Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
79
SDDCQ
THE ACCELEROMETER
OFA
_ -OBTAINING
MEO
.. 1
AIRCRAFT fERFORMANCE
FROM FLIGHT TEST DATA
(DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE
TESTING)I
IIiam.R.. -ipson
LA..
1A
!79
10
1.8
..
Best
Avai~lable
Copy
PREFACE
There are,
in general,
Aircraft performance
is defined here as engineering data which can be used to realistically represent the aircraft capabilities
turning performance,
The
is to fly a particular
thrust available,
lift
etc. However,
,.those parameters can be combined with known facts about the airframe
and propulsion system in
performance.
For example,
In general,
Dynamic maneuvers:
or rollercoaster).
The data acquisition technique for extraction of aerodynamic
(energy method).
the dynamic
-J
..
"when
.
_=
-_
_1
-s-
* -by
Aircraft longitudinal
Several USAF,
programs have established that the drag polar shape (not absolute
level) can be obtained to within 3 percent data accuracy from
dynamic maneuvers with time savings of 70 to 90 percent over
conventional methods.
Because these techniques offer such tremendous advantages,
and because these techniques require increased care in application,
this document is compiled as a guide to those who wish to apply the
techniques.
Ar
i-
11
ii
D' S
-' spec
-al
-- -
FORWARD
This document is
the result
Edwards'
Calverton,
California,
New York,
and the
as well as
Each
Navy participation.
by using onboard
The author wishes
Chuck Sewell,
iv
22209.
'
14
e1r.. .. .....-.
Summary ofChapte
Background
Symrbols .
. . . . .
-~~~
Calibration Procedures .
Inflight Corr
Mnuesfrte-
1-2
1-4
. . . . . .
1-6
. . . . . ...
t
The Aircraf Moddle.
{Laboratory
1-12
..
. . . .
11
...
...
...
. ..
rettns
Accelerometer Methods. ...
9I
-1
.124
......-
~Dynamic Maneuvers,.
Fuel Flow Modelinlg. ..
. .
..
..
...
..
..
*......
1-14
1-29
...
1- 33
1-35
1- 36-
pJ
La
WE
Iv
CHIAPTER 2
Summary of Chapter 2. .
2-1
Introduction to Chapter
2 .
2-2
Symbols
. .
Package
. 2-11
.0.
. 2-18
. .*.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Package.
Flight
Path Accelerometer
Body Accelerometer.
. . .
Rate
Effects .
. .
. 2-
. 2- 25
. 2. 2-
25
25
2-
27
.
.
.
.
Concluding Remarks
.
.
to Chapter 2 .
.
.
.
. .
. .*.
.
. . . 2-21
.*.
. . 2- 21
. . . . 2-21
. ...
2- 22
2 .
.
.
to Chapter
.
.
References
.
.
.
.
Angular
2-7
Sideslip
2- 3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vi
23
.
. . 2- 31
2- 31
. . .
. . . . 2- 31
.*.
.
. 2- 32
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. 2-34
2-35
-t
----
CHAPTER 3
Sumary of
.... .
Chapter3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction to
Symbols . . . . . .
3-2
...............
Cher 3 .
.
3-1
344
. . . . . . . . . . . .
3-7
The Basic Mathematical Model . . . . . . . .
3-7
.................
Airplane Drag Polar
Lift Slope Curve...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Thrust-Fuel Flow Relation
. . . .
Thrust Available .
. . . . . . . .
3-12
.3-12
. . . . . . 3-17
3-17
..
3-19
...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
Test Maneuvers . .... .
Steady State Test Maneuvers . . .
"-Steady Points .......
Steady State Turns. . . . .
Quasi SteadyTest Maneuvers . . .
Level Flight.Accelerations.
Wings Level Deceleration. .
Constant Mach Climbs. . . .
Dynamic Maneuvers.. ..............
Constant Mach Wind-Up Tun
.. . .
Push-Over/Pull-Up .
Wind-Down Deceleration. . .
. . . ..
.....
.
.
.
3-49
. . . . .
3-51
. . .
.......
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
.........
. .
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . .
. .. ..
. . ..
. . ..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
3-25
3-26
3-26
3-30
3-30
3-30
3-32
3-39
3-39
3-39
3-42
3-45
..
....
......
. .
3-21
.
.
.
.
3-54
Drag Polar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
Thrust Available ..................
.
. . .
Other Curves ..............
3-54
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-58
3-60
References.
3- 61
Program Planning.
vii
i %
:.: i .L.__.
U :,, ,,
3-54
3- 54
ChlAPTER 4
Page9
Summary of Chapter 4..... ...
to Chapter
Introduction
Symbols
Corrections
to be Made
The Effects
of Thrust
4 .
4-1
4-2
to All Data.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.*.
. . . . . . . . . .
4-8
4-9
. 4-26
Standardization
. . .
. 4-
.* .
The Effects of CG
. .*.
(CG Standardization).
Factor Standardization)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
28
4-29
4-33
4-37
.....
.
. 4-39
. . .
.. .
. 4-42
. 4-42
@ 4-47
.
.
.
.
.
. 4-48
. 4-49
. ..
. ..
Altitude Effects. . . . . . . . . . .
Reynold's Number. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . ;
Elasticity
Other Atmospheric Conditions.
to Chapter
o o
viii
a o
.
*
# .
.
.
4-53
4-54
CHAPTER 536
.....
..
..
.....
..
..
..
5-14
. . .
5-3
5-5
5-6
5-6
. . .
5-7
5-7
5-9
.
..
r .. .. . . . .........
The Altimete
s -2
...
.
5-9
Free Air temperature Probe .. .. ....... . ..
Angle of Attack . . . ........................ .5-11
. . ... 512
Angle of Sideslip. .. ...............
5-12
Accelerometer Measurements .. .. ........... . . . .
5-14
.
.
.
...............
inertial Navigation Systems. ..
.
5-16
.
.
Rates)
Angular
And
(Angles
inertial Measurements
. .. .. .. ..
tse... .. . ...
Airframe Parame
.. .
.
.
5 2
-
. 5-21
. 5-24
. .5-26
.. .5-27
ix
--
a:____
--
--
CHAPTER 6
Page
6-i1
Chapter 6 .....................
evumrnrofhptr.................................6S Smayof
Symbols
......................
..............
Applying
the Calibration....
Accelerometer
Misalignments
6-4
6-6
6-18
................
.
..............
'Installed)
6-24
.....
6-26
......
...
. .
........
Temperature Sensitivity
.
. ........
6-29
...
6-31
....
6-43
6-43
6-45
...
TI|
....
.............
.........
. ..
................
6-10
...............
.-........
..................
6-2
.................
...............
..................
....
6-47
6-48
6-1
... 6-59
.. 6-60
CHAPTER 7
tSumary of Chapter
71
.....................
Introduction to Chapter 7 . . . ..
Symbols
Angle
..
..
..
.
...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . .
7-3
of Attack .*. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-6
7-10
..
.
Differential Pressure Sensors ...
Null-Seeking Differential Pressure Sensor .
Upwash.
. . . .
...
..
. .
. .
.
.
.
. ..
A
.
.....
7. 13
. . . .
.714
..
.
..
..
.
...
7-20
Photographic Method
7 22-
. ..
...
..
.....
737-25.
726
7-28
7430
7-33
7.38
739-
. . . .
........
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xi
.7-41
. .
7-2
CHAPTER 8
Page
-SunuiiaryV of Chapter-8 .8-1
8-2
....................................................
8-3
Symbols.
-
.......
8-4
....................
8-8
..................
-Pilot-Maneuver Techniques. ..............
8-8
...........................
--C1i mbs .. ................
-D~escents.. ........
...................................
8-9
Near Stabilized Points . .... ...........................-10
ccelerations .. .................................... 8-10
-Decelerations.. ...................................... 8-11
Wind-Up Turnsc.. .. .................................... 8-12
..
.. 8-42
..
Wi1nd--Down Turns. ........... ...... .. ....
~lercoaster or-Push-Pull Maneuver...........-3
Bs D-ata Rdtin....................8-15
opi-qhFiht Profile Construction
..
..
..
..
..
....
8-1-8
xii
Da ta
..
..
..
.
. . ..
. ..
.
..
9-1
..
9-2
9-3
.....
SSymbols
SAcceleration
..
9-
..
. .
..........
9-10
.......
9-17
Climb9Performance.
Ih
Flight) ...9
(Level
Performance
S~Turning STake-oand
ealksteChnipues...
Conventiong
Performance.............
Landinrh
SGround
.. .
te.
ha
to ionP Phase
landing . . . . .
Referencesfo
Tunn
=vlFih)
efrac
ma c.....
....
9-25
9-26
9-28
. . . . . .
9-31
...
. .
. .
........
I-A
xiii
9-30
9-199-
. .
. . . . .. . . . . ..
.
. . . . .
. . . . . .
****
91
MEW- I W-
--
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
S1-9
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-5
1-6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-26
1-7
. . . . . . . . . . .
1-8
. .
.. .
..
..
. 1-20
. 1-22
1-31
......
1-34
_I
~~1
---
1-27
If
-~4-'~-
. 1-10
1-17
SI
-~
..
~-~
V,2-1
..
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6--
2-7
Rotational uynami
. .. ..
IF1
2-12
....
.2-14
2 -17
ic.. ....
2-8
..
2-19
.
.
2-24
..... . 2-28
A1
_~
-A-
IA
xv
N4_
Page
Figure
.
...............
. 38
3
3-1
1-2
3-3
3-13
3-4
3-14
3-5
3-6
3-16
3-7
3-18
3-8
3-9
3-10
. .
3-9
...............
. .....
.
.........
3-15
. . .3-28
.. 3-29
3-31
.......
3-33
J
3-34
3-35
.......
3-13
3-36
.......................
. .
. .
3-377
..........
3-14
3-15
3-16
3-17
.3-38
...
3-40
.. 3-41
t
1 3-18
3-19
63-43
.
3-44
. 3-46
XVi
Figure
3-20
3-21
Drag Comparison.
3-22
******
.a-
..
o
. . . . . . . . o
3-48
3-50
.3-5-2
. . . . . . .3-55
Optimum Flight Profile Drag Data Yield . . S3-23
3-24
t
.3456
I,
I-
i!
ifl
"I
-
xvi
51
NMII
Figure-
Page
. .........
. 4"10-
4-1
4-2
4-14
4-3
4-4
4-5
4-6
4-7
4-8
4- 34
4-9
4-36
4-10
.4"40
4-11
.. 443
5-1
iiii
....
4-30
............
.4o-19
.. 4-23
.............
..............
.4-16
5-23
if
t
PagLe
Figure
6-1
6"-7
6-2
6-8
6-3
6-4
.LinearNon-Zero
.**
Slope Data .
*.
**
6-5
6-6
6-7
6-8
Non-LinearDa
~6-9
.6-12
.
.6-13
6-15
. . . . . . ..
.. . . .6-16
at. . . .. .. .. .. . ...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
6-25
.. . .. . .. . .. . .
p
Oscillogra ecrecord..
6-10
Pendulum Mount .
6-11
6-12
Yaw Misalignme
6-13
6-14
6-15
6-16
. 6-28
. .. .. . .. . ..
6-30
(below)...
12
6-32
1+4
6-27
ens.. .. . ...
6-19
6-20
. 6-36
6-37
I AN
6-38
Sensitivity/Temperature Correction .
6-39
6-40
6-20
6-21
6-44
6-22
6-46
6-23-
6-49
A6-17
6-18
E6-19
xix
6-42
..
Page
Figure
6-24
6-5-3t
6-27
..e ..
.. .. ..
..
....
6-56
6-58
Figure
Pg
7-1
7-2
7-3
7-12
. . . . .
7-15
. 7-17
7-4
7-5
7-6
. .
7-19
7-21
. .
.*.
7-7
. 7--7
7-8
. 7-29
7-9
. 7-34
. .
...
S7-10
7-11
7-12
. .
. .
.
. .
. .
7-24
7-32
7-36
7-37
-1
xxi
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
_ae
Figtlre
81-
...
-Environmental Control Considerations. .. .. .......
8-2
8-3
21
-I
IE,
Figure
Page
9-1
Specific Range
9-2
9-3
9-4
9-5
9-6
9-7
9-8
Turning Performance C
9-9
9-21
9-10
9-22
9-11
Data..
9-8
. ...................
9-9Pag
9-11
Available Plot .
9-12
9-13
.
.
.*.
9-14
9-15
9-16
...
9-18
. .
. . . . .
9-20
9-23
.
................
9-24
9-27
Ixxiii
hIT
'
I2
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1-i
4-1
4-2
5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4
5-5
Instrumentation Summary
8-1
8-2
Page
1-8
4-50
4-52
. . .
5-8
5-8.
5-10
. .
.5-15
. .
5-24
8-16
8-17
t
A
141
a
xxiv
AIRCRAFT PERFOPMANCE
i 'I
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
1T
I-
I:
SU4MRY OF CHAPTER I
"-1._1
aircraft performance
The overall
turning,
The accelerometer
to define the capabilities'of an aircraft.
methods differ frvm conventional methods in that onboard accelerometers -re used to measure longitudinal and normal load factors for
the determination of aircraft excess thrust and lift.
This first
I
.4,
A.1
_I
F- i -'--.. . .. .. . - i,
,-...
BACKGROUND
1.2
In
recent years,
both
and moti-
(AFFTC)
School
(ARPS)
dynamic performance test techniques for both subsonic and supersonic flight.
(USAF)
invited
in
this program.
1971,
with Navy
testing
year before,
both aircraft.
including
of the A-7D.
Chapter 5.
1.4
envelope
Consequently,
1-3
A-
1.5
Symbol
Common
-Units
Metric
Units
CD
Drag coefficient
(-)
Lift coafficient
(-)
L
CLv
cg
'ex
g
1/radians
Excess thrust
Acceleration of gravity
-
32.2 feet/seconds'
@ sea level
ft/sec 2
ft
(N)
lbs
Altitude
(i/radians
(M/sec 2
(M)
/ft
fbs-sec(N-sec /M)
-system
ft
(M)
MAC
ft
(M)
Mach number
(_)
(_)
N p
Sx
XFPK
P
S
q
Radius Qf action
R.F.
Range fact'or
air n.mi.
S.R.
Specific range
Sv
TSFC
Vt
Wf
Fuel flow
1-4
ft/sec
lb/ft 2
(M/sec)
(N/M2 )
ft
(M)
ft 2
lb-hr/lb
ft/sec
(Km)
2
(N-sec/Kg)
(M/sec)
Ibs
(Kg)
lbs/hr
(Kg/sec)
Iq
Greek Symbols
DofinitionAngle of attack
Common
Metric
units
Units
deg
(deg)
cycles/sec
--
-a
p
(cycles/sec)
-.deg-.
(radians)
pitch rate
p
deg/sec
(rad/sec)
(-)
Pressure ratio
Other
(')
C 'I)
( )i
Indicated value
( )t
True value
'
off
( )Power
PO;
Iii
1-5
iI
'
-:
1.6
Airspeed/altitude
(energy method)
Position
measurement (radar or camera method)
{k
Accelerometer
by:
ex
SW
Vt
t
V
9
xp
FP
mounted on a photopanel,
1.8
(energy
although both
N
1-6
The
and the
other hand is
in that a
Additionally, it
1-7
Mechanical alignment of
Cu4
4.
4J
0 0
(1 )
41
E
0
N
N4-i
c:a
a) *d a)
U)
41
"E-4
U)
41
:30
H
4'J
'
E-4
Cu
4'
1C
o00
U)
C
14
U,
N
q)C
C
00
Cu
'
CN
1f-8
YiI
the accelerometer to the flight path can be achieved by mounting
the accelerometer in the noseboom in such a way that the acceleroSuch a
Additionally,
it
is preferred
the systems.
each system
Also,
Therefore,
1-9
7M
It
U
kU
v
oil
K>
44
u(
W4
1-10
Chapter 3).
~it
L!:)
:jii
1.15
engineer is
based on drag,
(TSFC) relation.
Each
i1
That is,
if
drag was
Al
For example,
S.R.-
(1-2)
W-
f
For a TSFC of one, drag is numerically equal to fuel
incorrectly high,
drag is
say 10 percent,
then there
flow, when
is
a corre-
TSFC map is entered with 1.1 times the drag thus yielding the
correct value of fuel flow.
thrust available,
methods,
Thus,
hacns
1-12
771
in order to obtain
must be accurate.
The drag
However,
"repeatable."
44'g
Ii
1-13
1.16
Chamber Testing.
1-14
INFLIGHT CORRECTIONS
1.17
1.18
( n)
and damping (C .
and CEV)
flight conditions
In practice,
the
1-15
1.20
Angular
corrections
rate effects
for
(r)
(0),
maneuvers.
function of angular rates and the moment arm between the accelerometer and cq.
procedures
1.21
Noseboom upwash
given in
was determined
Chapter
2.
by several
flight
test
methods:
"* Attitude gyro method
"* Horizon reference method
"* Photographic method
"* Energy method.
is
given in Chapter 7.
a stabilized point is
In the energy
The
as computed by airspeed/
series of points.
1-16
3o
~0
2'3-4
10
11 12 13 14 15
-FIG. 1-2:
ANL
OF ATTACK\ UP WASH
Y4)
1-17
The high quality of the data allows for greater confidence with
Additionally,
The body
the systems thus far tested, the corrections to angle of attack are
an order of magnitude smaller than the angle of attack (approximately
10:1),
4:
1-18
MI
HUM.-
MANEUVERS
1.23
climbs, descents,
The major
Additionally,
because on an average,
Additionally,
at each point the two should be-on the order of magnitude equivalence
thereby giving an independent check on the functioning of instrumentation and validity of data reduction procedures which in turn
i
The disadvantages of
(greater 1.or less than nominal lg); and the increased flight time to
obtain the same data when compared with dynamic maneuvers.
maneuvers is
1.24
I3
1-19
1N
__ZL-
1-2
______1
trying to hold a
Consequently,
the change
polar line.
It
data.
A data scatter
I
ehI
0
0
i
I
t
.41L Powes
Accolerjtion
FIG
1E4
PLRIOTANDSURN
DRAG
SUBSONI
1-22
-LI
v I I
(7T1
01VA COCKOIikT-C&
FIG. 1-5:
1-23
It
,
-A
tions data low power settings may be performed over the same
range as acceleration data, and the two may be compared to
ascertain power effects.
41
(These
DYNAMIC MANEUVERS
1.28
g
A complete
be roller coasters, wind-up turns, and wind-down turns.
Sdescription
of each of these maneuvers is included in Chapters 3
and 8.
The advantage of the dynamic maneuvers are its rapidity
its ability co be done at near constant Mach
coefficients
1- 24
the smooth
4!
the corrections to
Slarger
such as
1.30
The
maneuver was performed at 0.1 cycles per second for two cycles, or
a total of 20.0 seconds.
Category II
It
it
tends to
should be noted
range if
CL
It
should also be
1-25
-- '
0I
ii
~,.
I,o
,a6
"-a
-.
.
. . .NO . ...
. . .. . Sk-00
AWTOTA
00
DAA
. .4~
S--I
LOA G
...
...
..
..
1~
1-2
.0
"-"
i - i-I
............
,=
.
6
h7I0iI4S
2 -CA
Lw
S|-Z
C
wA
Contractor
Wind Up TurnPolar"
Pushover/Pullup
Stabilized
/;
X,
U)
DRAG COEFFICIENT- CO
FIG. 1-7:
'
~L
1--27
~Ar
{I
and the data agrees nicely with the contractor predicted line.
The dynamic maneuvers combined with accelerometer methods can
reduce total flight time while giving data with a high level of
confidence.
1-28
I;
",,/
S1.32
It
Since many
concept is
-CA
-77
THIS
PAGE
IS
MISSING
IN
ORIGINAL
DOCUTM
N1
"I
W"
"99IAw,50W/S
--
41,50
--
-'24,500W/8
"-MACH
NUMBER
FIG. 1-8 :
_
t2:
-"
..
W/S
%0--
--
-e
W/
1-3
-.
~34O
technique is
The fuel
other than that available to the flight test engineer at the time
of an evaluation would be required.
(such as Category II
Application of fuel
""-4
""1
'-.-.--
~i
1.37
All accelerometer
gives
area of transonics.
in the
data to obtain transonics Mach number and determination of transonic performance data are being investigated.
since accelera-
The advantages
Finally,
4}1 ii
FIG. 1-9:
-344
-(
'4q
1.39
It
Conversely,
Finally,
or no data.
1-35
_______
______
REFERENCES TO CHAPTER 1
Nl-1.
4-2.
1.-3.
-4
NI
N3N
1-36
--
~-
-_
. .
CHAPTER 2
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY EQUATIONS
IA
'
'
" '
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 2
2.1
(both flight path and body mounted) for determining aircraft performance are developed.
2-1
CHAPTER
_ITRODCTION
'.: 2.2
zi'
This then,
2-2
Si
SYMBOLS
2.3
Definition
Symbol
a 1 ,a
the subscripted
Acceleration in
direction
Chapter 2.
Common
Units
2
ft/sec
Metric Units
2
(m/sec2)
Accelerometer
CL
a
cg
Center of gravity
Drag force
Derivative indicator(differential)
Specific energy
ft
lb
Acceleration of gravity
Altitude
ft
(m)
Lift
lb
(N)
Length
ft
(m)
Mach number
none
none
Mass
slug
(kg)
MAC
(N)
lb
-
(N)
ft/sec
subscripted
Pa
Ambient pressure
lb/ft
Dynamic pressure
lb/ft
2
(m/sec2)
none
none
Load factor in
direction
(m)
ft
2-3
(% MAC)
% MAC
(1/radians)
(N/mi)
4
A
2
(N/r
A
Definition
!Symbol
Common
Units
Metric Units
ft
(m)
f2
Area of wing
ft2
Time
sec
(sec)
Velocity (airspeed)
Weight
wa
Airflow
ft/sec
(m/sec)
lb
(N)
slugs/sec
(kg/sec)
deg
(deg)
Sideslip angle
deg
(deg)
deg
(deg)
am
Misalignment(with subscripts)
Greek
Symbol
a
AaB
none
deg
(deg)
Boom bending
deg
(deg)
Aircraft heading
Z
E
Summation
none
none
3.14159
(deg)
deg
none
Damping ratio
deg
(deg)
deg
(deg)
slugs/ft
Air denisty
2-41
3
(kg/m3
Greek
SmoI
*
Common
Units.
Definition
Bank angle (right wing down positive)
deg
'(deg)
deg
(deg)
deg/sec
(deg/sec)
rate
SAngular
W
Natural frequency
cycles/sec
(cycles/sec)
wd
Damped frequency
cycles/sec
(cycles/sec)
ya
SSymbol
( ) A/C
Aircraft
( ) B
Body reference
( ) BB
Boom bending
Excess
ex
( ) FPA
)g
Gross
Indicated
Misalignment
Net{
)n
Ram
r
T,
Initial condition
Pitch rate
( ) P
(
Metric Units
u, upwash
True quality
Upwash
"2-5
__________________
3g
~~j~&
R
-
-Ai
Symbol
Definition
Y-axis (lateral)
)l, 2,
3, 4
Condition point
()
(')
Equal by definition
IN
2-6g
II
2.4
system).
herein assumes wings level flight at zero sideslip for the purpose
The effects of bank angle and sideslip will be dis-
of clarity.
cussed later.
Additionally, the gross thrust vector is assumed
Toe-out effects can be accounted for by
to lie in the x-z plane.
I+
(2-1)
max
W
F COS(Ct+T)
F COS(a+T)
n
Wsiny
(Fn)
gA/C
=
_W dV t
(2-2)
as:
Fr
r
2-7
(2-3)
FIG.
IRRFTFOC
~
~
~~ BLAC1DAGA
1- 0-:
Rii
i OR.Zo
40RIii.
xim
vi
IrI
W dVt
F
- D - Wsiny
g dt
(2-4)
dt
or
Fex
2.6
Fn -D
1dV
W(g dt +sinY-)
(2-5)
The ram drag (Fr) is assumed to act along the flight path
2.7
(2-6)
WatV
Fr
becomes:
Fz
ma
(2-7)
Wcosy + Fgsin(c+T)
(2-8)
F sin(a+T)
(2-9)
gzA/C
or
L
W cosy +
--/C)
Equations 2-5 and 2-9 become the force balance equations of the
4ircraft in the two dimensional wind axis system (assuming zero
i2.8
as functions of accelerations,
_I
11
MOMA-
these accelerations.
is
the aircraft.
iz
2-1
II
II
ii
- !
2-10
:Ii
S... . . .
-=
..
. .
.....
.........
_
- _V
- -
- .
299
For clarification,
at
ig
conditions,
angle of attack since the upwash calibration will include the aeroIn the general case of accelerated flight,
ai + Aupwash + Aa
upwash
BB
at=
where
Aa..BB
pitch acceleration
W)
Further effects of
general, be different for the normal and flight path axes is discussed in detail in chapter 6.
is
;
"1-1
upwash +am+ABB
+ Aa + Aa
auah
2-'1
-,
-:&d
(2-11)
.,
-4
PATH
ACCEGROETE
TRAIN
HORIZON
AAA
GE ....::.HOORZONN
TRIN
a2-12
FLHPGAT
FI.C-2CLIHTPTHACEERMEEMBLACTDAGA
NORMAL
AXIS
FIG.
2-2:
-
-
2-12
It
I
2.10
s+AiB-a
u
~~
FPA
sin
zPAPA
mxp
au+6am
+6BB
FFAXip
(2-12'
F+AA
sin
cAu+Aam
XFPA
FPA
FFPA
It
+AaB
+az.
cos au+Lam
FPA
ZFPA
2-)
Pcosau+Aa
aB
-nz.
sin Aau+Aa m
(2-14
+AaB
+AaBB) ]s
+AaBB) +n iA cos(Aau+Aam
sinFAau+Aam
n zFpA = n .
ippA
XFPA
x
]
ZFpA
ZFPA
(2-15'
figure 2-3.
2.11
flight path,
a
a
XFPA
FPA
xA/C
A/C
+ g sin y
(2-16
cos Y
(2-17
+g
2-13
ISI
ACCELEROME TER CORCE
TO NORMAL AXIS
CS
ZA/C
2-14
tj7
lo4
S1A
nX
(2-18)
ZA/C +cos y.
(2-19)
x
n-
zFPA
By definition,
(aA)
XA/C
A/C + sin Y
flight path
n
which yields:
-Z
-+
xFpA
1 dV
g dt
sin y.
(2-20)
Fe
ex
Equation 2-21 is
(2-21)
accelerometer method.
It
W(n
)
SW
FPA
F sin(a+-r)
g
Equation 2-22 relates the wind axis normal load factor to aerodynamic lift.
2-15
(2-22)
2.12
as they fit
the
From the
dh
(2-23)
dt V
combining equation 2-23 with equation 2-20:
1 dVt
XFPA
dh 1
dt Vt
dt
h+2
(2-25)
E s
it
dV
dt
)v
(2-26)
(2-26)
(n xFpA
K-
Additionally,
it
has
been shown that the longitudinal load factor together with velocity
gives information with regard to the time rate of change of aircraft
specific energy.2-6i!
2-16
A"ERF.
FUSELG
dt HORZO
FIG. 2-4:
~4
2-17
2.14
considered
is
line.
is
Thus,
errors in
angle of attack,
enter
as well as
The
figure 2-5.
2.15
angular rate
cit
paragraphs
2.25 to 2.30),
of
so that
the
given by:
(2-27)
BB
ai +Aupwash
(further effects
the
The body accelerometer is further misplaced by a mechanical misResolving accelerations parallel and perpendicular
alignment (Aam)
m
to the flight path (as with the flight path accelerometer), the
following equations are obtained:
n nx
and
n Zb =n
sinn
Aam ,(2-29
+Aa
c
2-18
iA
Ii
r
ii
iI
'1
ACCELEROMETE!6
PACKAGE
FIG.
2-5:
14
A\
2-19
,?
-a
n
ZB
n-
2.1
system
WY
B
ZB
sinco
y.
(2-31)
Co SnaI
(2-33)
reeredtote4nai
a
h
nlsso
Wit
the acelrmee redig
figre
nt- pl
swl
graps
211,
sotha
applyas
elow
.12
and2.1,
equtios
2-1,
aa
-22iand2-2
smmarzed
A3
-9
B3
Ix
E (n )
(2-34
.--x:..
~
--
-'
-.5- *I
- -
2.17
used,
W sin
W cos Y cos
and
.
All
other vectors %_'emain the same since the axis system (for wind axis
analysis) has rolled with the aircraft.
W osos Y
, +
sin(a+T)
1 g
vector
=
n ZpA
FPAg
aCos
zA/
A/C + Cos
co y co
(2-36).
equation 2-22 is
W(n zFPA)
.ZFPA21
F sin(c+T)
(2-22)
2..,
the problem is
further complicated
in that the accelerometer is not aligned with the flight path and
must be transformed through the angle of attack.
Resolving the
a
zA/C +cos y cos
nzB
(2-37)
It
W(nzB ) - Fgsin(at + T)
(2-38,
can be seen that the equetion sets are unaltered by the addition
of bank angle.-
2-22
-JL"
SIDESLIP EFFECTS
2.20
As
lateral misalignments
If
Additionally,
normal axis accelerations are not affected since they are perpendicular to the plane of action of sideslip.
The corrective
procedures for the flight path axis can be shown with figure 2-6.
2.21
The
component of
-
n
n
sin 8
nx cos
and a
(2-39)
FI
2-23
ACCELEROMET'ER
,i -1_
. .. . .
OUT
FIG.
2-6:
ACCELEROMETER
.__
__ _. _______
LLIGHT PATH
SIDESLIP DIAGRAM
))
2-24
~~~-
-.
- Zi4J==
--
T..
:-
..
iI
_ i
-_
JZ
..
2.22
bank angle and sideslip and no simplifying assumptions about misalignments are given below.
Additionally,
no angular rate or
2.23
meters are:
~
F-A
ZFPA
l I*
Aa
u+cossin
zzp my.
u+Aa
Wt
Bcs+n
mxP)cosa-nzisin(Aau+Aam
cos.ae u +Aax
nxFA
mxm
XF PA
~sinBy
(2.-40)
cos
)2-41)c
FPAFPA
~
BODY ACCELEROMETER
2.24
ct+Aa
"B
n
2-
sina-n
sinett+Aa
cos8
2-25
(2-42,
and
nzB
n
...
L ti
=n
sin (Xt+amx
.xB)
nziCos (Ct+amz(-3
iB
tamB)
2-26
t-.
2.25
the
J]
plane of rotation.
(a 1 ) is created by
rw
(2-44)(a 2 ) is
2.26
(2-4-5.)
the
In general,
Alternately,
the
2~-27
)+r
(2- 6
ry
-
FIG. 2-7.
ACCELEROMETER-
ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS
2-28
INTO
-PAPER
and
(2-47)
+r
)+r
rx (-
zi
Znet
S Ynet
~~rx(tP-;e)+r
g -
Yi
i.e.;
)
r z9(z-P).
nn,
and
2 net
coordinate
for
nxi
Ynet
1
transformations.
and
(2-48)
n Xnet'"
respectively,
in
j
the
""
BB
B
zB
a ( e+ # )
- Y a ( t 1P
- O
a (
g X
(2 - 4 9 )
Za-
it
BB
So that:
(2-50)
ZFPA
2-29
.4
and
Fc
a+
n++ A)cos-r
nl
FPAcG
s)in
(q;
2
s n +
)o
(2-51)
a
,(
-2
1:
"
Z ..-
FPA
CG
where
is
it
is
2-47,
it
When dealing
Of course, eitherA
2-52 are applied after coordinate transformation.
accelerometer package can mathematically be treated by either
technique.
23
~1
2-30
2.29
)cos3-nz
= n cos(a+Aa
si
)+a
Cosa
(2-53)
2+2
sina+
+n
Cosa2 (*-0)sina
and
n
n
ZFPCin(xii
PAG
a1A
A+am)
sin
+nzcs(
ac +Aa
PA
)
(2-54)
2) sina t+ (4 f8)cosat]
+9r{("2+-
n
where Ac
or
Acti
Ac
is
=n
cos$-n
xXnttnet cos (a+'csBn
sin$
sin at+Ez cosO+n
snatE cs8 Ynet
et
(255
and
n
ZB
CG
sin t+xln+n
Yoi
net (a)+necos(ctEZB)
2-31
Arj
INr,
(2-56.
where
n+
Xnet
net iB
Xi
[r.
"
+r (
y
)+r
r.-e
xyz,
ZnetZi
02
-6 )+r z( o
(q,+1O)+r
(02+
(2- 57 )
2)
and
~
~1n
y +B~Lr (-+)+ry
(2-58)
4 2 + 2 )-r (F)]
.(2-59)
proper axes,
excess thrust,
lift,
as follows:
iex
A
=nF
-D
LnW
Es
=W
nx
(2-60)
- Fgsin(t +-)
g
t
(2-61)/
(2-62)
n~~V
Iwhere
n =xn zor
CG
Es
x~t
and
1IThe
an
nX
(2-63'
CG
,(2-62-32.
=
or
B
nz(2-64,
FPAA
2-32
n
=-no---n-.-(-64-
2.32
Cn
- W
q s=i
n
x
-W
2
n. Vt S
n
x
(2-65)
W n
X
_n
(P M S
4Equation
2-61 becomes:
W
CCL
-Fgsin(t +T)
11 2
_PVtS
(2-66)
-
2.33
W nz - Fgsin(a
_M2 S
+T)
II
I
1
2-33
&
2.34
The -iircraft
defining aircraft
accelerations
performance.
Extreme care,
however,
must be
to insure proper
adaptable to either
the direct
or indirect
performance.
11
"
IVA
S~~~2-34-
I
_
_._
7777F77
-777
2'S
REFERENCES TO CHAPTER 2
2-1.
2-2.
2-3.
2-4.
2-5.
USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School, USAF Document No. FTCTIH-70-1001, "Performance," Unclassified, May 1970.
2-6.
Naval Air Test Center, Technical Memorandum 76-3, "The Development of Primary Equations for Use of Onboard Accelerometers in
Determining Aircraft Performance," by W.R. Simpson, Unclassified,
19 April 1977.
2-35
1: j:
:
..
'4A
Ii
-A
CHAPTER 3
S1!
MAHEATCL
ODLIGCOCET
-A
_-_
V,:
---
r---- _
-~-~
'~
IA
I4
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
S3_.1
3_
Components
fits into
also discussed'.
-'
i-
i2
!3
Ka
INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 3
3.2
It
Fn - D
Fex
Wnz-
It
F n -Wn
(2-22)
sin(a t + T)
(2-21)
Wnx
(2-21):
(3-1)
(3-2)
Wnz - Fgsin(at + T)
qS
and
F
qS
- Wn
qS
In order
be known.
and -the' engine thrust output required will give a measure-of the rate
of change of airspeed or altitude, and the fuel flow will -give
--
can :be obtained by -etting excess thrust equal to zero inequation (2-21):
N=
It
(3-4)
becomes important,
ii
=1
3'4
'I-
V3-3
I
77
SSYMBOLS
Definitior,
..
-Metric=
g/g
(g/g)
(-)
Lift coefficient
(-)
Effective lift
(-)
(-)
(-)
Incremental
to trim
(-)
(-)
SACA
CD
Drag coefficient
Units
_Units
D4
CL
eff
CoN
Lp
POFF
(CL
coefficient
coefficient
Power-on lift
Power-off lift
coefficient
coefficient
POFF
ACL
TRIM-
tail
lift
coefficient required
SCM
Coefficient of moment
DINT
Interference drag
DRAM
Ram drag
inch
(CM)
lb
(N)
lb
(N)
Spillage drag
FRL
(-)
FG
Gross thrust
lb
(N)
Ram drag
(N)
DPI
(sometimes
(also
DRAM-)
3-4 -:
FR)
iN
7w77777-___
-~
Metric
yeCommon
Units
Definition
-Units
___Symbo
__
Excess thrust
S~ex
lb
(N)
Fe
lb
(N)
lb
(N)
lb
(N)
FN
-E
DN)
INT
F
GE-
Acceleration of gravity
Hp
Pressure altitude
ft
(M)
hR
ft
(M)
La
ft
(M)
(N)
ft/sec2
(M/sec2
TIT~
-L
-Lift
lbl
-M
Mach number
Mass
n _n
(g)
Accelerometer
effects corrected for cg
and rotation reading
(g)
nnet
~nz
corr
lb sed 2/ft
(Kg'/-
-net corr
iX_
(g)
nxD)
(g)
(g)
E
i
-energy method
-n-nLIFT
axis
Engine speed
Pa
Ambient p-essure
RPM or %
3-5
(%)
deg
(deg)
lb/ft 2
(N/M2 )
deg
(deg:
-Comnuior
Metric
Units
units
Def-ini-ion
________
7qFree
rI
lb/ft2
(N/M 2
ft
WM)
Renlsnme
RNI
S_
SR
wing area
-Specific range
Specific Fuel Consumption
TSFC(N-sec;fKc
True airspeed
TSCThrust
T_
2
2
(M)
ft
n.mi./lb fuel (KM/Kc
lb-hr/lb thrust
-Maximum airspeed
-V.X
W-Gross
WaAir
weight
flow
(KM/hr)
-kt
(KM/hr)
lc(Kg)
-fFuel f low
SY_ T
kt
lb/sec
(Kg/sec)
lb/hour
(Kg/sec)
ft
(M~)
Units
Definition
Angle of attack
deg
(deg)
Tr
Thrust inclination
deg
(deg)
deg
(deg)
deg
(deg)
Yaw angle
deg
(deg)
Pitch angle
deg
Ro1-l angle
-4
AV'
;
(deg)
(-J
H
-standard()
I ,-2,jetc.
eg(deg)
IA
'
3.4
is
In;defining the-basic
of the airplane
-figure 3-1.
3.6
coeffizient can be
C1poFF is defined as
produced
OFF
or
(3 5)
C
LPOFF
-C
C
LPON
G
-3-7
.44
.02
FIG.
.0
A.1
ICLDA
TY
-8
PO
777
*AAA
FIG. 3-2:
3-
lift
- C
+ AXCL
CPON
CG
TRIM
L
1'
L(-6
LTRIMl
CL
The term.
the
(3-6)
CTRIM
CL
TRM= \c
(DRAM +DsPIL) (R
(37)
rearranging-:/LTRbI
cF
GEjqN
-*c .2i=+
or
DRM+DSI
Ls
____
FG(YT+
AC
q1
hRl(3-8)
c
__
(DRAM + DSPIL)(hR\j
+
(3-9)
qS LT /qs
LTI,
LT
The term
defined,
C(DR~~
poN
F [
AM + SPIL
TRIM
LTIM
PO
(DR
+ DS
CI
L)
axis and is
FG
by using figure 3-2 as:
FG sin(ct+T)z
Note that
(3-10)
7: 7
3.7
LCD
ACL
pitch rates,
incidence,
ACD .
resulting again in a
also resulting in a
ACD
A correction to a standard
RN
Other adjustments,
can be applied if
3.8
deemed necessary.
these considerations,
In
against the requirements for quality and quantity of the final data
product.
3.9
3-11
~-3.-;-r
3.160z
The lift
The measured
Note that this curve is applicable for only one altitude, hence,
one curve for each altitude of interest or for enough altitudes to
"-enable interpolation is
required.
for zero bleeds on the engine for baseline data or for standard
bleed requirements.
THRUST AVAILABLE
3.12
it
gM
.1;
.17
77: K7
.8TT i4
2LL.~
:o
'p-4
ANGLE OF ATTACK-DEG
FIG. 3-3:
3-13
7LAM
PARTICUL R,
I"I
144*
FIG.
3-4:
FN/
3-14
0.1
VAX~
i-I--
20
4-.
''
'10
0
FIG. 3-5:
2.0
1.0
MACH
3~
-1,
60~
r--
30
--A_
<
1(0
XLL
A-I'
I--4
24'
MACH1
MAC
0O2
MACH
FIG. 3-6:
MACH
3-16
32-
-1'
there arises a
-need for the determination of the aircraft gross thrust. As was shown
in Chapter 2:
F
cos(c+T)
(3-12)
FR
or:
FG
)(3-13)
where airflow
(Wa)
(3-14)
RI
is usually a function of rpm (N).
We then
other~~~~~~~~~~~~:reainWilb&eesr
3-17 t
orc
onnsadr
4
-
MACIU N U lqBR
0,5
0.6
0.7
0.8
z
'0..
I3-
3-7:
A.n
THRUST-RPM CURVE
3-18
3.15
The
condition.
CL , is
calculated as:
=
Cef
Lef f
Wnz
s
qS
(3-15)
Sgross
-~
is then used with Mach number and the draq polar (figure
The
C~eff
3-1
eff
SFN
Using
FP
/S
N1
For iteration:
(3-16)
CqS
1
(CD)
Dl
(N/f) 1
is obtained.
(3-17)
F
-11
F+
/cos(a
311
3 -19
T)
(3-18)
CL
is computed by:
pOFF
Wn
C LOF
sina
-F
=, Cnz
Gsin(cI + T)
qs
POFF
CCD2
from
((3-19)
CLpoFF
C
a2
from
CLpOFF
and
Fg
and finally, CL
C poFF2)
FN
FN
available and:
availables
C qS
Fex
(3-20)
C~qS
(3-21)
to give
Wf
iand
SR=
) V(
6
661. 48
66.8
(3-22)
Vt
V
WTI
Wf
(3-23)
to climb,
These parameters can be further expanded to vield time
rate
of climb,
fuel used,
etc.,
,,
mance sought.
3-20
IA
3.16
it
was
accelerometer methods,
With the
Conventionally,
large number of external store loadings, and the thrust fuel flow
relation is
is only a
: :
constrained,
3-21
3.18
tied to the
iIn
For example:
of performance.
+ y + z=
where
x, y, and z
where
VA
performance
available,
and
is
is analogous to thrust
The interdependency
CZ
0
(3-24)
of
assigned to
z,
C0
and
such
that:
x + y + z
so that the value of
z
,and
the values of
(3-25)
performance
is defined.
x
x
and
will change,
but performance
does not.
3-22
_0
3.19
By analogy,
if
This,
then,
is a definition
and
(example,
and drag polars very complicated functions, and may introduce parameters not normally considered
polar).
If
these deviations than can be saved by the fuel flow modeling approach.
In practice, a fuel flow map which is as close to actual as possible
is needed.
Finally, stabilized
If
necessary,
given
For example,
the thrust modeling technique and the fuel flow modeling technique
it
is
well to
3-24
TEST MANEUVERS
3.24
consisting primarily
and provide the baseline for all aerodynamic and propulsion maps.
These
and drag
parison of results obtained from onboard accelerometers with results obtained using energy analysis
techniques.
K1
-Ell
not
push-pull maneuvers.
CL
Additionally greater
required.
all
titude is
not required.
such as performed in
The test
A time history
of a typical steady point showing the determination of the incremental drag associated with non-steady conditions is presented in
figure 3-8.
It
can be seen
values.
point at the test Mach number for the applicable aerodynamic and
propulsion maps.
From steady points tail trim requirements can be defined along with.
extensive propulsion data.
Additionally,
3-27
'
..
S..i
'
7 ...
'tl -,
Wtwi-
i",tuo
t--, 3400 0
ILEl
W~ t
L:A
4t
-:thi.1Ir:-
NA
t~&
346100 0 bs .
744IIEFiFV
7000MT
-1
NXD
4lK~<I~ti -- ----
20
10
FIG. 3-8:
690
3.3
30
TIME
d g
lbs.
40 50 60
TIME-tSEC
30
-90
0 08
HT
AdjUstments
____
3261,00o
1.-
ED
0.0029
VT:
AN
3
:3itldeg.
N~
XD
MEAS
:0.11
C
.46AC
DC
ex
0.426
=512
00
0O.
84 g
- N
XD
70)
Fe1-STORY
OF A STEADY POINT
47 6 fps
DEV+1=002
+--ri
0
1.3
XDE
lbs.( 4N
XD
0.0039 or 9 percent of
Dmeasured value of
Cf
3-28
II
v'~~~.7
77
--
C1
[,.
4 T__i
1TT,50I
7 iTTri
V~T7'
, I
IIAC
Ck
ITF77
.2.
ON'ATIU
A~
MACH.
LB
1m
I2
II
PATC-E
ANL
TIA
3-H9
It
CL
to stabilize in 1 g flight at
VMx
for
Usually,
a 10-second burst of
This maneuver
if
but nonetheless,
performance directly.
figure 3-10.
These maneuvers are flown with either MIL or Max A/B thrust
VMIN
to
at
various altitudes.
steady state
VM7<
(if
such as time,
fuel, distance,
obtainable),
acceleration characteristics,
plus lift
MACH.
L;V
I.-
.02
.06
CDT
r8
r"
.4
.14
.10'
.....
ONE ALTITUDE I .
PARTICULl\1R
-PO~WER
cc
t
NO N DAT O
oo
5IF;
INSTALLED FN-LB
12
ANGLE OF ATTACK-DEG
li
I~
AT
l/QL
0MACH2.
MACA
FIG.
3-10:
3-31
-1Xi;
16
3.28
nD
nD
of 0.015g or 750-pound
The large variation in load factor results from the pilot chasing
altitude as vividly illustrated in figure 3-11A.
Figures 3-12A
and 3-12B illustrate a much better accleration run with the normal
load factor varying only about 0.05g, resulting in a significantly
improved
n XD calculation.
Note also,
down,
chase altitude.
3.29
by figure 3-13.
Additionally,
such as to
Pw50
01--
5jU
4~2.-77
-I-~~~
.20c
'ii
',.
1.
f s i
i t
.4
3-3
If
-j50
44-.
.H.4-..-
L
40 '1'I'
z~1
201F
_;
10
10
In.
140
1h20
120
711
7% vl
11..
a)
r1'
40O z ,
160-
I-n.
'It
100-Q
6-0sco,:
40800
-~
100
:-
.6.!I: -.
::
.......
E:lV
-.-
_100
-.
t-.
-ir
------------
'
.j
-890
20
*-0-
Is
0C6z
1.4
1.2
cc
__
0: 600
-50
tQ8 1
4O
-~
020
FIG. 3-12A:
-40
40
60 80100120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
TIME- SEC
3-35
'JI,
TrvmTT
36-
'32
126
-J--
"":7
'f-I
~U
26
il...
.'1_
414
2___
F-~r'?
r+
l:Jid f- Z___F___
20.
ri
BOO~~~~
>14-
400
--
T h
L300
'
inzl'I
Iw
-20
.4-.
r-j-"
3-36
900
.....
KTLt.
44
(3
;4~
.11
-01
.08
FIG. 3-3
LIF
AN
3-217J
FROM
A8.
i IT
-4
F.
'
VI
.4
.2
.0*
D2*Y-~
.0
C...T.V,4.10_.14_0_4_8_12
___
ANGLE OF ATTACK-DEG
DT
ONALTITU~LZV
".MACHi-
-,I
IARTICtt{*
/z4
.-
~20
"p1
rI1I
NDATA
No.
''.
-ZiI 4
&1.0
~if7F
T'.
MC
NTALEtNL
i-A
a3-3
-INTLE
FNL
r-r
MAC
2.0
is
the one criteria that they are flown on a constant Mach schedule.
Pilot technique requires smooth adjustments to the schedule. Abrupt,
jerky motions must be avoided.
in figure 3-16.
summarized
DYNAMIC MANEUVERS
Constant Mach Wind-Up Turns
3.32
The thrust
smoothly
The
3-39
aj
L.Li/''1.0
'1.5
.10
.06
.02
w*~
NO
?iAACH'
ATA
NO
114
cANGLE
16
12
8
OF ATTACK-DEG
MAX A/Bj/B'A
2J
n1
;4
INTLLDLLL
MC
'77FIG
3-I
YIA
RMWNSLVLDCLRTO
AAOTU
3-4
LL
S.
__
12V
.2 .06
J14
.10
7:
- 4'-
I .. I
4 .1
j.I
12
ANGLE OF ATTACK-DEG
CDT
-H4
rMACHa
ATITIDfl
ON
i*VAf
~-~-POMAX
'tArf"
'RTCrU.tL1-
I -I,-.H
.
H._
20
.4j
*4
I.In
NO DATA
0
..
...
INSTALLED F
FIG. 3-16:
.101.J.D,..0
FN
LBMACH
3-41
(6
guideline,
conditions.
Additionally,
jerky maneuver to 5,
6, or
for airpseed if
required.
As a general guideline,
summarized in
figure 3-17.
Push-Over/Pull-Up
3.33
Smooth application of
If
the maneuver is
done too quickly, high pitch rates and high pitch accelerations
cannot be avoided.
If
Adequate pilot
A time
The
3-42
AAC
i~~~~,
-.
44
U.r4i41--
.,.
r'
~ 4~
-4.f 1+
ONE Th.Alr
LTI~lUDE
31
I.:-
rr-
~i:
3
14
821
I.-MACMAC
INSTALLED
FIG. 3-17:UTYPICAL DATAOTUTFOX
44
.- r
7'
-1II1
_.___.___.
.... ,_.L
C..z:tV--- :
_-E..2-
iLIJ..
F_________.__
FEI
(" O.5
-,
--
r-;"
r ..
w....
Uo
" ---
I,----.._-N.--
LL
"
....-
--"
'-
--.
...
-.---
--.--
,-'.---,-*
--- ,I- -',
-_z
.--...
___-_- __
.
. . .-
,, 0.1EJv : ... _.! .- _ ? .-
5lt:4,
2-.
,. ':---- . - - -!z -.. :i,--i
i - ::i,.- -:', -
Uw
3-3
Z 0
3,4
wx_'
t.
0.
-- =,..
^l.:v_.. .... ...... ,._.._Z,..z:
U--
tt-it'-H--
,o,-. .,
____.. ._.__,.i=__._
W(:
---.
..
"
.........
2
0 ,4.-
zzv:z'":-'--r--
,-O-
Ol
15,00-
-..
t-
Jr
-:-..,-L:-:--'.--*-.-'-,-- - -.I
.+ .-1:I ....r - .,i...... . .... 4
; zo.
0o5: "
.__ ___
J.
'-t.v
t4I
,.____ __..
2.
detailed in Chapter 4.
Pitch rates
Wind-Down Deceleration
3.34
In
The
'
I
-3-45
777FI
9,
Iti
as MA
1 .7
1.2
_c)
fr
,,~
.02
.0
A I 11
!.IIII.,
014044
21
02
PARTICUIC -T
A
INS ODAE
5-
2.0A
PUHOE/UL-PMNUE
10H
3-4
L.I
INSTLLEDFN-L
00L 10
MAC
2.
: i
-.
consuming
.nearly-
At low altitude, the constraint may be the maximum load factor which
is required to be held over an extended time period.
It
is n9t
the deceleration
terminate the
maneuver,
to
ji I!
3-47
I~
0pK
:~i~~MAC
I.
.02
.06
.~
.14
.10
OT
ONE ALTiTUDE j~
.90_
12(6
ANGLE OF ATTACK-DEG
CMAX:A/B
MACHITWIECR
......
4
72
LL*f&l<'7
~ ~L. ~~~~
**
INTALE
I-0
0NL
0,0
3-48
EA-
3.35
For instance,
figure 3-21.
N;
3-49
3.36
mathematical model, it
For
example,
.85M will define a major portion of the drag polar from .7M to .85M,
or accelerations at several altitudes will define the thrust available.
The most efficient method of obtaining data from these maneuvers is
to link them in consecutive order of flight sequence,
so that the
pilot can smoothly translate from one maneuver to the next with
minimum set-up time between maneuvers.
of the optimum flight profiles.
flight sequence,
It
is
For example,
profile.
aircraft.
It
."
I:
3-51
-~~~~1
RZEIG AELANK
'B
o-4
.4
r-
P4
00
CL4IU
0u
04
AI
cdCieV
1333
IC04
VI
JI~x(N
34
3-52
Bes
AvialeCp
It
the instrumenta-
3-53
--
J
-
_____
3.38
DATA YIELD
the same as that given in the appropriate section for each maneuver.
DRAG POLAR
3.39
figure 3-23.
*present.
THRUST AVAILABLE
3.40
sequent data or cross plotti.ng and use of the family shapes for the
curves.
OTHER CURVES
3.41
In
stabilized
points are
"used for the thrust fuel flow relation and thrust rpm data,
all data points are placed on the lift
curve.
and
The stabilized
3-54
'4t
*
- --
STAI3LIZED POINT
MILITARY POWER
-. 6 M DESCENT
REDUCED POWER
.(6
C.,
M CLIMB
DESCENT
II I ALTITUD,-,
oDATA
0
4,,--4
K decal
40 K accel
Co
K decel
accel
.,--30
--
/"20
S30
K
"20 K decel
K accel
,*'-10 K decel
10 K accel
DRAG. COEFFICIENT
PIG. 3-23:
CD
3-55
-.Or
yM
-.
MILITARY OR
INTERMEDIATE
POWER
K ACCEL
O.
~~3
KT
CECLEL
.&ACEL
CO!
0.(.
0.6
08
MACH NUMBER
FIG.
3-24 :
i.
3-56
the
I_
<1i
3
3-57
PROGRAM PLANNING
3.42
it
is
important to consider
Additionally,
is
available,
if
it
I
I
:1
assumptions.
o
t"
of CL??
*
to require correcting?
If
whether enough data has been generated to answer the basic performance problems.
evaluations,
3-5
~3-59-,
"-o
,-,
m
3".44
aircraft
CONCLUDING REMARKS
TO CHAPTER 3
Mathematical modeling
offers an effective
means Of predicting
performance.
Either thrust
modeling or
fuel flow modeling
Basic maneuvers,
such as climbs
acceleration,
and
can be used
to generate
the necessary
the mathematical
components of
model from
flight
test
data.
techniques can
be employed.
S~I
I#
3-60
--
I
/
REFERENCES TO CHAPTER 3
3-1.
Edwards AFB,
FTC-TlH-70-1001,
3-2.
3-3.
3-4.
3-5.
3-6.
3-7.
3-8.
"3-61
57
4I
CHAPTER 4
SECONDARY AND ANALYSIS EQUATIONS
4
I
CHAPTER 4
SECONDARY AND ANALYSIS EQUATIONS
"71A
4777
=,74
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 4
Secondary S4.1
and analysis equations are presented for the
determination of aircraft lift
and drag.
Where possible,
A summary of
A-9
4-1
__
INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 4
In
4.2
when determining
it
difficult
cg in
difficult
wing sweep,
or cg position.
Unfortunately,
set
in
is
Mach
that
the
very
conditions.
or to
In
of analysis then, it
and
very
-'
in
is
of requirements,
sweep,
it
a given
would be convenient if
number,
is
it
to be used.
For ease
certain effects
for example,
CL
in
the problem,
?4-2
-7-7-7p
CL
Addi-
CD
a function of
ailerons, elevators,
spoilers,
flaps, etc.,
figuration.
effect and for level flight data are seldom misplaced from the
zero force position by appreciable quantities.
When
usually all
in many aircraft.
point to insure that trim drag effects are accounted for properly.
4-3
"J
4.4
Summarizing,
then,
L
L
-o
In addition,
Wing sweep
Mach number
Load factor
Thrust effects
4-4
S'I
-K:- -
----
SYMBOLS
Tho following symbols are used in Chapter 4.
4,5
Metric
Commo:i
Symbol
ID
Units___
Units
Definition
CD
Drag coefficient
none
(-)
Cf
Friction coefficient
none
(-
CL
Lift coefficient
none
(-)
cg
Center of gravity
Drag
lbs
(N)
Gross thrust
lbs
(N)
lbs
(N)
Acceleration of gravity
ft/sec2
(M/sec 2 )
ft
(M)
Pressure altitude
P
ft
(M)
Tail incidence
deg
(deg)
Tail length to cg
ft
(M)
Lift
lbs
(N)
g
FR
g
SRam
length or % MAC
"M
Mach number
none
(-)
(g)
(g)
Ambient pressure
lbs/ft2
Dynamic pressure
lbs/ft
RN
Reynolds number
none
Wing area
ft
Ta
Ambient temperaturo
4-5
-.
(N-M)
ft-lbs
Thrust moment
(%MAC)
2
(N/M)
(N/M2 )
(-)
(M2)
(oc)
iA
DefinitiOn
symbol
St
wetted area
-2
Weight
of attack
&
Increment
position
6Elevator
Pitch attitude
\ i
cg
(M)
deg
SAngle (deg)
deg
(deg)
deg
(deg)
deg
(deg)
deg So
(deg)
(deg/sec)
Thrust inclination
deg
(deg)
(-)
Center of gravity
Elastic
eff
Effective
Lift, Left
LF
ft
(deg)
Subscripts
ALT
(Kg)
deg
Partial derivative
lbs
Wing sweep
(3)=(4)
2
(M)
deg/sec
pitch rate
P
ft
Definition
Greek Symbols
Metric
Units
Common
tnits
Load factor
4-6
Subscripts
Definition
Mach number
P.E.
Power effect
P.O.
P.T.
R
Power off
Pitch trim
Right
R.T.
Roll trim
Standard
Tail, trim
'Test
TPO
TEMP
Temperature
Wing
Wing sweep
1, 2,
etc.
Condition state
Others
Ij(
)
Therefore
Wind tunnel or predicted
SDefined as
f(x)
Function of
4-7
7777I`
4.6
corrected
the introductory
as given in
paragraph for:
Thrust effects
trim effects
Pitch rate
(tail
be developed
procedures
aerodynamic
its
tnat follow,
M,
f(a,
quantity as a first
the
to treat
For example:
function space.
Ct
In
control).
0,
nz,
...
then
o
C
-I
+--A
0nz
aaa
1
+ -AM +L
1
Si
'C Anz
A+
partial derivatives.
4-8
4--8
4.7
n W
qz
This is
coefficient:
(4-1)
coefficient
CLi
\ef f)
nW
L
Leff
It
lift
(S
4-laj
nWz
sin(a + T)
(2-7)
direction.
LPOFF
is
So that:
n W
F sin(c+T)
(4-2)
g
qS
Figure 4-1 shows that this component is not the only contributor to
the power-off situation.
4-9
JK
RM
LW
FIG. 4-1:
4-10
W-
-n
--
It
4.8
remove the thrust effect from the problem, the associated moments
of thrust, as well as the force vectors, must be removed.
As in
is given by:
AM=
THRUST
FY + Fh
Rr
gt
(4-3)
(nose downY.
at the tail
"ACLp.E.
FgYt + FRhr
(4-4)
btt
FgYt + F h
(4-5)
R.tqS
r
AC L
is
CL TP
LP
coefficient
C P + AC .E.
LP
L 0
.4-11
Consequently,
is given by:
(4-6)
4.9
It
is a function of aircraft
hr
This stems from the assumption that the ram drag acts
of attack.
along the flight path. A more complete dotailed analysis of these
vectors, and an expansion to the case of lateral offset including
methods for determining the values of
hr
and
Yt
are included
in reference 4-1.
"4.10
It
is perhaps best to
above equaticns.
coefficient
Equation
From equations
SCL~p
nzWz
F sin(c+T)
F Yt+ F h
.. ktqS R___r
(4-7);
_______
qS
TPO
CL
It
is
P.C.
4-12
I5
being tested.
aircraft drag may be small and the correction may be omitted (for
instance,
if
the values of
and
Yt
hr
are based on typical wind tunnel data available, and may have to
be modified depending on the data at hand.
4.12
attack combination,
the
aCL
The increment of tail required to trim out the thrust moment can
be obtained by combining this partial derivative with equation 4-5
as follows:
Ai ~
P.E.
ACL(-8
~
L
P.E.
For symmetrical tails, in the range below tail stall, the data
may be the same for all values of
,assuming
Ais
.ata
For small delta tail increments, only small errors will be introUtilizing the predicted data or wind
"A
Since predicted data is
tunnel data will be signified by ().
duced usiuig predicted data.
being used,
it
CLs
for
such that:
(4-9)
and
CLp.)
Lp 0)test
f(M" ate
Stest
4-13
-' -
2":>
1
pis
p.e)
(4-10)
INCREAS ING
ANGLE OF ATTACK
0
MACH NUMBER
Ai
PIG. 4-2:
4-14
A
ANGLE OF ATTACK
FIG. 4-3:
4-15
*to,
AA
ELI
oi4
DRAG COEFFICIENT
SFIG.
4-4 :
;,,WIND
01i'
0 D,-
TYPICAL AERODYNAMIC OR
TUNNEL DRAG POLAR4
4-1t6
#1
_
_
_
'4
-~~~~~
.-.----
These
.,
f(M,
)=
~a n d
CL
In this manner,
figure 4-4
such that:
),
(4-11)
P . 0S'test
P .O
CDp
~~
-1
values.
CD
CL
(Lpo) , jStest +
thrus m ets s
and finally, the drag increment created by
i Sp..
(4-12)
A41
P.E.)
trimming out
ACD
.E .
(4-13)
.O .
C
CD
TRIM
is given as:
+ ACD
test
.i
P.E.
(4-14)
4-4
Fn - W(nx
CqS
ACD
(4-15)
F cos(a+T) - F
-
qS
- W(nx)
x
C
+ ACDP.E.
4-6
(4-16)
4-17__
4.13
correction.
For a given
a, M
combination,
and both
will be reviewed.
dO
de
dt
a):
g(n-)
z
Vt
_d
dy
dt!i
(4-17)
SZ)
dO
dt
11nz
(4n1
(4-18)
and reference
4-18
S&4
A
ft7
1A
4.15
steady state
and
Vt
(4-19)
.Jderivative ~da.t
'lThe
SOa
Tt)
(4-20)
For tails
~(d O/dt) Z
ie
."
required =
ddca tail
tadl
(4-21)
/d
d tal
((da
e ) t (57.3) in medians, where
ji/d67FVt.
(4-22)
- t
For lack of a bet er criterion for judging the damping of the rest
-ofthe aircraft,
;,
,ercent,
increased by
so that:
4-20
~v'
63 (d 0/dt)
-t3'
Se
erequired damped
(4-23)
./
(4-24)
(dCMj
)FIXED
aCM
(4.2(425)
aCL
or
rC
Tt=l
the equation
reduces to:
CCTPo
is
so
-(CL
)
3t'i
do
Vt
dt
(4-26)
Equations. 4-17 and 4-18 may now be substituted into equation 4-26
and differentiated with respect to load factor:
(adn
)d.
C
-
pull-up
2t
-e)
(4-27)
and
()tur
s
- _2--t
I-
(4-28)
-28
4-21
-,
41
W-I
climbs,
pitch rate
(FLIGHT TEST)
assumptions,
and it
is better,
if
possible,
The method
Maneuvers used to
for the
STRIM
This value is then adjusted to the test
cumbination.
and:
+ Ai
(4-29)
cg
TRIM
STRIM required
LTPO
sP.T.
then, is
test
+ Ai 5
P.E.
(4-30)
TRIM required
4-22
ALI,
w-,~j.
0V
E--
tAl,
'4-2
MACH
NUMBE
With
Ai P.T.
(cAfLTpO
CL
(f,)t
=
TMPO)
is +Ai"
iSP.E.
s
Oct'
AC=
aDTPO)
8=
and n
DPT.
D
CD
Tp( )
test
0
i Stest
t
SpP.E.
AS Sp.E.
+ Ai Sp. T
(4-36)
(CA
A
C-C(4-37)
CD
(DTPO)
-_0
(4-38)
+ACD
TRIM
P.T.
4-24
(DTPO)
=
TRIM, 0 0
(4-34)
C= fM, ( Tp
(4-33)
LPoT
STpO
P.T.
+ACL
(C
)=CL
and
(4-32)
is
=0
LTPo
.O
And:
-
LT
(4-31)
j test + Ai.)
Sp.U.,
'
4.19
then be:
"CD
CD
+ ACD
TRIMO
CL
CL
TRIM,=
+ AC
P.E.
test
(4-39)
DP.T.
(4-40)
and
i
=i
Stest
+Ai
P.E.
+ Ai
(4-41)
SP.T.
In practice,
4-
Ii2
2..
4.20
the preceding
AC=
CL
(4-42)
-AC
right
left
and
0
ACL
(4-43)
total
The total tail mispositioning will also be zero since each left
and right tail are mispositioned by equal and opposite amounts.
4.21
There may,
c R.T.
DD
(4-44)
AC R + AC DL
"Such that:
C
D
C +AC
D
DT
(4-45)
R.T.3
-26
4-27
77-'",7
STANDARDIZATION
4.22
For instance, in an
acceleration,
(i.e., 1.0g)
the analysis,
but it
eases
point,
wing sweep,
etc.,
be desirable.
For a
load factor,
cg,
and
Center of gravity
Wing sweep
Mach number
Load Factor
(cg)
4-28
t4
THE EFFECTS OF CG
(CG STANDARDIZATION)
4.24
as
LT(Acg)
as
Lw(Acg)
and the
-<
ALT (Zt-Acg)
CL
nose down
Z
tstand
such that:
LW(Acg) + L (Acg)
(4-46)
nose up
(L)
is given by:
(4-47)
L(Acg)
(4-48)
where
Cg
(zt - Acg)
Lcg
LTPO
angular rates,
(4-49)
necessary.
4-29
55i
Ii
Ii
ITI
SC
ONVEq' IO
&cg= cgstancgtest
FIG.
4-7:
4-30
units of length, or
kt
CL
would then be
given by:
C
CLP
4.25
(4-50)
PO
cg5
'C
4-51)
,i
Scg
acLL
cg
'
andA
isTIM
cgs
(4-52)
+ Ai
TRIMcg
~I.Again,
as follows:
(Ca
T)
and
(Cg
5
f(M1 L t
7 f(M' at
(4-53)
s TRIM)
(4-54)
'scgS)
And, from figure 4-4:
(4-55)
f" M"-
(D S)
/M A\
L
csj
(4-56)
4-31
j9
Efi
T-Rl~
so that:
C=
IAC
cg
and
ID
C
cgTRIM
(4-57)
(C cgs )
CgJT/
+ AC
(4-58)
cg
91I
-4
4-32s
-- 4
4.26
and climbs,
it
such as rollercoasters,
wind-up turns,
accompanied by a change in
t,
C MT =
LMT
CL
f(at
(4-59)
and
CL
MS
M
t), M)
= f(
SS
(4-60)'
so that,
LM
LM
T
(4-61)
CAC
L*M
S
and
SCL
SM=
CL
+C
.(4-62)
49
This change in
CL
trim which can be derived through equation 4-61 and figure 4-2 as:
Ai
sAC
(4-63)
4 -33
TRIMMED
to
0
C.,
ANGLE OF ATTACK--
FIG.
4-8:
4-34
jto
A7
r T
LA
and
STRIM
sM
(4-64)
S
The change in trim drag can be determined
by the use of figure 4-9
which is either arrived at by flight test
data or cross-plotted
from figures 4-4 and 4-5, where:
DT
T'C
(4-65)
(M
'IT
TPO)
and
CD
i!
MS)SM
f(MS'
CL
(4-66)
Such that:
D
MC
T
MT
D
M
(4-67)
and
D
SM
L
TPO
D
M
4-64,
and 4-67.
4-35
CL, C,
and is
by
cfr
I0
C.,
/MACH
NUMBER
DRAG COEFFICIEN.T
FIG.
4-9:
CD
4-36
4.28
it
For maneuvers,
such as acceleration,
deceleration,
etc.,
CL-CD
curve at a given
or
CL(T
SCL
CL
SLF
Generally,
new
I)
TPo
(4-68
(4-69)
zt
CLe
"
"LFtf(CLTPO,
""LF
(4-70)
Mt')
(4-71)
and
LFt
LF
(4-72)
SLF s
at + daLF
(4-73)
The difference in drag at the new test point can be drawn from
figure 4-8 as:
4-37
CD LFt
CD
Ls
LTPO
(4-74)
tA
f (CL
8 LF
(4-75)
t)
and
CD
AC D
(4-77)
C
+AC
DTRIM
DLF
CD SLF
Finally,
(4-76)
- CDLF
isLF.
f(
t,
(4-78)
f(aSLG, m
(4-79)
(4-80)
where
=
Ai
- i
LF
SLF
sLF
SLF
+ Ai
iS
is
TRIM
LF
4-38
(4-81)
4.29
variable wing sweep aircraft where the wing can be placed in any
position at any Mach number (within flight operating limits),
arises a need to stand ,.diz, wing sweep.
there
possible.
4.30
if
Ai s
For
then
If
ACLs
at a constant angle of
in figure 4-10.
The lift
ACDS
An example follows
LC
f= t
MA~t'
(4-82)
Mt, As
(4-83)
\AS)
4-39
S.
....
Etl
04
NMBER
TR1IMSMED
ONE
MACH
ENUMBER
f'TI'R
IMH E D
ONE
-A..
ANGLi
Of1 ATTACK --
FIG.
4-10:
DRAG' COEFFICIENT
4-40
--
CD
1*
and-
ACA
L.CL A
LT
POA
(4-84)
(CLTTO)
OAS
The drag increment would be obtained from curve B of figure 4-10 as;
S=DCf
DTRIMA
D
CL
L TPOT
(DTRIMAS)
f kCL.A
ACD
A-
andA
aCd
AD(
Mt,
Aj
(4-85)
Mt,
As
(4-86)
TRIM A
TRIM AS
\-L
(4-87)
A A
C
(4-88)
A=At
And,
again,
this correction is
4-41
ILI zi42N
As in the previous
ALTITUDE EFFECTS
4.31
In
general,
are reflected
on airplane performance
of altitude
the effects
It
is
suggested,
a nominal
ignored.
If
in general,
effect.
There may,
REYNOLD'S NUMBER
At high
CL
4.33
values,
CL
a smaller
The interest in
7c-1
TURBULENT BOUNDARY
IAYER
HIGH~ RN
....
REGI ON
*)')N IRE))
i)).-.-D
,-~~
STAGNATION
POINT
FIG. 4-11:
,.STAGNATION
/-
POINT
4-43
RN
so that it
further discussion.
The second effect of Reynold's number is on the skin
4.34
values or near-stall,
CL
At high
friction.
RN
drag
friction
effect occurs.
11N
the fore-
and
(assuming no separation),
the skin friction drag accounts for the major portion of the drag
The importance of skin friction drag decreases as
at zero lift.
speed is
increased,
but is
still
transonic speeds.
The flight Reynold's number is given by:
4.35
(4-89)
SVT
RN=
where
P =
f(Pa
Ta
(4-90)
f(T)
(4-91)
and
and
ii
while for
are used,
at standard conditions
35,000 feet,
RN
035 = Pstandard
and
135 =
'standard
).
A value of
component
(i.e., wings,
fuselage,
nacelles,etc.),
where
is a
4.36
a 100 percent
where
Rex
is
AF f
(4-92)li
x, and
Cf
The
skin friction coefficients can be corrected by use of the FranklVoishel relation, as given in reference 4-10:
Cff
fM=O
f
4.37
Cf
- 2
5fi
(4-93)
by numerical
.455
g
(4-94)
2.58
4-(logR5
4-45
LiaFviklVihaJ
}.(Oikind,01i
ralzitoll&
41.38
111L
1-93).*
It
should
be
1,0
INC
draq.
Tho t~otnlair
AC
*~C
TOTAL
dionoerntlon or:I
(4-98u)
RI
4-46
-~
- i 7
4.39
be present in
the high
CL
.earlier.
L4
ELASTICITY
4.40
There is
load, and
The general
S4-47
4.41
(pressures,
VT'
T'i
'empera-
the
or
(4-99)
1 PV
The values of
(4-00)
tU
and
Sq
Certain maneuvers
standard weight,
4-48
I*
C2
~.44
42
I4.42
with the corrections to be made to all data and table 4-2 deals
with standardization equations.
Aeroelasticity and
RN
effects
incidences.
A
41
**s~~~t~
A
4-49
MI
41i
4)
F-4
'.
4
04
04
E-
I)
:j0
C*
M
444
F-
44
E-4
E-
44C)
(-
oo
to
'.0
-t
H4
'4
(4(4
444
(-4
-j
..
,+
dt
to
44
E-
44
E-4
-4
(-
to
aj
441
r.H
0~
Fr
H~i
*l
dl
vA
Ej0
(0
(4
04
'H
'
C4
Ut4
'I
rp
.,I
-H
~~ts
-
~U
MU
0!
43:
'44
00
1544
ti
44
Ca)
41
.4
44
~~Rm
~~wpp
tfl
00
4.3
~0
S
-4
-4
144j1
444
441
If
E-4
Z.0
0<.
H0
0w
U4
44i
E-4
U
If
11
In
43
44
4 ' n.
In
-.
v~t-
'
4.43
dependent upon the availability of wind tunnel data, and may have
to be modified in the particular case.
Certain corrections,
such
7'
4-53
0,I
.1
REFERENCES TO CHAPTER 4
4-1.
4-2.
4-3.
4-4.
4-5.
4-6.
Truitt, R.W.,
Ronald Pres.,
New York,
1960.
64-20,
4-7.
4-8.
Schlichting, H.,
New York, 1960.
4-9.
Grumman Aerospace Engineering Corporation, Report No. A51335-R-69-I, "F-14A Basic Aerodynamic Data Required for
Aircraft Characteristics(U)
Substantiation of Standard
Confidential, August 1969.
Inc.,
,"
4-10. Edwards Air Force Base, USAF Document No. 6273, "Flight Test
Engineering Handbook," by Herrington, et al, Unclassified,
January 1966.
4-11. U.S. Naval Test Pilot School, "Aircraft and Engine Performance,"
by F.S. Peterson, et al, Unclassified, 1 May 1962.
4-12.
4-54
-L-i
-rTHZ
OF DBTZ-R!i_.TNG
TiliEThODS
YACCE"n.O!
AMB.CRAT
EFt0R!{--%SCE
(DOYVAi'1C RERFOP.1-!2CX
TESTING)
CHAPTER 5
INSTRUMENTATION REQUIREMENTS
41;
Sci
.I
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 5
5.1
5--1
-5
77
INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 5
5.2
be used to generate
measurements themselves.
In this chapter,
an attempt will be
Additionally,
although
more often than not, accuracy requiremenLs will depend upon the
"individual aircraft being tested.
5.3
It
performance data.
5.4
(.
5-2
-T
7,
SYMBOLS
5.5
Units
Symbol
Definition
rad/sec22
Sp0,,ed of sound
kt or ft/sec
SAe
Exh..ust area
in
Diameter
in
(cm)
F
g
Gro4ss thrust
Acceleration o gravity
Ibs
ft/sec2
(N)
(m/sec2
2
(rad/sec2)
(m/sec)
(cm2)
mg
Milli-g = .001g
M-
Mach number
OAT
Pa
Ambient pressure
lbs/ft 2
Pt
Total pressure
lbs/ft
lbs/ft 2
lbs/ft
2
(N/m2
Dynamic pressure
lbs/ft 2
(N/mr2 )
PSSL
q
(nozzle exit)
(g)
0F
('C)
(N/m2 )
(N/rm2
(N/m2)
rX
ft
(m)
S5-3r
5-3
Metric
Symbol
SVt
Definition
Common Units
Units
Ta
Ambient temperature
Tt
Total temperature
True airspeed
OF
kt or ft/sec
( C)
(m/sec)
Calibrated airspeed
kt or ft/sec
(m/sec)
OF
(0C)
Greek
Symbols
Ya
none
none
Ye
none
none
Pressure ratio
none
none
deg
(deg)
-P /P
Pitch attitude
Pitch rate
deg/sec
(deg/sec)
Pitch acceleraticn
deg/sec2
(deg/sec 2
4)
4)
Bank angle
Roll rate
deg
deg/sec
Rol ccleaton2
Roll acceleration
deg/sec
(deg)!
(deg/sec)
sec2ec
2
(deg/sec
Yaw rate
deg/sec
(deg/sec)
Yaw acceleration
deg/sec 2
(deg/sec2 )
S..
li
5-4
-'
--
OVE~RALL PHIILOSOPHIY
3.
systoiu should
chosen.A
The instrumeniio tion will be broken into tho followingq
catoagorio's o1' consideration:
3.7
measurements
paramtotrs
*Airframc!
*
*Pilot
paz"moters
display parziamtrs.
Each catagory of~ instrumontation will havo ain u)UOect on the ;and
product and each will ho ainalyzed soparately\.
5. 8
Ashould
be available
It is zassumod that
2N
'2.1C
general,
channels.
PiM, and FM
PITOT-STATIC INSTRUMENTATION
The accuracy requirement of pitot static information is
5.9
The calculation of
true airspeed,
to lift
or lift
coefficient.
for instance,
Additionally,
etc.
these measurements
The Altimeter
5.10
If
Standard Atmosphere
5-6
-ZV
A-
5-1.
5.11
Instead,
it
is
is flying.
It
is difficult to measure
ti
Ta
Mach number is
(5-1)
aircraft's performance.
A'SI
M MINA ZE
TABLE 5-1
CURRENTLY AVAILABLE ALTIMETERS
C-12
C-19
Range
(Feet)
Readability
(Feet)
Repeatability
0 to 50,000
0 to 80,000
i100 feet
desired
I
TABLE 5-2
CURRENTLY AVAILABLE AIRSPEED INDICATORS
F-I
059
Range
Readability
(knots)
(knots)
Repeatability-
0.5
1 knot desired
low speed
50 to
80o
50 to 850
0.5
t2 knots desired
high speed
Same
5-8
S_7
.-
Ta
Pt
Ya:' 2
l+
M
2
P
ya=1 .40
For air,
(5-2)
?Pt
(5-3)
(1 + 0.2M
St=
a
This equation relates free stream total and static pressures to Mach
number and is
Machmeter then,
The
The instruments,
however,
can be used
The Machmeters
Therefore,
it
a
I
..........................-.
a.
--
5-9
then:
(5-4)
CURRENTLY
Type
Al
!
A2
G09501
TABLE 5-3
AVAILABLE
Range
MACHMETERS
Readability
0.3 to 1.0
feet
: 0 to 50,000
'calibration
0.5 to 1.5
0 to 50,000 feet
0.7 to 2.5
o to 60,000 feet
0.01
00librmine
Repeatability
Determined by
0.01
0.01
II
5-10
most
To
is
recovery factor.
factor,
work.
Angle of Attack
Due to
The angle of attack is of primary importance.
5.14
its complex nature and its vital importance to the accelerometer
methods,
it
Closely
5-11
!I*
7t12
Angle of Sideslip
5.15
Generally,
ACCELEROMETER MEASUREMENTS
5.16
The
the primary
objective is to
the wider
so that
Basic considerations
-l
5-12
a~'a ,a
5. a a,'aa
;'aa~aik,
1 mg accuracy, however,
lift
and drag are small and range extension may not be needed if
The Conrac
within 0.001 g,
accuracy, size, stability, and cost over the other type of accelerometers considered.
A recently
developed open loop type accelerometer combines the proof mass and
suspension in a single element utilizing either piezoelectric effects
or variations in capacitance to measure acceleration.
This approach
(FPA) system.
5-13
A 4K
5.20
Both approaches
.4
C,4
v-
Hn
414
10
r4I
0xN
Otj
0 0
400
-4
x
x-~to
4-)H
H0
H0
z fLA
.
0 (no-
om
00
XX
'N
x
iN~~
H400 H
0COH4-
X~
Xn
010
)
0 0,i
li
U-
H rC)%0t (
ri0
r-
wHp
m
H0
H~
0
U
'N>.
I-
0)
r-i)~.
41Oo41i
41
H4
*:
N4
Ii
CQ)
3~~~'-
E0
HH
LAI
Hx
XN...t
0C
OLi
41 *
0CIE
uX
0 0H4.
to~
fli
0 Ctj4C)
~
'N
P4
c~.
(N
X'0
cs4 41 0y
E-4
-1
W~ H0
001
b)
0p
Xi
4-4
00
44
>1
C)
34
3W
IV
E)~
(-4
&5-15
$1)
-
Q)4)
E-
.q
$.
General Dynamics
5.23
More recent tests performed at the U.S. Naval Air Test Center,
utilizing an A-7C at the Naval Test Pilot School (reference 5-6) gave
a more optimistic evaluation of the 'ise of an inertial navigation
U system.
with
The only
and pitch
Additionally, as will be
The
5.25
5-16
?II
is the accelerometer rate corrections as given in equations 2-46 to
2-52 of Chapter 2.
xizy
net
:'-!
5.24
For example:
i/gerx(82+t
r(p-8) + r
r
(8+
(2-46)
in the general
case, the errors in terms will not be biased all in one direction so
that maintaining 1 mg accuracy in each of the terms should induce only
The
small errors.
rx
rx
rxy,
rxyO
the distance is
the general
In general,
from 30 to 50 feet or
g
or
"AA =
AA =
.001
(5-6)
2
2
.001 (rad/sec) or rad/sec
.238 deg/sec or .057 deg/sec 2
(5-7)
5-17
M4
(5-8)
if
the accuracy
For cg accelerometers,
instruments is acceptable.
for instance,
rx
that an
ENGINE PARAMETERS
5.29
If
ee
e
~ e
lJ(5-9)
supercritical flow,
PT5)((
as taken
are examined:
subcritical flow,
F SYe- 29.4 A yee(eT-i Pa5\
and
airframe combination.
Ye
e)
15-10'
14.7 A-
"
~5-18
7.
MI
boing~ co~njIt"At.
prtmmiUro v~iotio
Trhis mmlyz!-si
thrust aquaitions.
psi
tho Indivitdual
accklcyit
pooi
a* 1.
angines,
to
ongintm,j
for Lturboifui-Lype
cons1idoroa.
I n adicction to the pzvram terzi roquiiud Co. Ithru~t, tho aungiluu
5,30
fuel flow inust be mionitorod teor uno In the thru't Null fltow wp
t'lIow lunp which i~good
to 3 percent C!or tile c-,%o whort thruoL 1!3 goodI to only 3 pouroolit,
Ilowcavor, wholn Plotting
the
VYor thruxs
desird aqc1
Curney of~ Nou
5.31.
modoling
za~o
p'.)%,~iz~
With,
tile
and
For Cuol fl1ow iuodoling Applioaioll iiw
Sp~oi0-111,Ul)
Consuixiptlitu)
ot
UC'
lt-
IN
all
',
5.32
The final parameter to be considered with engine instrumenthe aircraft gross weight.
tation is
gross weight will be calculated from the integrated fuel flow and
others from a survey of fuel remaining onboard.
If
the case of a
1.5 percent.
the
Under these
AIRFRAME PARAMETERS
5.33
The accuracy
For instance,
the
5-20
[>o
'.7// i,
1
"eZE
"-"-.
'
..'-
b/ k
,//
'./
J' .:VZI'i
# .
b /i"
)/4/4' A fr.' I- /I
/ /I '
4 .
9./
/'V ,.,.-tAi.I
tA.
I
#0
10
HI
Jjj It,11 l
I HO It ,P-'04 Il 11014
/ilt
I /!?!r
.1)!linkol
i.lIIMN~ IIMNI
1I"
!1"01II
III JI4Al
HIIIlI
,:
. '
-~-'---
JIII1
1
'1'#i
h
tI
i,.1
1i,1,1,I
111H.
'
"/
.V'/x-''4'A
'
1//i/ 11 41
'
" -
'
...
___
_____----
It
#~
a'I /4.fI
-# . -
", !
,' .- -
# 4
"
.-
-A
4-4044 vx a
_*
display, for
,1i, loo
t|,,l.
rY,,jufr'1
iD
le lin.!f palln.: "knecboard" data will not
5.37
if
safety of flight,
b.
of flight.
d.
e.
f.
dynamic-type maneuvers.
g.
h.
Correlation
j.
I2
5-22
safety of flight
AL
cc
LL
40
2,1
INSTRUMENTATION
5.38
SUMMARY
It
or those conducted at
the Grumman
research programs,
Additionally,
'I
During
such
research programs
usually involve mucn fewer people than the production programs which
are mainly concerned with gathering data.
attention is paid to handling,
in a research program.
5.39
5-24
,.
-~~
WI
TABLE 5-5
INSTRUMENTATION SUMMARY
Instrument
Desired
Required
Accuracy
Accuracy
Comments
Altimeter
+i00 ft
100 ft
Airspeed Indicator
1 kt slow
2 kt fast
1 kt slow
2 kt fast
Mach meter
Free Air Temperature
. 02
0.5 C
-+.05
1.0C
hngle of Attack
0.05 deg
0.10 deg
Angle of Sideslip
+0.
Longitudinal Accel.
i.001 g
.001 g
Normal Acceleration
t.001 g
.005 g
Lateral Acceleration
.001 g
.005 g
Accelerometer Temp.
l.0 0 C
As required by
calibration
Pitch Attitude
0.05 deg
0.10 deg
Roll Attitude
0.10 deg
0.10 deg
Pitch Rate
0.20 deg/sec
0.20 deg/sec
Roll Rate
0.20 deg/sec
0.20 deg/sec
Yaw Rate
0.20 deg/sec
0.20 deg/sec
See Chap.7
1.0 deg
deg
deg/sec 2
See Chap.6
0.10 deg/sec
Pitch Accleration
0.06
Roll Acceleration
+0.06 deg/sec
Yaw Acceleration
+0.06 deg/sec 2
0.10 deg/sec 2
1%
1%
Thrust
i3% repeatable
Fuel Flow
-1%
3% repeatable
1% thrust modeling
3% fuel flow modeling
Others
As .required
As required
5-25
____ ____
____
____--*
___
-'
0.10 deg/sec
""-
5.40
modified to fit
52
5-26
4:t
"
...
-;-z
REFERENCES TO CHAPTER 5
VA
5-1.
5-2.
5-3.
Royal Aircraft Establishment, TR-67183, "Performance Characteristics and Methods of Testing Force Feedback Accelerometers,
by I.L. Thomas and R.H. Evans, Unclassified, Aug 1967.
5-4.
5-5.
5-6.
5-7.
5-8.
5-27
tI
iI
THE ACCELEROMETER METHODS OF DETERMININGi
S~AIRCRAFT
,
PERFORMANCE
(DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE TESTING)
IFOR
PROCEDURES
LABORATORY
CALIBRATION
SENSITIVE
ACCELEROMETERS
7-
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 6
6.1
Calibration
6-l
6-i
INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 6
6.2
of the accelero-
accelerometer in a known
the accelerometer
if
If
For
the digital
The
to
0.20
cutoff at
to 2.50 volts.
2.4 volts.
The result
is
This signal is
two signals,
amplified
a digital
25 to 1, or
signal of 2.40
6-2
Simply translated,
then,
ti ,
6.-3
SYMBOLS
6.5
Common
Units
ft/sec
Metric
Units
(m/sec
Diameter
ft
(m)
Vol tage
volts
Modulus of elasticity
lbs/ft2
(volts)
(N/rn2
Acceleration of gravity
ft/sec
Definition
Symbol
a
Acceleration
Coefficient
db
Gain
SLength
(rn/sec
(db)
(M4)
ft
(m)
ft-lbs
(N-m)
g s
(g s)
ft
(m)
Moment
Step number
Load factor
Radius
Temperature
Voltage
volts
(volts)
Zero v6ltage
volts
(volts)
Weight
deg F or R (deg C or K)
lbs
(kg)
lbs/ft
(kg/m)
Length
ft
(m)
deg
(deg)
Increment
6-4
ft
Definition
Symbol
01,
Pendulum-orientation angles
Common
Metri c
Units
Units
deg
(deg)
deg/sec 2
Pitch acceleration
deg
(deg)
deg
(deg)
Voltage sensitivity
volts/step (volts/step)
Turn rate
deg/sec
(deg/sec)
g s
(g's)
.Others
f(
Function
de/dstep
Step sensitivity
Subscripts
r
Radial direction
Indicated
Normal
FP
Flight path
Local
Ambient
amb
o
Zero condition
FPA
--
6-5
---
-_____________________________
The first
6.6
gravitational
the earth's
the accelerometer,
Sto
the accelerometer
In
a test
of gravity is
with respect
the accelera-
is
gravitational
referred
It
field.
to here is
and this
case,
known accurately,
is
gravitation field
the earth's
gravity,
geocentric acceleration
the static
If
tion that
range
of the total
For calibration
field,
of the flight
sufficient.
to be used will be
should be noted
laboratory.
6.7
figures
meter is
is
computed by
0 degrees and
180
degree orientation
both cases,
in
The difference
,misalignment,
since in
point,
as shown in
the flight
electrical
these
two settings
tion.
This is
is
zero g s).
equivalent to twice
the
6-6
"-2
,,
'Ci
6-7J
ba-LRVF0
IVAS
2700
I'
FIG.
6-2:
6-8
Sj4
required
is added to each point to give the true orientation of the accelerometer to the earth's gravitational field.
i
..
6-9
'
6.9
readings
where
~~v-v
nxo
X. on~= z
[ Y -+n
O
voltage sensitivity
range extended
(6-1)
per step
fine voltage
based on the
dn
e
dstep
dg/dstep
V0 =
model is
obtained as follows:
The mathematical
the voltage
6.10
In practice,
when
g = 0
and
V= V
etc.,
when
g > 0
etc.,
when
g < 0
where:
6.11
the orthagon-
ality can be checked between these axes and the difference between
the two axes from the 90 degrees or normal case can be used as a
measure of cross-axis sensitivity.
6.12
The zero voltage (Vo) and the step numbers have been defined.
The volts per step and dg/dstep can be obtained as in the example of
paragraph 6-2 by dividing the full range output by the number of
steps.
At each point, a
The
If
An error in the volts per step constant(y) can create a family of error
lines with double values as shown in figure 6-3.
should be adjusted to minimize scatter.
if
6-11
-I-
_________
~7&
U;
0~
INDICATED
FIG. 6-3:
6-12
d UP CAL
0 DN CAt.
-0
S"
FIG.
6-4:
INDICATED - 9,
61
,4
6-13
-7
Howevz,
mathematical model to
is required,
. . . . .
..
adjusting the
If
figure 6-4
In a test case,
a change of
Data is linear,
zero slope,
The non-
6-14
n-
,.
UP'CAL
0DN CAL
+0
0
S:
~INDICATED - g
~FIG.
6-5:
"'
6ci
0
O
UP CAL
0 UP CAL
DN CAL
G DN CAL
-0---
-1
-.
FIG.
6-6:
+.6
NON-LINEAR DATA
6.
6-16
'-
I
.
In
Refinements
6-17
is
(normally 1 mg).
--
-t
6.21
is desirable.
The probe
ohms/ft @ 0 0 C),
of the accelerometer
Standard g
The
mathematical model:
"g =
+ nj dg/dstep
6-31
(6-1)
.CCCL
DETAIL
(MISALIGNMENT ANGLE
11
AC~LEOMETNORMAL
ACCEEROMT~lAXIS
[--
RADIUS-----L
'S
6-19)
~~V-
zI
n-1
a:
-E-
IE-1
r
L:-J'l
-x
F2
4L
HJ
6-20
Hr4
is
rad/sec,
rw 2
nr
where
(6-2)
gL
(6-3)
is
nr
is
the
(nin)
n
is given as a
nr cos a cos
(6-4)
ni
rw 2
1cos *.
9Lcos
-
(6-5)
or
n.
equation 6-1 and the measured voltages using the values obtained
in the section on Ultradex Head Calibration.
unknowns,
and
j3
6-21
two
6.15
is
given by
n.
(6-6)
n.
Once again,
2
-- sin
sin
Dividing
'FP
With
cos
(6-7)
4)
known,
6-5 or 6-6.
6.16
tani[I
8 :
nr
The
-rcos
ns _= gL
6 cos 4 .
(6-8)
The
L(
r cLos ( cos
6-22
rad/sec
(6-9)
If an error or
6-I
tI
iI
"-
6-23
6.17
It
oscillograph.
voltage.
line with the system and orienting the accelerometer to zero voltage
Alternate methods include taking the midpoint of full
on each axis.
ing zero
v-v
g
vO+n
It
dg/dstep
(6-1)
dg/dstep
6-24
(6-10)
3TP-
MEAURE
TRFIG.NC
6-9:a
OSCIL
RP
TP
rECORD
ZERO#Fwlo
6-25
u?
Az
1 IN2AA I
I~P-
(INSTALLED)
ACCELEROMETER MISALIGNMENTS
6.18
will, in general,
the flight path reading will be the sine of the misalignment angle.
This can be checked by setting the vane at known angles as shown in
The vane system can be mounted at
figure 6-10.
, 0, or
A92
angles and the flight path axis of the accelerometer will experience
the sine of the mounting angle plus misalignment.
6.19
If
there is no misalignment,
the flight
path axis will experience the sine of the inclination plus misalignment.
6- 26
-EDUU
FIG
MOUNT~
6-10
'6-2
I m
ACCELEROMETER AXIS
REFERENCE
LINE
%6
FIG.
6-11:
6-28
gA'
LYAW MISALIGNMENT
?I
"6.20
it
is determined to be less
g error in longitu-
62
6-29
BODY MOUNTED
NOSEBOOM MOUINTED
-ACE
INOSE
ACCELEL
ACCEL
LONG
AXIS
ACCEL FUSELAGE
LONG REFERENCE
AXIS LINE
FUSELAGE
REFERENCE
LINE
",-MISALIGNMENT
FIG.
6-12:
SMISALIGNMENT
YAW MISALIGNMENTS
6-30
7Cd,
,t-
6.21
is desirable.
The probe
ohms/ft @ 0C),
Standard g
At
The
mathematical model:
-+
n, dg/dstep
6-31
(6-1)
6-32
71-
__
__
~6-331
2w
;77
OL
However,
step levels were 0.2 volts apart and changes with temperature were
in the millivolts.
The
The adjustment can be made as discussed in paragraph 6.12 and crossplotted as shown in figure 6-16.
B.
V.
It
Figure 6-17
V = V0
at zero g s.
Non-linear changes.
it
-~~
07'.!
TABLE 6-1
STEP VOLTAGE CHANGE WITH
TEMPERATURE
Step
Number
Low Temperature
Voltage
Room Temperature
Volta e
2.431
2.435
2.633
2.438
2.636
2.639
2.835
2.837
2.840
High Temperature
Voltage
etc.
6-35
U-M
---
f" :
i0
A- A]
t'
:<
"
'
""
""
(X
X X X X
II +ATz
A3 A3
lQE
A A
r.ROOM
X X X X X
-ATI
'
' ....
INDICATED -g9
SFIG
6-15:
I6D
FI.6156EOVOTGSITDE3OTMPRTR
2'.
Ib
ZERO VOLTAGE
FIG.
6-16:
No)
6
6-37
I'
.N
+AT
""
'
TEMPERATURE
INDICATED-g
FIG.
6-17:
6-38
'1
I-
--
i-
,--
SENSITIVITY (i)
FIG.
6-18:
SENSITIVITY/TEMPERATURE CORRECTION
;.
i'
6-39
-iT
..
, ~-~-
FIG.6-19
...
FIG.
NN--INEARTEMPA
TUMPER
CATURE
INDICATED-g
6-19:
6-4,
6-40
N?
wt-...**$.t
so that an apparent
will be zero at
1 g.
(For the
g.)
This
It
"4
6-1
K,7
Raml
t--
"/ '-"-.4
'--
APPARENT MISALIGNMENT
FIG.
6-20:
APPARENT MISALIGNMENT
CROSSPLOT
6-42
-j
6.24
If
In this case,
the transient method may be used to determine the bulk of the temperature calibration, after a comparison is made between the two for one
data set, as shown in figure 6-21.
6.25
The heat soak data points are acquired by allowing the oven
The oven is
as in figure 6-21,
6-43
L-
0 HEAT SOAK
w X TRANSIENT
w
C.)
TEMPERATURE,
FIG. 6-21:
6-44
Zx
-------------
u.26
tested),
Each
6.27
C (defined as
(Ag/g/F)),
of
model used is
n,=
The values
The mathematical
as follows:
.+
dg/dstep
(6-1)
C(T.i
C(
where
T0 )]
n '=
ni =
T.
indicated temperature
Tamb =
T
C =
Camb
,(611
-T)
6-45
S'1
+ CAMB
w~
"ROOM TEMPERATURE
~(TAM8)
__
ToL:
TEMPERATURE
FIG. 6-22:
TEMPERATURE CALIBRATION
FOR NO ZERO SHIFT
AZ
b3
6-46
"
6.28
(reference 6-2).
The regression
where
is
e 2 + Ce+
3y
0 + Clex + C2x
(6-12)
accelerai-ions.
y
correlate voltage with
is
Ce
5xy
4z +Cee
to within
to be able to
1 mg.
6-47
..-
az
BOOM BENDING
6.29
referenced
forces experienced
to represent inertial
with strain
inflight
inflight,
instrumentation
is
not available,
may
But,
Adjustments
bending is
cause bending of
errors in
in
results
as shown
figure 6-23.
6.30
f(k);
El
f(k);
The static
x
8
FPA
=J
dt
6-3
(6-13)
M_
Analytic
with point loads and comparisons can be made with the analytic
calculations.
If
suitable agreement is
ITZ
not obtained,
the data is
used
ad
FIG. 6-23:
MODEL
SIMPLIFIED BOOM STRUCTURE
6-49
Uniform
w(k)
=n
load
(6-14)
w0 (t)
Ad
2.
=1
+ 1-j o(w )
(6-15)
and
FpAd
(6-13)-1
0
'where
,6.31
weight distribution.
6-'
6-50
:"z
ON BOARD CALIBRATIONS
In general comn-lete laboratory calibrations are needed
6.32
The character-
introduce additional error, but this error may not be critical (i.e.
an error of 24 mg on the normal axis at 6.0 g is 0.4 percent which
is usually more than adequate).
is
Generally,
greater
6.33
the following
calibrated,
output.
b.
Sensitive inclinometer.
6-51
L2-'
c.
Pendulum
frequency).
is
unwielding.
6.34
local, and if
tions,
to determine the
accelerometer/vane misalignment.
6.35
The vane is
quency very low) with the inclinometer in place until the flight
path axis changes step near Og right at this break is Og flight
path and the .=ncl'inometer reading is
ignment.
displacement is available.
If
enough angular
6-52
1g.
q ii
BOOM
IL
1-?
Kr
FIG.
6-24:
6-53--
AA
"
we can re-
6.36
:very
Taking poinLt.
calibration over the useful range to be treated the same as a laboratory calibration.
If
vane position
zero
true
biased
the pendulum is
with
aind
attenuation
the accelerometer
of the calibraticn
6.38
Knowledge
"6.39
should
attenuation
Since
peak
the above
and
readings,
to accelerometer
for
of
can
later
needed
point
the zero
in
to
check
is
one
degree
angle-
The inclinometer
readings.
to calibrate
the pendulum
tho AOA.
relates
angle-of-attack
swings
shown below
relationships
is
introduced
now be usel
and phase
the acceleration
be used
the boom in
and inclinometer
angle-of-attack
readings
be used
to
be
last
The
phase shift.
clamped
and
swings will
of-attack
relates
reversed
These pendulum
both directions.
filter
be
the
yive
the inclinome,.er).
will
an error
bent)
(i.e.,
so that
checked with
be
(should
swings averaged
pendulum
Several
reading.
to inclinometer
it
now by relating
b.37
can
lag checks.
only
the AOA.
6-54
function
The figure
of angle,
shows
some
it
lag due
--
6=55
is
Vt
x 3600
where:
Vt
T
6.40
measured
"Acceleraticn
_
Calculated
Accelerationr
FIG.
6-26:
ATTENUATION CHARACTERISTICS
6-
(7
The change
x2
G= 20 log Xi
1
It
db.
(6.14)
6.41
zero phase
6-57
LUMM
I
A
4
-. -.----..-
It
v1J
-,
0C,
It
6.43
Chapter 7.
I!I
g..-
-A.
6-59
6-1.
6-2.
Pueschel,
Unclassified,
Aug 1970
Gerlach, O.H.,
"Techniques for Non-Steady Flight Measurements,"
Flight Test Instrumentation Volume 3, Permagon Press, 1964.
6-60
ff
CHAPTER 7
THE DETERMINATION OF ANGLE OF ATTACK
I
K
If
__________
----
-------
,MG
r4
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 7
7.1
Angle
4
A
7-1
4-,4
INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 7
7.2
testing.
of the effect it
in
the determination
because
The
aircraft
so that corrections
Alternatively,
in aircraft
7-'
ic7-2
SYMBOLS
ax
Random bias
7.3
Symbol
CL
curve
(m)
ft
1/radians
(1/radians)
% MAC
(% MAC)
cg
Drag
White noise
lbs
(N)
Gross thrust
lbs
(N)
Fr
Ram drag
lbs
(N)
Acceleration of gravity
Altitude
ft
(m)
HAGL
ft
(m)
Spring constant
Length
ft
(i)
Lift
lbs
(N)
m
M
Mass"
Mach number
slugs
(kg)
Moment
nx
gs
(gs)
gs
(gs)
Pa
ft/sec 2
(m/sec2)
2
lbs-ft-sec 2 (kg-m-sec2)
lbs/ft
(N/m)
_
ft-lbs
lbs/ft
Ambient pressure
7-3
(N-m)
(N/mr)
Pressure
Common
Units
2
lbs/ft
Dynamic pressure
lbs/ft
Radius of action
ft
ft 2
Definition
Symbol
Metric Unit
2
(N/m )
(N/mr2 )
(i)
(m2
sec
(sec)
Horizontal velocity
ft/sec
(m/sec)
Vt
ft/sec
(m/sec)
Vv
ft/sec
(m/sec)
1W
Gross weight
lbs
(kg)
Time
Vh
Greek
Symbol s
I-.
it
Angle of attack
deg
(deg)
deg
(deg)
Incremental change
deg
SEarth
(deg)
Sabo
curvature
Damping ratio
T
deg
(deg)
Pitch attitude
deg
(deg)
Pitch rate
deg/sec
(deg/sec)
deg
(deg)
cycle/sec
(cycle/sec)
deg
SYaw
(deg)
Natural frequency
angle
7-4
*4
-159
Subscripts
)b
(BB
( )FP
(FPA
Definition
Body-axis accelerometer
Boom bending
Flight path
Flight path accelerometer
/Indicated
1,2,3
Condition point
)LAG
Lag
)PEND
)
Pendulum
( )p
Pitch rate
True
Upwash
()v
Vane
()
Rotational axis
a
i
N
Angle of attack
'7.5
"ANGLE OF ATTACK
flight
performance
aircraft
critical.
Examination of
constant,
W/S
ecuations
point,
which is
(assumed airspeed
result
nzW
been
historically,
determining
If
for use in
7.4
range,
and altitude
method of
the following
stabilization).
(7-1)
sin(a + T)
cos(a + T) -F
(7-2)
50,000 lbs.
5.0 deg.
Fg
1.0
0 deg.
16,000 lbs.
=
4,000
lbs.
or drag.
Even at high
test
from which
performance is calculated.
coordinate transformations
42r
j
The analysis is a function of the
(7-3)
and
nx = nxb Cosa
nnzb Sinb
(7-4)
is
the true
Ac
nz
1.00
nx
0.30
5.0 degrees
Act
0.2 degrees.
normal.
are zero.
7.6
systems is
x
nx
a
_x
To avoid
yields:
-n xb sinci
b
zb Cosa
b
7-7
-n
-1.00
(7-5)
Thus,
An= .001
.06 degrees
is required:
57.3 Anx
~-nz
-
Aa
i.e.,
(7-6)
0.0573 degrees.
requirements.
(1 + gca)a-V + b
a.
where
(7-7)
a<
random scale factor
(7-8)
"b
a
random bias
(7-9)
white noise
(7-10)
additionally:
at
0a.
(7-11)
+ Aa CORRECTIONS.
carrier approach,
Weapons
7-8~~
-9
7.8
Differential
Aerodynamic
pressure sensors
ranes.
7.9
the platform.
angle is
y
_
-
tan
-1
Vv
(7-12)
platform and the aircraft's reference line, and the angle of attack
is given by:
4.
(7-13)
7-10
et
taken
The
7.10
the use of
the
AP(Pl-P 2 )
by the difference in
This angle
on Mach number,
AP/q
The
versus
a.
For increased
The
1:
7-11
PRESSURE TAPS
FIG.
7-1:
"-
IN
NCE LINE
, -
$4
i:
7 -12
Sz2.
k'
....
required,
and the error created by misalignment of the flow at the probe when
This, and all angle of
AP
position; and
*
The advantages of this type of sensor are that the measurements are
independent of Mach number and dynamic pressure, and the pressure
transducer may be as sensitive as desired since the measured
is always near zero.
13
7...
I ...I
''2''-'''"
AP
(upwash),
VANE SYSTEMS
AERODvNAMIC
7.12
S
The final
the aerodynamic
commonly used is
vane system.
the most
is
aligned
fact that
its
Mach number.
*
amplitude,
inflight
remains essentially
calibration
The disadvantages
are structural
flow angularity
constant with
problems at
and local
(upwash).
7-14
!RFAI
high
AT
JR,
tjX
'P
'~~~"-
Aj
W<'jkttzy%
-;
Lli
-,
7-1-
7.13
the
a boom extending
to measure
navigation
usually mounted on
(misalignment);
Aeroelastic bending.
Since increased
*
accuracy is
measuring system,
required
and
ERRORS
IN MECHANICAL POSITIONING
7.14
Errors
system,
differential
in
the vane
pressure system.
is
a requirement,
reference line,
and are
in
MAIE
*A
F
FIG.
7-3:
45
j.4_
-7-17
figure 7-3,
The
Ct
(7-14)
Figure 7-4 shows the mechanical misalignment of either the differential pressure probe or the null-seeking differential pressure probe.
The probes themselves may be misaligned, or not aligned with the
reference axis sought to that,
in general,
the flow at the measuring device (local flow) is not aligned with
the freestream flow.
angularity.
boom,
fuselage,
to angular rates.
7-18
"A
'A"
V
0
HEA
FIG. 7-4:
PROBE CENTERLINE
7-19
Pm
-y
--
--
-4
Upwash
"7.16
in
turn, are
It
P
This change
noseboom,
etc.
Complex
but
0 a y+ .(7-15)
e7
2
7-20
tt
___7-21---
"_
riflE
. -
-'
... ..
'.,
- .
......
"~-,J
If
dh
=
(7-16)
t"
1
t
(y)
equals zero.
(dh/dt=0),
the
ACU
i(7-17)
its simplicity.
The
S7.20
the
In the horizon
First, on the
7-22
.~~~
~~~~~
. .....-
V1
ground,
Inflight
For a flat
earth, the difference between the gunsight setting for zero sight
and the gunsight setting for horizon depression will be pitch attitude.
For a curved earth over water, the earth's curvature must be subtracted
out as given by reference 7-1:
=
.00319 HAGL
(7-18)
Again,
Additionally, all
Here,
the aircraft is
flown over
7-23
<V
e.
-.
FIG.
7-6:
7-24
/,
siny
where
Vt
velocity,
dtV
Vh
and
Vt
'
(7-16)
tany
If
dh/dt
the horizontal
1
1h(7-19)
.j
at
at
0- y,
and
Aau
at
ai
upwash is
conditions,
the resolved
flight
path acceleration
is
zero.
As
(through
using the
In rpality,
a xF 1-
dh I
h- .
ct Vt
g
The
ax
is
dV t 1
dt
dtg
(7-20)
"FP
be computod by:
a,
AaU
sin
n RESOLVED
COMPUTED
(7-21)
aerodynamic upwash.
q*4
..
AaI
Ig
7-27
I4A0
NI
involving stabilized conditions may be used, so that upwash calibration data need not consume additional flight time.
7.26
can be used and flight test data from any of the aforementioned
methods can be used to ascertain its validity.
of figure 7-8.
Detail
From detail
B , the vane
in error in that it
such that:
tries to
rb(cos a~
tanAct
(7-22)
sin
SVt-rO
tT
or
A
SPVt-rb
tan- 1
t
sin t
(7-23'
t
7-28
C4
C
cg
Vls
D~AIL
roThseUC21
7-8
PD'
7-
29
" + Aa
+ Aa
+ Aa
(7-24)
at
= 0 as
p
to within a given accuracy
6a
reference 7-2.
complicated,
possible.
If,
for instance,
the angle of attack system has a low rotational inertia, and intended
aircraft maneuvers are of a slow or moderate rate, the angle of
attack system will follow changes in angle of attack closely enough
to avoid -.
ne correction.
If,
the corrections
an
angle of attack vane system constitutes a torsional spring-massdamper mechanical system having an undamped natural frequency
and damping ratio ()
(wn)
n
that describe its dynamic response characteristics.
etc.,
transducer elements,
surfaces.
IyCv
Pa S
k C
1v
(7-25)
2nv
(7-26)
If
+tV
2 rvWnv
(
v
It
wn
and
- at)
(7-27)
In equations 7-25,
and
the vane pivot length (Z) can be computed knowing the vp.ae system
7-31
-c
FIG. 7-9:
7-32
ciI
CL
av
C
L
(7-28)
2 Sv
b
The unknowns in the above equation set have now been reduced to one,
the rotational moment of the inertia
(I YV).
( ipend
Next,
Figure
is given by:
v7
mg1
g
(7-30)1
Ipend
Solving equations 7-29 and 7-30,
given by:
Mg
(7-31)
7-33
"-..
PIVOT
E..//
//
FIG.
7-10:
7-34
N-A
It
7.34
consists of a stable platform on which there are points for attachment of springs,
as shown in
figure 7-12.
the
equation set for the general .ndamped spring mass system can be
Summing moments about the rotational axis:
derived.
My = 18
yt
I:
where
xi
i=1
V-
spring deflection.
is the initial
Sxi
can be defined by
xi = r.i
approximation
,or
sin
n
I 0
V
or
Iv
i=l
(7-33)
rki6
.r.(-34)
2-
-.,
(7-35)
sSin ot t
7-35
.
_
3t.4
7-33
'AIT
Pvil.
"'
L~._______
7~7.
,.
7.
----
Kt
K2
DETAIL
FRONT
VIEW
ACCEL-
r4
K1
K4
DETAIL
FIG. 7-12:
TOP VIEW
7-37
'II
This is
Wd
ton
and
con
This
assumption has proven to be very good for the low inertia system
(C -0.05).
(7-36)
on sin tont
(7-37)
(7-38)
unsolvable in that
at
appears on
St
.
2
n
AK.2
(i
(a i
+ 2Cv
at) +
(7-27)
nv a
n
V
SV
7-38
, i-~
of
at
Suitable convergence is
AEROELASTIC BENDING
7.36
portion has been obtained in the past by statically loading the boom
to predicted flight loads, or by strain gage measurement (reference
7-3
Typically, boom bending will be less than 0.1 degree per g , but
need be measured for correction where 0.1 degree is the minimum
acceptable error.
7.37
as given.
nXPPA
cos Acnx.i
FPA
n z.
nib
n
cos(a. + A
sin Aa
(7-.39)
FPA
and
n
7-39
n Zb
i
sin(ai + Aa)
(7-40)
zb
which is
calculations.
The
Aa BENDING
(radians)
Aa = 5
with no further
7-40
(7-41)
It
7.38
0.10 degrees.
In order to maintain
a=
i
The
AuBENDING + 6a P +a LAG
7.39
7-41
!S
0'
01
(7-42)
REFERENCES
7-1.
7-2.
7-3.
7-4.
7-5.
*2
7-42
A
PERFORMANCE TESTING)
I;
CHAPTER 8
TEST METHODS
(PILOT AND ENGINEERING PROCEDURATS)
"-
,-.1
~t
-a~~s~
w*~-.a
- -s
--.-
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 8
8.1
5,
Pilot
8-
8-1
INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 8
8.2
that need.
intended to.fill
This
tation are omitted since they are given elsewhere in the document,
but appropriate cross-reference is made for those seeking more
detail.
This Chapter is
'.:
:4
8-2
.4
"
-A,
SYMBOLS
8.3
Symbol
Definition
Common Units
CD
Drag coefficient
CL
Lift coefficient
cg
Center of gra-Aity
Altitvde
Acceleration of gravity
Net thrust
Mach number
TlI,T2 ,etc
Temperature
Velocity
VMAX
W
Maximum airspeed
Fuel flow
% MAC
ft
Metric Units
(% MAC)
(i)
ft/sec 2
(m/sec 2 )
lbs
(N)
deg R
(deg K)
kts
(km/hr)
kts
(lbs/hr)
(km/hr)
(kg/sec)
Greek
-Symbols
a
Angle of attack
deg
43
(deg)
~7-Ir
AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION
8.4
The aircraft
CONSIDERATIONS
detail
2.Tt
in
Chapter
5.
The
first
of these is
necessary.
tions graphically.
8.5
In
the figure,
total
temperature lines
is
plot.
(Ti,T
temperature limits
are drawn
this
(in
accelerometer
temperature limits.
flight
the figure,
Finally,
cases where
are
the accelerometer
,etc.)
The regions
envelope intersects
the
As shown
(electronic
therefore,
range if
-accelerometer
accelerometer
8.6
temperature to this
Additionally,
level.
the temperature at
8-4
___4
CVI4
2 D
41sSI
NN
LO,
IN
04
r4
~0
co
0
z
00
-tUl
0C
C,0
8-H
envelope,
can be ascertained
If
8.7
If,
however,
the dynamic maneuvers are needed to obtain flight data within the
program constraints,
cg.
at the aircraft
cg.
For example,
an associated
8-6
41Y
S8-r 7
87-
__
_.I
etc.
8.9
and aircraft angular rates low with the flight path system installed.
The mathematical model contribution of each of the maneuvers is
given in Chapter 3, and this section is
intended as a pilot
procedure guide.
CLIMBS
8.10
The
The climb is
8-8
457F
etc.,
smooth
DESCENTS
8.11
throttle setting and low power setting, but idle has not been
found to be a good reference for thrust modeling applications.
The low pressure range in the engine and subsequent fluctuations
at idle power create problems in calculating thrust by normal
parametric methods, and it
placed somewhat above idle.
For
in the 4,000 fpm - 6,000 fpm are usually desired, although the
performance engineer may decide upon higher or lower rates.
For
Mach numbers less than the lower limit of the pilot's Machmeter,
an
8- 9
- ________________
.--
.A
--
.-
.-..
...
same
complete
is
stabilization
from a
and even if
30 to 45 seconds,
there is
time.
for
stabilized" point is
The "near
relaxed.
the
the requirement
usually entered
to yield
techniques wi"h
stabilized
exception
at
this
found
"feels"
point for
small change in
airspeed
or altitude,
is
by conventional
in
the
8.12
Chapter
to a 2 to 3 minute stabilization
adequate as oppe.-ed
Stabilization
techniques.
or near
9.
ACCELERATInNS
is
8.13
The acceleration
The pilot
reasonably
possible or to an airspeed
engineer.
flight
to as slow an airspeed as is
selected by the performance
the same as will be seen in
The power is
profiles.
deviations
in
load
factor or altitude
if
8-10
as
performed as smoothly as
motions avoided).
selected
occ.ur,
pilot
problems exist
Tf small
corrections
with pilot-static
are
illItrumonts
(M"Ach
.9
"0o 1. 2),
*or
limnitad
"Cooking" at
\1
drt1n;
i11..bmum
ue.Whn
hr a
IQ0i
oxcm-I-I ilo
(.0
mai,1
i.
addition11,l
iiwoo th
~1it
tho pilot
vMA
for otra-
.14
'1011f
decoloration
pvuzh-over tile
V
at baqL1 Inct Alti tud) . 'Ph~i nhokild Commmom very little
flight
MAX
tA 11-. it
he a'ncc&Irat IoniA-d
-11on proporiy.
Thec throttlo is reduced
smoothly to theo dremAr:d power --ettinki which,
Anlythnmi nq
0 olr~
f)rI
u MU, to1V
n.
1.
alv
nd dopondul u~pon tho rand p3oin1t or- tHid
Tho decetet,01,Iunot
1maY be0
fiqunc
or u-so with thle
Modellinq aippliczitimni,.
25I
but if
the
The
WIND-UP TURNS
8.15
It
gi"^s a reference point from which to start the maneuver and the
data reduction. The pilot applies roll control and pulls smoothly
to the desired
The
'ic
WIND-DOWN TURNS
8.16
8-12
S~
*~"
-77,
The pilot
at constant throttle
The airspeed will be
The maximum
If
If
the
It
is
from this point, and as the nose comes through the trim position,
Mach number increases.
pull-up is
8- 13
~A
is
0 to 3 gs
A larger
7 g
in
at trim is
rollercoaster
of 20 deg/sec while,
CL
CL
most cases,
excess
are acceptable.
OTHER MANEUVERS
8.18
24
-4
8-14
i<p
i-
1
BASIC DATA REDUCTION
8.19
accelerometer
thrust
performance is
Chapter 3.
(a)
(CD),
.
Each
lift
(CL)
The basic
Additionally,
The
s;;.
8-15
TABLE 8-1
BASIC MANEUVER DATA CONTRIBUTION
TO THE MATHEMATICAL MODEL
(X=Data Available
Maneuver
Drag
Polar
Lift
Curve
X
climb
Thrust
Available
Xa
y
Thrust
Fuel Flow
Thrust
RPM
Descent
Deceleration
Y
X
Wind-Down Turn
Wind-Up Turn
Rollercoaster
Acceleration
ya
Ya
at MIL, MAX, or
aThrust available data is taken in any maneuver
Climbs and accelerations
desirable.
so.
other power settings considered
settings but not necessarily
are usually flown at these power
3- 16
i-i
o-
-*
>4
>4
.- lQj Z
>
>
>
>
>
'IN.
ID rI
04
z
E-iH
0N*49i~
4J>
>
0w
-'
~U2
z'
E~41
0 0
>
If
rr40
C)
fu-
4J)
Hl
44
Cd.-
a)
rq qHIIIa
a40
a)Q8
U)
a)
______A
4J7
a)
I rc ru
M~
4J~
-
~0
lz..
-q
--
8 21
usable flight
in
data in
Chapter 3.
is
profile
discussed
in
detail
is
The profile
in
model.
rust available
8.22
Thrust/fuel
Thrust/rpm
Lift
flow
curve.
to generate
the aircraft
other hand,
is
drag polar.
so that
point, is
is
in
techniques,
deceleration.
the profile.
As discussed
Additionally,
can be assessed.
The
if
in
so
points
the section on
decelerations
S8-18
on the
and data is
available,
imperative
are incorporated
pilot
The thrust
the profile
that it
available on climbs
stabilized
all
.-
~--~**t
So,
CL
range.
the maneuver is
Again,
a climb and descent are done at the same Mach number power,
formulated and it
of flight sequence.
If
these
(figure 3-22),
CL
drag
used to determine the time and fuel used for each maneuver.
If
Or,
if desirable, dynamic
For example,
8-19
.,,
,4.,
if
the
it
is
known that power effects are small, or that they create no problems
because adequate corrective procedures are available,
the accelera-
1 g
data.
Note the
the instrumentation.
""
8-20
1.-
C~~T-
wj
In
0)
*.04
WX
Q-)>~
*d
:) a)0)m
L
r4
*r4
IO(2l )
4j
*mpIIDIwr~
x
WO
m=3
4
itE-i
raw umw
mmM
a4
0 =1=
2 ean
la w =sma
= md
m M
t
U 1Um
Hr
5
00.,
8-21.
S26
=m54
'
HIGH
I
-
___
*1
-4
MEDIUM
SL,..
LL
LOW
_-.4
0,60
06
080
0.MACHI 1.0
FIG.
8-3:
1.2
1.4
NUMBER
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
8.27
This is
8-23
(DYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE TESTING)
Ii
CHAPTER 9
CONVENTIONAL AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE FLIGHT TEST
USING ONBOARD ACCELEROMETER DATA
I;
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 9
9.1
Techniques
and level
Additionally, procedures
-I
-'S
'S
9-j
"
'S
Ago
INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 9
9.2
To this
point,
the accelerometer
methods of obtaining
This is
The direct
methods,
of self-verification.
however,
That is,
advantage
In many instances,
Such cases
may typically be in areas of limited interest or for direct verification of performance characteristics in a specific flight regime.
9.4
the test
conventional instrumentation.
chapter.
9-2
AA
SYMBOLS
The following symbols are used in Chapter 9.
9.5
Symbol
A
f
i
a
Definition
Acceleration factor
Common Units
vdV
1+gd
CD
Drag coefficient
Lift Coefficient
Metric Units
(_)
f t/sec2
ft/sec)
(/ec2
(/sec
(-)
(-)
LH
Excess thrust
lbs
(N)
Gross thrust
lbs
(N)
g
F
Net thrust
lbs
(N)
9g
Acceleration of gravity
Height
h'
Height derivative
H
M.
Pressure altitude
Mach number
(-)
(-)
Ps
RPM
Distance
Distance derivative
ex
S.R.
t
ft/sec
ft
ft/sec
ft
(m/sec 2 )
(W)
(m/sec)
(m)
(-)
ft/sec
(m/sec)
RPM
(RPM)
ft
(m)
ft/sec
(m/sec)
Specific range
sec
Time
9--3
(sec)
Symbol
Definition
Common Units
Metric Units
Velocity
ft/sec
Velocity derivative
ft/sec2
(m/sc2
lbs
lbs/hr
(kg)
(kg/sec)
W
weight
W
Fuel flow
f
Greek
Symbols
(m/sec)
Angle of attack
Increment
(-)
Pressure ratio
(-)
deg
Runway slope
Temperature ratio
Pitch attitude
Pitch rate
deg
(deg)
(deg)
(-)
deg
(deg)
deg/sec
(deg/sec)
deg
(deg)
Subscripts
()POFF
Power off
.1,2,3,4,etc.
Condition state
)AVAIL
()T,t
Available
True
-1
Indicated
()uUpwash
(FP
Flight path
Others
-'
Equal by definition
9-4
'C
'
CONVENTIONAL TECHNIQUES
9.6
For detailed
In addition, pre-
separately.
9-5
4d
-. --
---
.,. c-'-
--
These corrections
power for level flight at zero excess thrust, and is usually flown
along a constant
functionality
line
W/1
W/6
In addition,
velocity and fuel flow are corrected by the average excess thrust
obtained by airspeed altitude energy method over the two or three
minute interval.
hV
v(9-1)
=
Vg9
XFp
9-6
...........
V#N
9.8
assuming
Fex=&Fn
and obtaining a
range determInation.
AWf
(i.e.,
figure 9-1.
the stabilized
or
we can take a point during the run at true zero excess thrust as
measured by the accelerometer so that the corrections are trrly
zero.
9.9
the
W/6
in Chapter 3.
polar data and thrust fuel flow relations as shown in figure 9-2.
The stabilized data reduced by dynamic methods are shown as clusters
of points.
As in conventional
qI
e s t P oint
ui~
62
MACH NUMBE.R
FIG. 9-1:
7,---
EZ4
.11
144
9-9
.---
ACCELERATION DATA
9.10
the same
the accelerometer is
the
As first,
accelerometer method appeared more scattered than the airspeed time method
figure 1-3 of Chapter 1.
as shown in
due
to the
lg
conditions.
eircr.
it
by
taken at
as shown in
figure 1-3.
figure
C,
combination.
9-10
'.Ix
iV
ONE ALTITUIDE
ONE W4EIGHT
AVAILABLE THRUST
/ /REQUIRED
G
MACH NUMBER
FIG. 9-3:
1:
ACCELERATION DATA
9-11
9.11
can be standardized at a given altitude by noting the given relationship for excess thrust in the unaccelerated case:
F
ex
sin y
assuming
(9-2)
(9-3)
d-h(9-4)
VdV
+ g
Af
(91)
(9-1)
+ Y
and
A
s-n y
(9-5)
with
cosy
nz
(9-3)
9-i12
all
Again, an iteration is required, and the data should be crossplotted as shown in figure 9-4.
At the same&time,
With
weight.
as shown
NZ
Varying
lg
as well as lines of
at one
for weight
L
variation or
SCL
POFF
and it
Nz
to a 10 percent change in
Nz.
zA
9-13
'N9
ONE ALTITUDE
ONE WEIGHT
A= 1 (for dV/dt=O)
A=o(for dh/dt=O)
A
MACH NUMBER
FIG.
9-4:
9-14
ONE ALTITUDE
ONE WEIGHT
0
Af =CO
------
MACH NUMBER
FIG.
9-5:
ACCELERATION FACTOR/FLIGHT
PATH ANGLE DATA
9-15
N.i
-A
ONE MACH
.1
WI
rpitat 09W
3 --
DRAG COEFFICIENT
FIG.
9-6:
9-16
CLIMB PERFORMANCE
9.13
versus altitude
must first
relation
it,
a flight
be calculated.
For example,
if
of climb at
Figure
desired,
can
it
each altitude
for
defined.
9.14
factor.
This can be
dictated by the
path angle
each altitude
figure
9-7.
as given by:
nZ
cos y
Each point in
(9-3)
climb scheduled
flight
aircraft
or in
"lg"
from the
supersonic
significant at high
nz =cosy
to
F ex/W
aircraft
at
values.
this
low performance
mil power,
9-17
REDICTED CEILING
STANDARD DAY
-LOAD
FACTOR
gw
,,,,-~FLIGHT
PATH ANGLE
LOAD FACTOR,
FLIGHT PATH ANGLE
FIG.
9-7:
9-18
-O,.
9.15
small bobbles in
Over
g
will
excursions in
CL
The
(n x) (weight).
Fex
is simply
the
CoL poF
we do
available for
CL
The
CL
we can generate
nZ
versus Mach,
such
that all turning performance data can be obtained from figure 9-12.
9-19
-i
-TEST
DAY
Fe2O-
STANDARD DAY
c1I
"Itest da
"
-~c
C~avail I
st
Cavail
CLva:
9-8:
TURNING PERFORMANCE CL
AVAILABLE PLOT
9-20
ONE ALTITUDE
(4
1-4
fO
MACH NUMBER
FIG.
9-9:
I
9-21
,947
ONE ALTITUDE
LIFT LIMITED
C1
4
LIMITED
0"THRUST
LIFT
LIMITED
THRUST LIMITED
MACH NUMBER
FIG.
9-10:
9-22
*_Vw
ONE ALTITUDE~
ONE WEIGHT
LIFT LIMITED
THRUST LIMITED
STRUCTURAL
Limr-
KWI
-PRESSURE
MACNMBER
FIG. 9-11:
9-23
LIMITED
THRUST LIMITED
-LIFT
gz
O.
/STRUCTURAL
LIMIT= K
DYNAMIC PRESSURE *i
LIMIT = K2
MACH NUM1BER
FIG.
9-12:
GENERALIED TURNING
PERFORMANCE MAP
9-24
F- 7
9.18
GROUND PHASE
a.
so
at=e
at-ai=.a correction
n.
and
nz
Compute
VT
round
While in
compute velocity by
integration as follows:
V + h
(9-6)
where
siny
(9-7)
equal to the
X g
(9-8)
+ sino
9-25
77777'
or
V
g(nx-sinO)
(9-9)
f.
g.
(9-10)
AIR PHASE
Determine lift-off point by wheel rpm as shown in
h.
figure 9-13.
runway,
i.
Aa=Aa U. is valid
because we have reached a high enough speed for aerodynamic forces to dominate any inertial forces in the vane
system due to slow airspeed.
j.
initial
(9-11)
(n -cosY)
z
a zcosy
z
guess for
Integrate
g(n z -cosy)cosy
h
V
is
to obtain
=-
S~9-26
from altimeter or
(9-12)
y=0.
Icxn:ct
l.ift-off point
I~'-lift-off time.
TIME
FIG.
9-13:
9-27
?,a
V,:4
integrate
Next,
V\q (1'-h)
Now,
and
a given tolerance.
guess for
using initial
the process is
and
h
and
started
within
repeat
where
is
inertially oriented.
VT.
k.
(not including
wind component).
1.
m.
V.
n.
9.19
For take-off,
Table 9-2
the listed
it
(.1 sec.
time.
9-28
~~
TABLE 9-1
TAKE-OFF DATA REDUCTION SENSITIVITY STUDY
% Error % Error % Error % Error % Error
Impressed distance distance distance distance altitude
@t=10sec @t=20sec @liftoff @t=30sec @t-30sec
Error
Parameter
Standard value
543 ft
2351 ft
2845 ft
4806 ft
263 ft
NzNORMAL
N
+.00l
0.2%
0.0%
0.0%
0.1%
4.6%
NxLONGITUDINAL
+.001
0.4%
0.1%
0.3%
0.2%
4.5%
OPITCH RATE
+.i
-1.0%
-0.6%
-0.8%
-0.6%
4.5%
WPITCH ALTITUDE
+.l
-0.5%
-1.4%
-0.4%
-0.6%
4.5%
+0.5%
0.0%
1.4%
0.0%
0.4%
0.1%
0.6%
0.1%
4.5%
4.5%
tliftoff... -1.0
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
-13.0%
-4.0
0.0%
0.0%
-8.9%
0.8%
t
tliftoff
9-29
16.5%
9.20
It
performance
test
that,
in
general,
conventional aircraft
the case of
self-contained
Finally,
onboard accelerometers
9-30
____
onboard.
Stabilized
-7
77
-1i-
REFERENCES TO CHAPTER 9
9-1.
9-2.
Wright Patterson AFB, Foreign Technology Division Report HT23-95-69, " Flight Testing of Aircraft," (Letnyye Ispytaniya
Samoletov), Translation from Russian, Unclassified, Sep 1969.
9-3.
U.S.
Townsend,
Unclassified,
Aup 1966.
9-4.
9-5.
9-6.
9-7.
9-31
FTC-TIA-70-1001,