Anthropology 101 Test Study Guide

CHAPTER 1
1. Anthropology is the study of humankind, viewed from the perspective of all people and
all times. [5]
2. Major Fields of study for Anthropology include:
i. Cultural Anthropology: Typically study present day societies in nonWestern settings such as Africa, South America, Australia. Culture learned
behavior passed from person to person, is the uniting theme.
ii. Archaeology: Typically study past human societies, with a focus on material
remains. Such as plants and animals or past inhabitances. Mostly known for
studying weapons/ceramics, and studying the processes behind past
societies. Why people lived where they did, the complexities or lack of them
in a society. Why there was a shift from hunting to agriculture, etc.
Archaeologists hope to reassemble the past as if it were alive today.
iii. Linguistic Anthropology: Study the construction of language used by
human societies. Language, a set of written or spoken symbols that refer to
things other than themselves, making the transfer of knowledge possible
from one person to the next. Sociolinguistics is popular among linguistic
anthropologists.
iv. Physical (Biological) Anthropology: Study all aspects of present and past
human biology. Deals with the evolution of and variation among human
beings and their living and past relatives.
3. Physical Anthropology is the study of human biological evolution and human bio
cultural variation.
a. Every person is a product of evolutionary history, or all the biological changes that
have brought humans to its present form.
b. Each of us is the product of our own individual life history. Our biological makeup is
determined by our genes. The human genome includes some 20,000-25,000 genes.
Also influenced by your environment (physical activity, diet, residence, society).
4. Physical Anthropologists routinely travel throughout the US and around the world to
investigate populations. Some anthropologists study people, while others study extinct
and living species of our closest relatives, Primates.
5. Macroevolution is large-scale evolution, such as a speciation event, that occurs after
hundreds or thousands of generations.
6. Microevolution small scale evolution, such as changes in the allele frequency that occurs
from one generation to the next.
7. Culture - Learned behavior that is transmitted from person to person
a. Cultural Development is influenced by the people; Behaviors that provide more
adaptability to new environments become more habitual.
8. Physical Anthropology developed as a discipline by:
a. Franz Boas: Started by studying the Inuit and seeking to understand their present
and past cultures, languages, and biology.
b. Ales Hrdlicka: Started the professional scientific journal and society devoted to the
field.
c. Earnest Hooton: Trained most of the first generation of physical anthropologists.
i. The scientific method:
1. Identify problem or issue based upon early observations
2. State the hypothesis
3. Collect the data (observations)
4. Test the hypothesis: rejection, acceptance, or modification
9. Specializations in Physical Anthropology include:
a. Paleoanthropology is the study of ancient humans (their anatomy, behavior,
ecology and chronology), particularly as evidenced in the fossil record over the last
45 million years.

Anthropology 101 Test Study Guide

b. Anthropometry, the measurement of human body parts, focuses on identifying
and evaluating physical variability among living and extinct human populations.
c. Genetics, a branch of biology dealing with variability among organisms and the
mechanisms for transmission of variable characteristics from parent to offspring,
allows biological anthropologists to explain how evolutionary processes work.
d. Primatology is the study of the behavior and biology of those species most closely
related to us, the nonhuman primates (prosimians, monkeys and apes);
anthropologists use this information on social and reproductive behavior, infant
care, communication, diet, and locomotion in order to better understand how our
own behaviors have evolved.
e. Osteology is the study of skeletal material; human osteology focuses on the
interpretation of the skeletal remains of past human populations, while
paleoanthropologists use the same techniques to study ancient humans.
Paleopathology is an important branch of osteology that studies abnormalities, or
traces of disease, nutritional deficiencies, and injury in human skeletal remains.
f. Forensic anthropology is an applied anthropological approach dealing with legal
questions. Forensic anthropologists are often asked to aid in the identification of
human remains, and have recently been involved in such tragedies as the crash of a
Swissair plane at Peggy's Cove, Nova Scotia, and the investigation of disappeared
persons in Argentina.

Anthropology 101 Test Study Guide

CHAPTER 2
1. Before Darwin, the understanding of Earth and its organisms that inhabit it is strongly
influenced by religious doctrine. People thought that nature had always existed as it does
presently, and humans were made in the image of God, a perfect being. (No evolutionary
history)
2. Major Philosophers and Scientists that influenced Natural Selection:
1. James Hutton: Calculated Earths age as millions of years. (Provided Geologic evidence
necessary for calculating evolution timespan)
2. Charles Lyell: Rediscovered and reinforced Huttons ideas (Provided more geological
evidence)
3. Robert Hooke: Proved that fossils are organisms remains (Revealed that fossils would
provide the history of past life)
4. Georges Cuvier: Extensively studied fossils (Revealed much variation in fossil record)
5. John Ray: Pioneered taxonomy based upon physical appearance (Created 1 st classification
of plants and animals)
6. Carolus Linnaeus: Wrote Systems of Nature (presented the binomial nomenclature
taxonomy of plants/animals)
7. Thomas Malthus: Founded demography: only some will find enough food to survive.
(Provided concept of advantageous characteristics.)
8. Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck: Posited characteristics acquired via inheritance. (Provided
first serious model of physical traits passing from parents to offspring)
9. Erasmus Darwin: Also posited characteristics (determined by wants/needs) acquired via
inheritance. (Advanced the notion that physical changes occurred in the past)
3. Linnean Classification A taxonomy of three kingdoms divided into classes, which turn into
orders, families, genus, and species.
3.1.Biological Life Animalia > Eumetazoa > Chordata
3.1.1. Mammalia > Homo (Humans), Simia (monkeys/apes),
3.1.2. Aves
3.1.3. Amphibia
3.1.4. Pisces
3.1.5. Insecta
3.1.6. Vermes
4. Speciation The evolutionary process by which new biological species arise.
4.1.Species A group of related organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile, viable
offspring.
5. Blending Inheritance: The notion that the phenotype of an offspring was a uniform blend of
the parents phenotypes. Unlike, Natural selection, the idea of inheritance from a small sector
is not going to be enough to propagate a species.
5.1.Natural Selection refers to the biological characteristics that enhance survival
increase in frequency from generation to generation.
6. Uniformitarianism The belief that the same natural processes that are happening today
are the same natural processes that have happened in the past.
7. Reproductive Success (Fitness): defined as the passing of genes onto the
next generation in a way that they too can pass on those genes. In practice, this is often a
tally of the number of offspring produced by an individual. A more correct definition, which
incorporates inclusive fitness, is the relative production of fertile offspring by a genotype.
7.1.Selective Pressures: any phenomena which alters the behavior and fitness of living
organisms within a given environment. It is the driving force of evolution and natural
selection, and it can be divided into two types of pressure: biotic or abiotic.
8. Variation has a tendency to provide the changes within the genotype of a species. Without
mutations (random changes in the genetic code) there would be no natural selection at all,
because species would not seem to have adaptable traits.
9. Fertility -

Anthropology 101 Test Study Guide

9.1.Fitness: Average number of offspring produced by parents with a particular genotype
compared to the number of offspring produced by parents with another genotype.

Anthropology 101 Test Study Guide

CHAPTER 3
1. Major Cell Classes
a. Prokaryotes A single celled organism that does not have a nucleus (Bacteria)
i. Some Organelles, but not many
ii. Not as complex as Eurkaryotes
b. Eukaryotes A complex cell with a nucleus and many organelles. (Plants, Animals,
Fungi, Protists)
i. All have a nucleus where the genetic material of the cell is.
ii. Many organelles that work together to maintain cell function
iii. Can be one cell, or can make complex multi-cellular organisms
2. Organelle The body parts (parts that compose) of a cell
a. In Eukaryotes
i. Nucleus The brain of the cell, directs activities, contains genetic material.
Chromosomes MADE of DNA
ii. Mitochondria Makes energy out of food
iii. Ribosomes Makes Protein
iv. Golgi Apparatus Make/Package/Process Proteins
v. Lysosome Contains digestive enzymes to help break food down
vi. Endoplasmic Reticulum Intracellular Highway, transports items around
cell
vii. Vacuole - Used for storage (usually water/food)
b. For Plants
i. Chloroplasts Use sunlight to create food by photosynthesis
ii. Cell Wall For support
3. Polymers Molecules, Amino Acids, and Proteins.
a. Proteins: any of a class of nitrogenous organic compounds that consist of large
molecules composed of one or more long chains of amino acids and is an essential
part of all living organisms, esp. as structural components of body tissues such as
muscle, hair, collagen, etc., and as enzymes and antibodies.
b. Amino Acids: re the building blocks of all biological proteins. Amino acids link
together via peptide bonds in a particular order as defined by genes. Genes are
translated by RNA to amino acid chains; the length and order of the amino acid
chain then dictates the three-dimensional structure of a polypeptide or protein.
4. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) The chemical that makes up each chromosome, the bodys
genetic code. Its homoplasmic (same in every cell)
a. DNA is made of Nucleotides Three Parts, Making a Double-Helix Chain.
i. Sugar
ii. Phosphate
iii. Nitrogen Base
1. Adenine (A)
2. Thymine (T)
3. Guanine (G)
4. Cytosine (C)
a. Match Ups : A-T; C-G;
b. In RNA (replication DNA), Thymine is substituted for uracil.
c. Covalent Bonds/Hydrogen Bonds
b. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Is inherited only from the mother, due to the ovum.
Its heteroplasmic, it can differ between parts of ones body or within the same cells.
5. Different Types of DNA:
a. RNA (ribonucleic acid) A single stranded molecule involved in protein synthesis,
consisting of a phosphate, ribose sugar, and one of four nitrogen bases.
b. mRNA (messenger RNA) Molecules responsible for making a chemical copy of a
gene needed for a specific protein. (For Transcription)
c. rRNA (ribosomal RNA) A fundamental structural component of a ribosome

6.

7.

8.

9.

Anthropology 101 Test Study Guide

d. tRNA (transfer RNA) Molecules responsible for transporting amino acids to
ribosomes during protein synthesis.
e. Coding DNA Sequences of a genes DNA (exons) that are coded to produce
specific proteins and are transcribed and translated during protein synthesis.
f. Noncoding DNA Sequences of a genes DNA (introns) that are not coded to
produce specific proteins and are excised before protein synthesis.
i. Autosomal DNA: 22 out of the 23 pairs of chromosomes that we have are
autosomes. Each autosome goes through a process called recombination
where their genes are randomly paired from each parent and passed on to
the child.
ii. Y chromosome: Is the DNA that the father passes down to the son to make
the fetus a male.
iii. X Chromosome: Is the DNA that the mother or father passes down to the
daughter to make the fetus a female.
iv. Mitochondrial DNA: DNA that is contained inside the mitochondria, which are
considered the "powerhouses" of the cell. The mitochondria are basically the
part that gives the cell its energy, and also contains DNA that separately
reproduces its own copy. Unlike autosomes that pass down genes from both
parents, the mitochondria follow a maternal line, although a mother also
passes down her mitochondrial DNA to her sons.
Protein Synthesis DNA is the template for Protein Synthesis, which then includes
Transcription and Translation
a. Transcription Occurs in the nucleus, involves the creation of mRNA (messenger
RNA) from one strand of DNA. After mRNA is done, it leaves the nucleus to go to the
ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
i. Enzymes unzip the DNA for transcription. (Only using one strand of DNA,
not both)
ii. mRNA attaches free nitrogen bases to the unpaired DNA bases that
were unzipped
iii. Translation begins as the mRNA binds to a ribosome. The message
carried by the mRNA is then translated by a ribosome.
b. Translation Ribosomes read the mRNA by THREE NITROGEN BASES at a
time. When a codon matches the transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules anticodon, the
tRNAs amino acid is added to the protein chain.
i. tRNA continues to attach the appropriate amino acid to the mRNAs
codons.
ii. Amino Acids are attached by a peptide bond, creating a polypeptide
chain, which when completed is the protein. As each amino acid is added,
tRNA is released.
iii. Eventually there is a STOP CODON which indicated the protein is completed.
mRNA leaves ribosomes, the protein is released.
Two types of Eukaryotic Cells in Humans
a. Somatic Cells Cells that exist in the body that are not a sexually reproductive
cell. (Skin, Hair, tissues, organs)
b. Sex Cells (Gametes) A sperm for males; An egg for females.
Zygote The cell that results from a sperms fertilization of an ovum.
a. Results in more than 10 TRILLION CELLS with the EXACT same DNA
i. Diploid A cell that has a full complement of paired chromosomes
ii. Haploid a cell that has a single set of unpaired chromosomes, half the
genetic material
Enzymes A catalyst for a chemical reaction
a. In DNA Replication, the enzymes help construct the DNA. Regulate activity
between cells (like hormones)
i. Helicase: Unwinds a portion of the DNA Double Helix
ii. RNA Primase: Attaches RNA primers to the replicating strands.

Anthropology 101 Test Study Guide

iii. DNA Polymerase delta (): Binds to the 5' - 3' strand in order to bring
nucleotides and create the daughter leading strand.
iv. DNA Polymerase epsilon (): Binds to the 3' - 5' strand in order to create
discontinuous segments starting from different RNA primers.
v. Exonuclease (DNA Polymerase I): Finds and removes the RNA Primers
vi. DNA Ligase: Adds phosphate in the remaining gaps of the phosphate - sugar
backbone
vii. Nucleases: Remove wrong nucleotides from the daughter strand.
10.Hemoglobin a conjugated protein in red blood cells, comprising globin and ironcontaining heme that transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues of the body.
11.Gene The basic unit of inheritance; a sequence of DNA on a chromosome coded to
produce a specific protein.
a. Human Biological Makeup, Disease History
12.Hox Gene (Homeotic Genes) Regulatory genes that guide the embryological
development of an animals body
a. Such as hand location, nose location, trunk, limbs.
b. They are turned on in sequence.
c. Structural Gene Responsible for hair, blood, other tissues
d. Regulatory Gene Turns on and off, an essential activity in growth and
development.
13.Chromosome - a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the
nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes
a. Homologous Chromosomes a chromosome with the same gene sequence as
another (matching)
14.Autosomes Nonsex Chromosomes obtained from a mother and a father.
a. Karyotype A complete set of chromosomes includes all autosomes and a pair of
sex chromosomes.
i. Humans have 46 Chromosomes. (In 23 Pairs)
15.Sex Chromosomes Chromosomes that determine an organisms biological sex.
16.Mitosis results in the production of two identical somatic cells. In humans, each
parental or daughter cell has 46 chromosomes in 23 homologous pairs
a. Interphase - the "holding" stage or the stage between two successive cell
divisions. In this stage, the cell replicates its genetic material and organelles in
preparation for division.
b. Prophase - the chromatin condenses into discrete chromosomes. The nuclear
envelope breaks down and spindles form at opposite "poles" of the cell.
c. Metaphase - In metaphase, the chromosomes are aligned at the metaphase plate
(a plane that is equally distant from the two spindle poles).
d. Anaphase - In anaphase, the paired chromosomes (sister chromatids) move to
opposite ends of the cell.
e. Telophase - In this last stage, the chromosomes are cordoned off in distinct new
nuclei in the emerging daughter cells. Cytokinesis is also occurring at this time.
17.Centromere - A centromere is a region on a chromosome that joins two sister chromatids
a. Sister Chromatids - Sister chromatids are two identical copies of a single
chromosome
18.Meiosis results in the production of four gametes. In humans, each parental cell has 46
chromosomes while each gamete has 23 chromosomes.
19.Meiosis I has two main purposes:
a. It is the reduction division, so it reduces the number of chromosomes in half,
making the daughter cells haploid (when the parent cell was diploid).
i. It is during meiosis I that most of the genetic recombination occurs.
b. Prophase I
i. Just like in mitosis, during prophase, DNA condensation occurs, the nuclear
envelope and nucleoli disappear, and the spindle starts to form. The big
difference is what is going on with the chromosomes themselves.

Anthropology 101 Test Study Guide

As DNA condensation proceeds and the chromosomes first become visible,
they are visible as tetrads. So, tetrads become visible during prophase.
c. Metaphase I
i. Tetrads line up at the equator. The spindle has completely formed.
ii. It is during prophase I and metaphase I that genetic recombination is
occurring. Take a look at the genetic recombination page to find out about
how that happens here. Keep in mind that it only happens when there are
tetrads, so as soon as anaphase I get going, genetic recombination is over.
d. Anaphase I
i. Tetrads pull apart and chromosomes with two chromatids move toward the
poles.
e. Telophase I
i. Chromosomes with two chromatids decondense and a nuclear envelope
reforms around them. Each nucleus is now haploid.
ii. Keep in mind that it is not the number of chromatids per chromosome that
determine whether a cell is diploid or haploid, but, it is the number of
chromosomes and whether they are paired that determines this.
f. Meiosis II
g. At the end of meiosis I, each chromosome still had two chromatids. That is double
the amount of DNA that a cell should have. So, the entire reason to go through
meiosis II is to reduce the amount of DNA back to normal-- basically, to split the
chromosomes so that each daughter cell has only one chromatid per chromosome
(the normal genetic content).
h. Prophase II
i. Chromosomes with two chromatids become visible as they condense (and
the nuclear envelope and nucleoli disappear, and the spindle is forming).
i. Metaphase II
i. Chromosomes with two chromatids line up at the equator. The spindle is
fully formed.
ii. Although genetic recombination primarily occurs during meiosis I, the way
the chromosomes line up during metaphase II can also help to make unique
daughter cells. I mention this on the genetic recombination page.
j. Anaphase II
i. Chromosomes split, so that a chromosome with only one chromatid heads
toward each pole.
k. Telophase II
i. Chromosomes with only one chromatid decondense and get surrounded by
new nuclear envelopes. The four daughter cells are now all haploid and have
the right amount of DNA. They are ready to develop into sperm or eggs now.
20.Recombination - The natural formation in offspring of genetic combinations not present
in parents, by the processes of crossing over or independent assortment.
a. Crossing Over - homologous chromosomes line up along their length, intersect a
section of their chromatids, and exchange corresponding parts of that chromatid
with each other. So in the end, one of the homologous chromosomes has a segment
of the other homologous chromosome's DNA, and vice versa
21.Evolutionary Significance of Meiosis - the new individual contains a brand new set of
genetic material ... different from either of its parents. This increases the odds, in a
population, that some individuals may have some new genetic combinations that produce
some small improvement. (via mutation, clines, or trends due to natural selection).
ii.

Anthropology 101 Test Study Guide

CHAPTER 4
1. Segregation - The two factors of a character do not blend with each other but separate
out during the formation of gametes.
a. Law of Segregation Mendels 1st law; Asserts that the two alleles for any given
gene (or trait) are inherited with one from each parent. During gamete production,
only one of two alleles will be present in sperm or ovum.
2. Independent Assortment Mendels 2nd law; Asserts that the inheritance of one trait
does not affect the inheritance of other traits.
3. Dominant Trait - one which will be expressed if one of the parents has the gene for that
trait
4. Recessive Trait - one that will be expressed only if both parents carry the trait.
5. Allele One or more alternative forms of a gene
a. Dominance Refers to an allele expressed in an organisms phenotype and
simultaneously masks the effects of another allele
b. Recessive An allele expressed in an organisms phenotype if two copies are
present, but masked if the dominant allele is present.
6. Homozygous Allele Two alleles that are the same within an organisms genotype.
a. Homozygous Dominant Two Dominant Alleles (TT)
b. Homozygous Recessive Two Recessive Alleles (tt)
7. Heterozygous Allele Two alleles that are different within an organisms genotype.
a. Heterozygous (Tt)
i. This will be a dominant trait due to the T allele. However, the
offspring is a carrier of the recessive gene, and can pass the recessive gene
to offspring.
8. Genotype The genetic makeup of an organism, the combination of alleles for a given
gene.
9. Phenotype The physical expression of the genotype; it may be influenced by the
environment
10.Mendelian Traits The basic principles associated with the transmission of genetic
material, forming the basis of genetics
a. Such as the ability to taste the chemical PTC
b. The ability to roll ones tongue.
11.Polygenic Gene - one whose phenotype is influenced by more than one gene. Traits that
display a continuous distribution, such as height or skin color, are polygenic.
12.Pleiotropic Gene One gene that can affect multiple traits within a phenotype
13.Co-dominant Gene - A trait resulting from an allele that is independently and equally
expressed along with the other.
a. An example of co-dominant trait is blood type, i.e. a person of blood type AB has
one allele for blood type A and another for blood type B.
14.Mutation random changes in a gene or chromosome, resulting in a new trait that may
be advantageous, deleterious, or neutral in its effects on the organism.
a. Mutation can create paths for natural selection by providing unforeseen or
adaptive traits.
15.Gene flow Admixture, the exchange of alleles between two populations.
a. Gene flow reduces the variances between populations. If extensive enough, gene
flow can merge neighboring populations into a single population with a common
gene pool
16.Genetic Drift The random change in allele frequency from one generation to the next
with much greater affect in small populations
i. Genetic drift tends to reduce genetic variation due to the losses of alleles
from the gene pool.
ii. Bottleneck Effect When a population is reduced to a small size and is now
the representation of the species

Anthropology 101 Test Study Guide

1. The issue is that the small surviving population is unlikely to be
representative of the original population in its genetic makeup.
iii. Founder Effect A loss of genetic variation when a new colony is founded
by a small number of individuals from a larger population. In humans, this
results from culture isolation and leads to endogamy (marriage restricted to
cultural/racial similarities), which leads to inbreeding, thus resulting In low
genetic variation.
b. Outbreeding there is an increased probability that individuals with a particular
genotype will mate with individuals of another particular genotype. Leads to
increased genetic variation.
c. Inbreeding - occurs when individuals with similar genotypes are more likely to
mate with each other rather than with individuals with different genotypes. Leads to
decreased genetic variation.
17.Gene Pool All the genetic information in the breeding population.
18.Evolutionary Processes
a. Mutation
i. Affects the changes within DNA, by mistakes in the RNAs codon
processing and the nitrogen base matchup, new traits and
conditions averse to the organisms natural makeup can arrive
ii. Mistakes in cell division (Meiosis) can impact mutation as well.
b. Natural Selection
i. Can affect the traits that a population has. For example, giraffes may
have started with shorter necks, but when fruit began to grow
higher on trees, giraffes with longer necks were able to survive.
However, the ones with shorter necks were not.
c. Genetic Drift
i. Can affect the change of an organism within a population. Genes
that were not presently a part of a populations gene pool can
become a part if an individual were to outbreed with someone from
a neighboring population
d. Gene Flow
i. Gene flow can then transfer these numerous genes across multiple
populations. In the case of blood types, which now vary across the
world.
19.Sickle Cell Anemia A genetic disorder that causes human blood cell to become sickle
shaped. A person that inherits two alleles for sickle-cell anemia will have the disorder
a. A person who inherits two alleles for this will NOT have sickle cell anemia, but will,
thanks to natural selection, be immune to malaria

Anthropology 101 Test Study Guide

CHAPTER 5
1. Does race have any biological meaning? No, human races have no biological
significance. If there were truly human races, there would be an account of genetic
diversity. Most variations occur across populations regardless of racial makeup
a. Clines Gradual changes in some phenotypic characteristic from one population to
the next.
2. Human Variation Growth & development are within two different sides of the same
coin. Many humans begin to age and go through processes at various times within their
life, but the impact of these changes is also dependent on the environment.
3. Life History The timing a details of growth events and development events from
conception through senescence and death.
a. The process of our life history allows our culture to evolve.
b. Makes room for new adaptations or technological advancements
4. Adaptations
a. Functional Adaptations Biological changes that occur during an
individuals lifetime, increasing the individuals fitness in the given
environment.
b. Environmental Extremes
i. Homeothermic Refers to an organisms ability to maintain a constant body
temperature despite great variations in environmental temperature.
ii. Thermoregulation The process by which the human body regulates
extreme hot or cold.
iii. Sweating is a response to heat, along with a persons red face (the
bodys attempt to move blood away from its core)
1. Bergmans Rule An animals size is heat-related; Smaller bodies are
adapted to hot environments, larger bodies are adapted to cold
environments.
2. Allens Rule Animals limb lengths are heat-related; limbs are longer
in hot environments and shorter in cold environments.
iv. People adapt to environmental and other circumstances via Culture.
1. Culturally, a parent would tell their child to wear many layers of
clothing for cold weather.
2. Take bug spray when its cold outside
3. Use sunscreen to reduce the chance of a sunburn.