Sulfate attack on concrete has been reported from many other parts of the world.

As early as 1936 the concrete construction manual published by the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation warned
that concentrations of soluble sulfates greater than 0.1 percent in soil may have a deleterious effect on
concrete, and more than 0.5 percent soluble sulfate in soil may have a serious effect.
Most soils contain some sulfate in the form of gypsum (typically 0.01 to 0.05 percent expressed as
SO4); this amount is harmless to concrete.
Higher concentrations of sulfate in ground waters are generally due to the presence of magnesium and
alkali sulfates.
Decay of organic matter in marshes, shallow lakes, mining pits, and sewer pipes often leads to the
formation of H2S, which can be transformed into sulfuric acid by bacterial action.
Thus, it is not uncommon to find deleterious concentrations of sulfate in natural and industrial waters.
When concrete cracks, its permeability increases and the aggressive water penetrates more easily into
the interior, thus accelerating the process of deterioration. Sometimes, the expansion of concrete
causes serious structural problems.
Sulfate attack can also take the form of a progressive loss of strength and loss of mass due to loss of
cohesiveness in the cement hydration products.
Deterioration of hardened Portland cement paste by gypsum formation goes through a process that, at
first leads to reduction of stiffness and strength, then by expansion and cracking, and eventually the
transformation of concrete into a mushy or non-cohesive mass.
Na2SO4 +Ca(OH) 2 +2H2O CaSO4.2H2O + 2NaOH
the formation of sodium hydroxide as a byproduct of the reaction ensures the continuation of high
alkalinity in the system, which is essential for the stability of the cementitious material C-S-H.
MgSO4 +Ca(OH) 2 +2H2O CaSO4.2H2O + Mg(OH) 2
3 MgSO4 + 3CaO .2SiO2 .3H2O + 8 H2O -> 3CaSO4.2H2O + 3 Mg(OH) 2 + 2SiO2.H2O
Formation of relatively insoluble magnesium hydroxide. In the absence of hydroxyl ions in the solution
C-S-H is no longer stable and is also attacked by the sulfate solution. The magnesium sulfate attack is,
therefore, more severe on concrete. Amount and nature of the sulfate present, level of the water table
and its seasonal variation, flow of groundwater and soil porosity, form of construction, quality of
concrete.
The quality of concrete, specifically a low permeability, is the best protection against sulfate attack.
Adequate concrete thickness, high cement content, low water/cement ratio and proper compaction
and curing of fresh concrete are among the important factors that contribute to low permeability.
ACI 318
Negligible attack: When the sulfate content is under 0.1 percent in soil, or under 150 ppm (mg/liter) in
water, there shall be no restriction on the cement type and water/cement ratio.
Moderate attack: When the sulfate content is 0.1 to 0.2 percent in soil, or 150 to 1500 ppm in water,
ASTM Type II Portland cement or Portland pozzolan or Portland slag cement shall be used, with less
than an 0.5 water/cement ratio for normal-weight concrete.
Severe attack: When the sulfate content is 0.2 to 2.00 percent in soil, or 1500 to 10,000 ppm in water,
ASTM Type V Portland cement, with less than an 0.45 water/cement ratio, shall be used.

Very severe attack: When the sulfate content is over 2 percent in soil, or over 10,000 ppm in water,
ASTM Type V cement plus a pozzolanic admixture shall be used, with less than an 0.45 water/cement
ratio.