
content of C4 grasses silicophytoliths, indicating warmer and drier
conditions (Osterrieth et al., 2002).

2. Alfar archaeological site

Alfar (38
50 48.900 S, 57
330 20.700 W) is located in Mar del Plata
City, Department of General Pueyrredn, Buenos Aires province
(Fig. 1). It is located on the right margin of the Corrientes stream,
0.65 km north-west of the modern littoral (Argentine Sea, Southwestern Atlantic Ocean). In 2006 a total surface of 17 m2 were
excavated, where 6275 lithic artifacts and 8945 faunal remains
were recovered. The archaeological remains were deposited on
uvial and aeolian sediments more than 3 m underground.
The Alfar sedimentary sequence is 450 cm thick with ten stratigraphic units (Fig. 2), of which the rst four (units IeIV) are natural
deposits. From the bottom up, these units, the focus of study, are:
unit I, compact sandy silty; unit II, silty sand sediments; unit III,
sandy silt; and unit IV, lenticular bedding. The other six units (VeX)
are a product of the combination of modern anthropic intervention
(dredging of the watercourse) and geological processes, with
a succession of silt with soils at the top (V, VII), silt with shells (IX),
discordances and aeolian sands with shells (VI, VIII, X).
Four sedimentary samples were previously analyzed (Bonomo
and Leon, 2010). The objective was to establish the physicochemical characteristics of the matrix containing the archaeological remains (unit II and base of unit III) and the sediments lying
immediately below (unit I) and above (top of unit III). As shown in
Table 1, sediments from units I, II, and III are sandy to silty. The
scanty presence of organic matter in units I and II indicate an
oxygenated environment that becomes a reducing medium in unit
III. However, the increase in the carbonate content of the latter unit
points to saturation conditions (a reducing medium) or a greater
drying out of previously damp sediments.
The archaeological materials were recovered from between 445
and 385 cm depth (Fig. 2) in sandy sediments turning into silty.
According to previous research (Bonomo and Leon, 2010), the
archaeological remains were deposited on the edge of a paleolagoon located on the dune line. The disappearance of archaeological materials coincides with a rise in the water level, with the
sediments overlying human occupation (385e330 cm) corresponding to the lagoon bed.
The main resources exploited in Alfar were coastal cobbles
reduced by a bipolar technique and marine otariids (Otaridae).
Other marine taxa (Amiantis purpurata, Mesoderma mactroides,
Spheniscus sp., Cetacea) and continental taxa (Lama guanicoe, Ozotoceros bezoarticus, Chaetophractus villosus, Ctenomys sp., Conepatus
sp., Dusicyon sp., Lagostomus sp., Theristicus sp., Rheidae, among
others) were recorded (Table 2). A radiocarbon age of
5700  64 14C BP (AA82081) was obtained from an Otaridae tooth
(N
G1.C2.N11). This date corresponds to 6392e6492 cal BP (Calib
6.0.1 Program, using 1 sigma and SHCal04) and places the human
occupation within the range of the Hypsithermal (Climatic
Optimum) warm event.
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Analysis of silicophytoliths and other amorphous silica
biomineralizations
For the analysis of amorphous silica biomineralizations
(Osterrieth, 2004), P3 prole of grid 7 (Fig. 2) was selected to be the
most extensive and found closest to the sampling area in which
there was a previous exploratory study of silicophytoliths (Bonomo
et al., 2008) and the physico-chemical analysis of sediments
mentioned above. In the P3 prole, 21 samples were taken every
10 cm from levels located at 450 and 240 cm depth. To increase
sampling resolution, two of the 21 samples (S1 and S7) were
divided in half (M1bottom, M1top, M7bottom, M7top), because

Please cite this article in press as: Bonomo, M., et al., Paleoenvironmental studies of Alfar archaeological site (mid-Holocene; Southeastern
Pampas of Argentina): Silicophytoliths, gastropods and archaeofauna, Quaternary International (2012), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.03.039

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Fig. 1. Geographical location of Alfar archaeological site (A) and excavation area, with a detail of the excavated grid-squares (B).

they were located at the beginning and the end of the human
occupation. The P3 samplings cover from I to VIII stratigraphic
units, although the focus was on units I to V (from 450 to 310 cm).
At this stage the total sample was analyzed, which determined the
percentage of amorphous silica biomineralizations (silicophytoliths, diatoms, spicules, chrysophytes) and charcoals with respect to
the total mineralogical components in each level. About 5 g soil
were taken from each sample (Alvarez et al., 2008). Organic matter

was oxidized with 30% hydrogen peroxide at 70
C. The clay

minerals were extracted by repeated centrifugation at 1000 rpm for
3 min. Once the sample was clean, it was mounted on immersion
oil, and 500 grains were counted under optical (OM, Zeiss, 450
magnication) and petrographic microscopes (PM, Olympus BXPol,
600 magnication), to calculate the corresponding percentages.
The qualitative analysis of the silicophytolith morphologies was
made according to the Madella et al. (2005) and Twiss (1992)
specications. Part of the samples were observed by scanning
electron microscope (SEM) (Jeol JSM-6460 LV) and analyzed by
energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX) to explore a possible
relationship between opal silica composition and silicophytolith
deterioration.
3.2. Analysis of gastropods
Simultaneously to silicophytolith sampling, for the malacological analysis P1 and P2 proles were sampled (Fig. 2). These
proles from I to V stratigraphic units were located in the archaeological excavation sector in grids 3 and 5, to control lateral variations in the mollusc record. Twenty eight samples were collected
at 10 cm intervals (fourteen in each prole) from levels located at
450 and 310 cm depth. In the malacological analysis each sample
was sieved (0.5 4), carefully washed and dried. All molluscs
recovered were counted under a binocular loupe (Iroscope, 40
magnication) and discriminated at the species level. Relative
abundances and densities were calculated. The taphonomical
attributes observed in shells were: fragmentation, abrasion,
different coloration, and polished surface (shine).
3.3. Analysis of faunal remains

Fig. 2. Stratigraphic sequence of the Alfar archaeological site with the four sample
proles. P1 and P2 Alfar prole 1 (malacological samplings), P3 Alfar prole 3
(phytolithic sample) and P4 Alfar prole 4 (sediment sample).

Faunal specimens from 11 grid-squares (NISP 1608) (grids

2e7 and 11e15) associated with the human occupation of the

Please cite this article in press as: Bonomo, M., et al., Paleoenvironmental studies of Alfar archaeological site (mid-Holocene; Southeastern
Pampas of Argentina): Silicophytoliths, gastropods and archaeofauna, Quaternary International (2012), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.03.039

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M. Bonomo et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e13

Table 1
Textural analysis, organic matter and, carbonates from four sedimentary samples from grid 7 of Alfar archaeological site. Note: Size analyzed using a Malvern Mastersizer
model 2000 LASER particle counter; organic matter determined by the Walkley and Blake (1965) procedure; carbonates determined with a Netto digital calcimeter; pH
determined from a 1:1 soil:water paste.
Sample

Depth (cm)

Unit

Archaeological remains

Texture (Folk)

Mz (phi)

% Organic matter

% Carbonates

pH

S4
S3
S2
S1

350e345
395e390
425e420
450e445

III
III
II
I

absent
present
present
absent

Sandy silt
Sandy silt
Silty sand
Sandy silt

5.421
5.159
3.515
4.597

0.53
0.60
0.43
0.41

0.40
0.40
0.30
0.20

6.82
7.01
6.97
6.88

Alfar site (Fig. 2) were studied with the aim of complementing

information derived from the other proxies. To evaluate environmental conditions on a site scale, at the time of the deposition of the archaeological material and after, when they were
buried, the following taphonomical variables were taken into
consideration: weathering, geological abrasion, root marks, and
chemical deposition (Behrensmeyer, 1978; Andrews, 1990;
Lyman, 1994; Fisher, 1995; Gutirrez and Kaufmann, 2007). In
addition, from the taxa present at the site, animal habitats and
local and regional climatic conditions were analyzed (Burgos
and Vidal, 1951; Olrog and Lucero, 1981; Williams, 1991; Tonni
et al., 1999; Darrieu and Camperi, 2001; Bastida and
Rodriguez, 2003; Canevari and Balboa, 2003; Narosky and
Yzurieta, 2003; Jaureguizar, 2004; Laita and Aparicio, 2005;
Brquez et al., 2006; Leynaud et al., 2006; Politis et al., 2011). In
order to evaluate vertical variations, the taphonomical traces
were analyzed in the 5 cm articial levels used in the archaeological excavation.

Table 2
Taxonomical abundance at the Alfar archaeological site.
NISP number of identied specimens.
Taxa

NISP

MOLLUSCA
Amiantis sp.
Mesoderma sp.
MAMMALIA
Didelphidae
Dasypodidae
Chaetophractus villosus
Tolypeutes matacus
Carnivora
cf. Ducysion sp.
Conepatus sp.
Otariidae
Artiodactyla
Lama guanicoe
Cervidae
Ozotoceros bezoarticus
Cetacea
Pontoporia blainvillei
Rodentia
Holochilus brasilensis
Lagostomus sp.
cf. Microcavia sp.
Ctenomys sp.
AVES
Rheidae
Caradriforme
Psitacidae
Theristicus sp.
Spheniscus sp.
TELEOSTOMI
Myliobatis sp.
AMPHIBIA
Subtotal
Indeterminate (2 cm)
Total

30
2
2
310
2
315
149
19
1
2
3
343
4
34
2
14
2
5
111
2
49
1
74
25
119
2
1
1
20
26
1
3
1674
312
1986

4. Results
The silicophytoliths, diatoms, gastropods, and archaeofaunal
materials have offered information on the diverse parts of the
pedostratigraphic sequence in which the archaeological remains of
Alfar site are deposited. Only silicophytoliths are present
throughout the whole sampled stratigraphic column.
4.1. Analysis of phytoliths
Generally, silicophytoliths are an important fraction in all the
samples of P3, being about 17e54% of the total mineralogical
components of the sediments (Fig. 3A). Most relevant light
minerals are potassium and CaeNa feldspars, fragments of quartz,
alterites, volcanic ashes and few muscovites. Heavy minerals are
scarce and they are represented by opaque minerals, epidotes,
amphiboles and pyroxenes (Fig. 4a). Although their state is variable,
they are usually subangular to rounded. The variability in particle
size is considerable, some levels being texturally more heterogeneous than others (Fig. 4b), agreeing with the texture dened in
Table 1. Particularly in relation to archaeological materials, gypsum
crystals were observed in the transition between units II and III (S5:
410e400 cm depth), (Fig. 4c), and the MEB analysis suggests the
presence of staurolites in unit II (S3: 430e420 cm) (Fig. 4d). This is
a rare iron aluminosilicate of metamorphic origin that could be
associated with the rocks of the Tandilia crystalline basement. Their
excellent state of preservation is striking, which could be indicating
a little transport.
Based on amorphous silica biomineralization (silicophytoliths,
chrysophytes, diatoms and spicules) and charcoal contents with
respect to the total mineralogy of sediments, the following groups
were designated (Fig. 3A):
a) Unit I has the lowest silicophytolith content, about 17%. From
445 cm, the silicophytolith content increases from 30% to about
50% at the end of stratigraphic unit II (S5). The charcoals show
the same trend, with the maximum of all the sequence from
445 to 430 cm, just at the beginning of the human occupation
in unit II. In these samples, chrysophytes were also observed
(Fig. 4e).
b) At the base of unit III, from 400 to 370 cm depth (S6 to S8), the
silicophytolith content decreases to values close to 40%. Within
S7, the top level (385e380 cm) increases about 10% of the silicophytolith content with respect the lower one (390e385 cm)
related to human occupation. S9 (370e360 cm) presents the
highest silicophytolith content (about 60%) and chrysophytes
of all the sequence (Fig. 4f,j,k). From 360 cm depth, the silicophytolith content decreases to the top of unit III with values
close to 30%. Unit IV has less charcoals and a third of the total
mineralogy is silicophytoliths.
c) From S14 to the top, the sampled stratigraphic units (V to VIII)
that were affected by modern human modications start. At
the base of stratigraphic unit V, in S14 (320e310 cm), diatoms
begin to appear, and in S15 (310e300 cm) spicules and scleras

Please cite this article in press as: Bonomo, M., et al., Paleoenvironmental studies of Alfar archaeological site (mid-Holocene; Southeastern
Pampas of Argentina): Silicophytoliths, gastropods and archaeofauna, Quaternary International (2012), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.03.039

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Fig. 3. Analysis of amorphous silica biomineralizations and charcoals. A) Silicophytolith, chrysophyte, diatom, spicule and charcoal content (% of the total mineralogical components
of the soil). B) Silicophytolith predominant morphologies (% of silicophytolith fraction).

Please cite this article in press as: Bonomo, M., et al., Paleoenvironmental studies of Alfar archaeological site (mid-Holocene; Southeastern
Pampas of Argentina): Silicophytoliths, gastropods and archaeofauna, Quaternary International (2012), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.03.039

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M. Bonomo et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e13

Fig. 4. Amorphous silica biomineralizations and charcoals recorded at Alfar archaeological site. a, b panoramic view of heavy (a) and light (b) mineralogy, and silicophytoliths of
unit I (OM), c gypsum in the transition between units II and III (OM), d staurolites in unit II (SEM and EDAX), e panoramic view of charcoals and silicophytoliths of the
boundary between units I and II (OM), f panoramic view of silicophytoliths and chrysophytes in the unit III (OM), g charcoals (SEM),h silicophytoliths and diatoms of the
boundary between units IV and V (SEM), i spicules (SEM), j detailed view of chrysophytes (OM and SEM), k predominant silicophytolith morphologies: elongates, bilobates,
cross; and chrysophytes (OM), l elongates (SEM), m bilobates silicophytolith (SEM), n trapeziform sinuate silicophytolith (SEM), o saddles (OM and SEM), per silica
skeletons composed of elongates and subepidermal cells (OM and SEM), s broken bilobates (physical degradation, OM and SEM), t weathered silicophytoliths and unidentied
silicophytoliths (chemical degradation, OM). Bar: a, b 100 mm; c, j, m, n, o, s 2 mm; d, e, f, g, h, i, k, l, p, q, r, t 20 mm.

(Fig. 4h). In S17 (290e280 cm) there are no chrysophytes or

diatoms, and only a few spicules (Fig. 4i) were observed. The
top samples (S20eS21: 260e240 cm) only differ from the
lower ones because of their higher diatom content, although
not exceeding 3%.
In summary, the content of other amorphous silica biomineralizations (chrysophytes, diatoms and spicules) is very low in
the whole sequence (Figs. 3A and 4). Chrysophytes represent about
0.3e1.7% of the total mineralogy and, although their distribution is

fairly uniform in the P3 prole, they are the only ones present from
unit II to IV (from 445 to 320 cm), being more representative in
samples 5, 9 and 11. Diatoms and spicules are present in the upper
units of the prole (units V to VIII). Diatoms represent about
0.2e1.6% of the mineralogical components and, although S20eS21
(260e240 cm) are the samples with the highest content, they
appear from 320 cm (S14) to 290 cm (S16). Spicules represent
0.2e0.6% of the total mineralogy, and appear from 310 cm (S15) to
240 cm (S21). The samples S15, S18 and S21 are the only ones
containing, although in low proportion, spicules, diatoms and

Please cite this article in press as: Bonomo, M., et al., Paleoenvironmental studies of Alfar archaeological site (mid-Holocene; Southeastern
Pampas of Argentina): Silicophytoliths, gastropods and archaeofauna, Quaternary International (2012), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.03.039

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M. Bonomo et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e13

chrysophytes in addition to abundant silicophytoliths. Black particles were observed in most of the samples, some of them opaque
minerals, and charcoals the others (Fig. 4e,g).
Within the silicophytolith fraction, predominant morphologies
are characteristic of the Poaceae family, rondels (23e38%), elongates (17e34%), trapeziform sinuates (1e19%), bilobate short cells
(6e15%), acicular hair cells (2e12%) and bulliform cells (0.6e6%)
being the most representative (Fig. 3B, 4len). Although there is
a great homogeneity in the morphotypes throughout the prole,
certain changes in the contents of some morphologies corroborate
the changes observed from the quantitative analysis of
silicophytoliths.
At 450e440 cm (S1), bilobate short cells, trapeziform sinuate
and undened silicophytoliths decrease towards the top level in the
base of unit II, whereas elongates increase their content. At
430e420 cm (S3) globular equinates were observed. As in S1, at
390e380 cm (S7) bilobate short cells and trapeziform sinuate
decrease to the upper level in unit III. In S9 (370e360 cm), which
presents the lowest content of indenite silicophytoliths and
broken bilobate short cells, but silica skeletons are present, a higher
environmental stability were also observed. In this sample from
unit III there are saddles, a typical morphology of C4 plants (Fig. 4o),
that could indicate drought periods of variable extension. This
water decit favours the concentration of alkaline salts that modify
the soils, enabling the development of C4 communities. Although
with a low representation, this chloridoid morphotype is present
throughout the stratigraphic units IeVI. At 320e310 cm (S14)
a change evident in the decrease of rondels and bulliform cell
increase was observed. From 300 cm (S16) elongates and bulliform
cells increases their content and, although some of them are not
weathered, most are corroded or broken.
A notable aspect is the presence in unit III (S6, S7top, S9) of silica
skeletons with grass afnity mostly composed by elongates and, in
lesser proportion by short cells (Fig. 4per). In units V and VI (S14
and S17) sulcate tracheids were also observed. Another important
aspect is the weathering state of silicophytoliths. In all the samples,
the physical weathering was recorded as broken bilobate short cells
(2e13%) (Figs. 3B and 4s). The chemical weathering was recorded
on indened silicophytoliths (2e12%) and in silicophytoliths that,
although they were classied, show different degree of weathering
(Figs. 3B and 4t).
4.2. Analysis of gastropods
The malacological composition is represented by ve species of
gastropods (Table 3; Fig. 5): Heleobia parchappii, Biomphalaria
Table 3
Malacological composition of Alfar Prole 1 (P1) and Prole 2 (P2).
Prole-sample

P1-S14
P1-S13
P1-S12
P1-S11
P1-S10
P1-S9
Subtotal
P2-S14
P2-S13
P2-S12
P2-S11
P2-S10
Subtotal
% Total of species

Depth (cm)

310e320
320e330
330e340
340e350
350e360
360e370
e
310e320
320e330
330e340
340e350
350e360
e

Unit

V
IV
III
III
III
III
e
V
IV
III
III
III
e

Species
Heleobia
parchappii

Biomphalaria
peregrina

9
0
0
0
0
59
68
61
1
0
0
0
62
16.42

82
84
123
21
4
5
319
102
59
93
54
3
311
79.55

826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
4.3. Analysis of the archaeofaunal remains
854
855
In a previous paper (Bonomo and Leon, 2010) a brief exposition
856
on surface of the archaeological materials was determined from the
857
stages of weathering (stages 0 and 1 82%) of the bone remains.
858
Additionally, 86% of the bones were included in stage 1 of geolog859
ical abrasion, indicating that they were only affected in situ by
860
water without giving rise to a subrepresentation of the sample.
861
Root marks were observed in low proportions (13.2%), whereas
862
chemical deposition corresponds wholly to specimens stained with
863
manganese oxide (4.7%). In the same way, the scarce collagen
864
content of the bones might be linked to the variations in the
865
phreatic stratum (Bonomo et al., 2008). Therefore, this indicates
866
that the archaeological materials were discarded in a water867
containing context, a variable condition after they were buried,
868
and they were subsequently quickly covered by sediments that
869
were pedogenized.
870
Considering these variables in a vertical sense the following
871
differences are observed (Fig. 6): 1) in unit II there is greater
872
873
Q 6 874
875
%
876
Zilchogyra
Miradiscops
Succinea
Total
877
costellata
brasiliensis
meridionalis
878
0
1
2
94
22.98
879
0
5
0
89
21.76
880
0
3
0
126
30.81
881
0
0
0
21
5.13
882
1
0
0
5
1.22
0
4
6
74
18.09
883
1
13
8
409
e
884
0
0
6
169
44.13
885
0
3
0
63
16.45
886
0
1
0
94
24.54
0
0
0
54
14.10
887
0
0
0
3
0.78
888
0
4
6
383
e
889
0.13
2.14
1.76
e
100.00
890
peregrina, Zilchogyra costellata, Miradiscops brasiliensis and Succinea
meridionalis. The recovered shells are 792 and the abundance
between both stratigraphic proles is very similar, 383 in P1 and
407 in P2. In the two sampling proles the most abundant corresponds to B. peregrina, followed by H. parchappii, S. meridionalis,
M. brasiliensis and Z. costellata. The last one is recorded only in one
of the two sampled proles, in P1.
In relation to the abundance of each gastropod species some
differences are observed throughout the stratigraphic sequence. In
the rst place, unfortunately in the deposits that contain the
archaeological remains, at the base of the sequence, the record of
gastropods or fragments of them is null. Secondly, the presence of
molluscs is recorded at the top of the sequence, specically in unit
III since 370 cm in P1 and since 360 cm in P2. In P1 the higher
abundance of molluscs is represented by aquatic species and taxa
with a wide range of environmental tolerance, H. parchappii.
Afterwards, the level with greatest abundance is the sample 12
(340e330 cm) as a consequence of the sudden increase of B. peregrina; after that a decrease of this species is observed. However, in
the P2 B. peregrina is the only species recorded in S10 (360e350 cm)
and the most abundance is recorded in S14 (320e310 cm) in the top
of the sampling prole as result of an increase of B. peregrina and
H. parchappii. The taphonomical analysis indicates signals of fragmentation in B. peregrina (S10) in P2. In units IV and V the remains
of marine and freshwater shells show abrasion, high fragmentation
and fragments with rounded edges.

Please cite this article in press as: Bonomo, M., et al., Paleoenvironmental studies of Alfar archaeological site (mid-Holocene; Southeastern
Pampas of Argentina): Silicophytoliths, gastropods and archaeofauna, Quaternary International (2012), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.03.039

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JQI3251_proof 2 April 2012 8/13

M. Bonomo et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e13

Fig. 5. Continental gastropods identied in Alfar 1. A Heleobia parchappii, B Biomphalaria peregrina, C Miradiscops brasiliensis, D Zylchogira costellata and E Succinea
meridionalis.

weathering between 425 and 410 cm depth; 2) although abrasion is

less between 445 and 415 cm, it is more intense (stage 1, 2, and 3
sensu Gutirrez and Kaufmann, 2007); 3) the percentage of specimens showing root marks is higher between 440 and 420 cm (unit
II), peaking at between 400 and 395 cm depth (base of unit III), 4)
stage 1 abrasion is heavier between 415 and 385 cm in the top of II

and the base of unit III, and 5), manganese oxide is more frequent
on the upper levels, especially between 420 and 395 cm depth.
Taking into account the taxa of the archaeofaunal record that
provide palaeoenvironmental information on a local and regional
scale, disparities are observed when bearing in mind their environmental requirements (Table 4). For the base of unit II

Please cite this article in press as: Bonomo, M., et al., Paleoenvironmental studies of Alfar archaeological site (mid-Holocene; Southeastern
Pampas of Argentina): Silicophytoliths, gastropods and archaeofauna, Quaternary International (2012), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.03.039

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M. Bonomo et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e13

Fig. 6. Vertical distribution of relative frequencies for the four taphonomical variables. Note: Color of the bars, in weathering: white stage 1, light grey stage 2; dark grey stage
3, black stage 4; in geological abrasion, white stage 1, light grey stage 2, black stage 3; in Manganese oxide and root marks, black indicates the presence of these variables.

(445e425 cm) the predominant species are Ch. villosus, Tolypeutes

matacus, Lagostomus sp., L. guanicoe, O. bezoarticus, Ctenomys sp.
and H. brasiliensis. Their distributions (Olrog and Lucero, 1981;
Canevari and Balboa, 2003; Brquez et al., 2006; Politis et al., 2011)
and the environmental variations of their habitats (e.g., the water
index, Burgos and Vidal, 1951, and mean annual temperature, Politis
et al., 2011), indicate sub-humid dry regional conditions. On a local
scale, the presence of the above-mentioned mammals, Pontoporia
blainvillei, Theristicus sp., Spheniscus sp., indeterminate shes,
Myliobatis sp., and Amiantis sp. indicate multiple lateral facies from
sea or estuary ones passing alongside the edges of bodies of water
to steppes and prairies (Olrog and Lucero, 1981; Bastida and
Rodriguez, 2003; Narosky and Yzurieta, 2003; Laita and Aparicio,
2005; Brquez et al., 2006). The presence of T. matacus, H. brasilensis and P. blainvillei suggests it will have been hot (Tonni et al.,
1999; Jaureguizar, 2004).
For the top of unit II (420e405 cm) mammals once more indicate sub-humid dry conditions on a regional scale (T. matacus,
L. guanicoe, O. bezoarticus, Ctenomys sp., Table 4), yet the representativity of Ctenomys sp. (57.7%), hints at the surrounding landscape having been one of dunes and sandy prairies according to its
environmental requirements (Olrog and Lucero, 1981; Brquez
et al., 2006). At the same time the persistence of T. matacus might
imply that the environmental temperature continued to be hot.
The taxa on the base of unit III (400e385 cm) indicate situations of
wide-ranging regional humidity and temperature, though perhaps in
sub-humid dry conditions (e.g., L. guanicoe). Contrarywise, the
presence of Amphibia would be evidence of a local pool facies
(Williams, 1991; Leynaud et al., 2006, Table 4). These results point to
variations in water level, with drying out and ooding, and changes
from marine environments to continental, and edges to beds.
5. Discussion
The integration between archaeological and paleoenvironmental studies of the diverse proxies analyzed in this paper
allow the presence of water to be presumed in the whole stratigraphic sequence, though with drying-out/retraction, and ooding
events. In general, concentrations and variations of amorphous
silica biomineralizations (silicophytoliths, crysophytes, diatoms,
and spicules) and malacological record mostly agree with the
previously proposed evolution of the stratigraphic sequence
(Bonomo and Leon, 2010). The presence of chrysophyte cysts
throughout the sequence would indicate recurrent saturation

levels, but during short periods in which diatoms and sponge

spicules become associated with these shallow-water bodies.
The high content of silicophytoliths throughout the sequence is
evidence of a continuous plant covering, predominantly of grasses,
that will have supported an also continuous pedological development. The pedogenesis has mostly evolved under hydromorphic
conditions, alternating with short periods of dryness. The rst of
these periods is recorded in the top of unit II, where archaeofauna
also indicates sub-humid dry conditions during human occupation.
The content of charcoals is highest at the base of the sequence
(top of stratigraphic unit I and base of II), which could be a product
of water saturation as well as the combustion activities carried out
by the humans who occupied the site in the past. Silicophytolith
proportions increase in concordance with the initial settlement of
humans and the anthropic introduction of useful plants.
Silica skeletons are easily disarticulated, and the presence of
articulated silicophytoliths is a good indicator of environmental
stability (Osterrieth et al., 2002, 2009). These articulates, smooth
elongates and whole crenates, acicular hair cells with conspicuous
points, bilobates, trapeziforms, all of them very well preserved,
were found at the following depths: 445e440 cm, 410e400 cm,
385e380 cm, 370e360 cm, 330e320 cm, 300e290 cm, and
260e250 cm, which could identify those levels as surfaces stabilized for considerable intervals of time during the Holocene. Some
could correspond to Entisoles and Hapludoles, typical soils on the
banks of watercourses or bodies of water. The level with the most
conspicuous pedogenesis is the middle sector of stratigraphic level
III (370e360 cm). This paleosol has the largest articulated phytolith
content, and the fewest broken bilobates, both evidence of higher
environmental stability when humans abandoned the settlement
and consequently stopped anthropic modication of the natural
landscape.
In particular, the most representative silicophytolith morphologies correspond to C3 type sub-families. The bilobate short cells
are characteristic of the Panicoideae sub-family, rondels of the
Pooideae and Stipoideae sub-family, and the trapeziform sinuate to
that of the Pooideae. The presence of C4 grass (saddle) silicophytoliths, although scarce, is found in all the units of the lower and
middle sector of the prole, units I to IV, including the prole sector
that contains the archaeological material. They indicate drought
periods when the hydric stress might generate salts that condition
the growth of typical C4 plants, related to climatic changes from
damp and fresh to warmer and drier, although they could also be
associated with local microtopographical modications linked to

Please cite this article in press as: Bonomo, M., et al., Paleoenvironmental studies of Alfar archaeological site (mid-Holocene; Southeastern
Pampas of Argentina): Silicophytoliths, gastropods and archaeofauna, Quaternary International (2012), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.03.039

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1087
1088
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1101
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0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
0
0
0
3.75
0
0
0
0
3.75
3.75
12
12
19
3.75
42
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
4.6
1.6
11
6.3
17
25
9.4
6.3
11
3.1
1.6
3.1
0
0
2.4
2.4
2.4
5
2.4
0
2.4
15
30
38
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
50
50
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
50
0
0
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10.5
0
5.3
10.5
31.6
10.5
31.6
1.3
0.7
0
0
1.4
0
0
0
0
0
0.7
95.9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
11
0
0
11
0
5.6
0
0
11
5.6
5.6
50.2
6.5
0
0
3
6.5
16
6.5
6.5
3
6.5
6.5
39
385e390
390e395
395e400
400e405
405e410
410e415
415e420
420e425
425e430
430e435
435e440
440e445

14.28
0
0
14.28
0
0
14.28
14.28
14.28
14.28
14.28
0

Myliobatis
sp.
TELEOSTOMI
Theristicus
sp.
Ctenomys
sp.
Lagostomus
sp.
Holochilus
brasilensis
Pontoporia
blainvillei
Conepatus
sp.
cf.
Ducysion sp.
Tolypeutes
matacus
Chaetophractus
villosus
Amiantis
sp.
Spheniscus
sp.
Lama
guanicoe
Depth (cm)

Ozotoceros
bezoarticus

33.33
0
33.33
0
33.33
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

M. Bonomo et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e13

AMPHIBIA

10

Table 4
Vertical distribution of the taxa in relative frequencies.

1151
1152
1153
1154
1155
1156
1157
1158
1159
1160
1161
1162
1163
1164
1165
1166
1167
1168
1169
1170
1171
1172
1173
1174
1175
1176
1177
1178
1179
1180
1181
1182
1183
1184
1185
1186
1187
1188
1189
1190
1191
1192
1193
1194
1195
1196
1197
1198
1199
1200
1201
1202
1203
1204
1205
1206
1207
1208
1209
1210
1211
1212
1213
1214
1215

JQI3251_proof 2 April 2012 10/13

the extent and morphodynamics of the body of water. These

conditions of higher salinity and an increase in the pH at those
levels might explain the high degree of corrosion of the silicophytoliths, particularly at the prole base (unit I). The abundance of
broken but not corroded bilobate morphotypes is clear evidence of
processes connected with the increase in the transport and
mobility dynamics of these silicophytoliths as clastic particles in
saturated mediums on the edges of lagoons.
The appearance of gastropods in the record is coincident with
the boundaries of stratigraphic units III and IV over the archaeological levels (w370e330 cm). This difference between both
sampling proles could be related to slope of the landscape while
corresponding to the same unit. In unit III, P1 malacological data at
370e360 cm depth indicate a shallow-water body and latter
desiccation or evapotranspiration facies suggested by presence of
calcium carbonate and species of M. brasiliensis (370e360 cm) and
Z. costellata (360e350 cm); terrestrial species that live under
vegetation cover in decomposition and humus. The highest
chrysophytes content in this level corroborate the presence of
a water body. The highest silicophytolith content and the more
conspicuous presence of the saddle morphotype at this depth could
corroborate the event of desiccation or evapotranspiration, allowing the development of C4 plant communities. Taphonomical
characteristics and low abundance of gastropods in 360e350 cm
depth suggest a level with alteration and allochthonous shells of
B. peregrina in P2. At 350e340 cm depth there is a slight increase of
individual of freshwater species in association with the evidence of
high fragmentation of shells and abundant root concretions.
Malacological abundance and taxonomic associations indicate
in 340e330 cm depth freshwater characteristics that could be
related with shallow environments in both sampling proles. From
330 to 310 cm, aquatic taxa of gastropods increase more in P2 than
in P1 during soil development. This inference takes into account the
presence of roots and micro mollusc punctoidea that inhabit soils
with high humidity and percentage of plant cover (Miquel et al.,
2007; Miranda and Cuezzo, 2010). These results complement the
inferences from phytoliths that also indicate the presence of
a paleosol. However, among the taphonomical signals at the top of
sampling sequence are a mixture of autochthonous and allochthonous malacological materials, possibly linked with a stream
current and/or sea of higher energy that incorporated indeterminate fragments of marine molluscs.
In unit II and the base of unit III containing the archaeological
materials, the gastropod record is nonexistent. Human occupation
may have altered the natural conditions of the place and limited the
development of microenvironments favorable to mollusc populations. The higher abundance of species and taxonomic diversity
of mollusc at both proles indicate that between units III and IV,
different ooded sectors in irregular surface of the landscape are
recorded, located on the archaeological deposits.
The taphonomical variables taken from faunal specimens represented in the archaeological occupation indicates that the
materials were buried quickly and were subjected in situ to the
inuence of water. The taphonomical effects observed on bones of
different taxa of unit II, and the sedimentary (Table 1) and silicophytolith analyses (Fig. 3) indicate a depositional context at the
edge of an interdune lagoon, the water volume of which was subjected to alternate events of retraction and ooding. The abrasion
observed on some remains was probably produced by waves in the
body of water, on the banks of which vegetation developed leading
to pedogenesis.
The recorded fauna is diverse and from different habitats, which
reects past human selection. Estuarine and continental taxa are
represented, from dry environments as well as humid and associated with high temperatures. The high frequency of Ctenomys sp.

Please cite this article in press as: Bonomo, M., et al., Paleoenvironmental studies of Alfar archaeological site (mid-Holocene; Southeastern
Pampas of Argentina): Silicophytoliths, gastropods and archaeofauna, Quaternary International (2012), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.03.039

1216
1217
1218
1219
1220
1221
1222
1223
1224
1225
1226
1227
1228
1229
1230
1231
1232
1233
1234
1235
1236
1237
1238
1239
1240
1241
1242
1243
1244
1245
1246
1247
1248
1249
1250
1251
1252
1253
1254
1255
1256
1257
1258
1259
1260
1261
1262
1263
1264
1265
1266
1267
1268
1269
1270
1271
1272
1273
1274
1275
1276
1277
1278
1279
1280

1281
1282
1283
1284
1285
1286
1287
1288
1289
1290
1291
1292
1293
1294
1295
1296
1297
1298
1299
1300
1301
1302
1303
1304
1305
1306
1307
1308
1309
1310
1311
1312
1313
1314
1315
1316
1317
1318
1319
1320
1321
1322
1323
1324
1325
1326
1327
1328
1329
1330
1331
1332
1333
1334
1335 Q2
1336
1337
1338
1339
1340
1341
1342
1343
1344
1345

JQI3251_proof 2 April 2012 11/13

M. Bonomo et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e13

and the record of moderately weathered specimens on the top of

unit II would indicate the drying out of the body of water and
a decrease in the rate of sediment deposition compared to previous
and later levels.
The context of a lagoon edge seems to be modied on the top of
unit III. The smaller proportion of specimens with root marks, the
greater abundance of remains with abrasion, the decrease in the
deposition of manganese oxide (maybe in a saturated medium in
water under conditions of anoxia, Dorn and Oberlander, 1981), the
higher content of organic matter in muddier sediments (Table 2),
and the presence of Amphibia indicate that the presence of water
lasted longer compared with unit II. This context coincides with the
environment transformation on the bottom of a lagoon, which
could be correlated with the lack of later human occupation of Alfar.
6. Conclusions
In summary, the results of the palaeobotanical analyses, complemented with the archaeofaunal and sediments studies, show
the existence of a considerable pedogenetic activity and a permanent cover of gramineous communities on a lagoon edge with
a certain margin of wave activity. The existing vegetation corresponded mainly to communities of grasses (Poaceae), less so Panicoideae, Stipoideae and limited Chloridoideae. This place with
abundant grasses at the water-edge was chosen by the Pampean
hunter-gatherers to set up a residential camp around 5700 years
ago. During the human occupation the volume of water appears to
diminish, salt-concentration increased, and C4 type grasses are
recorded. After the settlement was abandoned, water covered the
occupation surface and, just as before it was occupied, saturated,
anaerobic, and reducing conditions occurred.
In general, the obtained data indicates that the human populations occupied Alfar site under dryness conditions, but with
warm climate at mid-Holocene. From this time of the Holocene
(6000e5000 BP), marked by important climatic changes, there are
few archaeological sites in the region. Nevertheless, new Pampean
sites dated within this period have been recently detected (Bayn
et al., 2010; Gutirrez et al., 2011; Massigoge, 2011), showing that
the there is no pronounced gap or hiatus in the archaeological
record as in other regions across South America. The differences in
the quantity of sites from former and later periods may be due to
the location of the hunter-gatherer settlements on specic environments, such as the Atlantic coast where marine resources were
available and also related to problems of reduced visibility and low
preservation. The evidence from Alfar is connected with the
radiocarbon dates recently obtained for other archaeological sites,
and human skeletons buried in the coast under study (Bonomo,
2011; Bonono et al., 2011) that range from 7623 to 430 BP and
show a continuity in the use of the Interserrana coast since the
Early Holocene until the arrival of Europeans in the Ro de la Plata.
Mid-Holocene was a period marked by global, but not uniform,
signicant changes in precipitation, temperature, sea-level, faunal
distribution and/or vegetation cover that affected past human
populations in different degrees (see discussion in Anderson et al.,
2007a). These climatic changes had different effects on the availability of water, animals and plants utilized by humans around the
world. During this period, warmer than the Early Holocene and the
Late Holocene, Pampean hunter-gatherers continued the occupation of the region, apparently without drastic cultural changes.
However, after the mid-Holocene, a reorientation of the huntergatherer subsistence in detriment of marine resources occurred
(Bonono et al., 2011). In contrast to many other coastal areas of the
continent (e.g., Moss et al., 2007; Anderson et al., 2007b; Bonomo,
2011), when aquatic ecosystem stabilized after mid-Holocene in
the Pampean Atlantic coast there is no evidence of intensive use of

11

marine fauna (shellsh, sh, and sea mammals). On the contrary,

the exploitation of marine resources declined in the Late Holocene,
and there is a focus of the diet on continental resources, especially
on terrestrial mammals.

1346
1347
1348
1349
1350
1351
Acknowledgments
1352
1353
The authors express their gratitude to Museo Histrico y
1354
Arqueolgico Magrassi, Delegacin Municipal del Puerto (Gral.
1355
Pueyrredn), Capilla Nuestra Seora de La Paz and Autocamping del
1356
Faro. This research has been supported by grants PIP-CONICET
1357


1282, PICT-Bicentenario N 1415, UNLP-N634, AGENCIA-PICT/101358
2036 and UNMDP-EXA-15E/511.
1359
1360
Appendix. Supplementary material
1361
1362
Supplementary material associated with this article can be
1363
found, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.03.039.
1364
1365
1366
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Pampas of Argentina): Silicophytoliths, gastropods and archaeofauna, Quaternary International (2012), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.03.039

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Pampas of Argentina): Silicophytoliths, gastropods and archaeofauna, Quaternary International (2012), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.03.039

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Please cite this article in press as: Bonomo, M., et al., Paleoenvironmental studies of Alfar archaeological site (mid-Holocene; Southeastern
Pampas of Argentina): Silicophytoliths, gastropods and archaeofauna, Quaternary International (2012), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.03.039

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