Bt~il,lm~ and Environment. Vol. 12. pp. 281 -288.

Pergamon Press 1~)77 Printed in Great Britain

I
I

I
1

Rice Husk Ash-Lime-Cement

Mixes for use in Masonry Units
DAVID J. COOK*
RICARDO P. PAMAt
BISHWENDU K. PAUL +
This paper describes an investigation of the use of rice husk ash, in combination with lime and
cement,for the production of low cost masonry units. Due to the slow reaction between the rice husk
ash and lime, reactive alumina in the form of sodium aluminate was added to the mixes. The effect of
the sodium aluminate was to reduce the time for initial and final set and to increase compressive
strength. Evaluation of the masonry units indicated that rice husk ash could constitute up to 60 % of
the total cementitious component in the mix, to produce units that would satisfy the requirements for
non load-bearing masonry. The results also indicated that moist curing beyond the 3 days used in the
investigation would be required to produce compressive strength comparable with the requirements
of load-bearing masonry.

INTRODUCTION

generally burnt as a means of disposal. By controlled

burning at temperatures between 450--500~C, an ash with
pozzolanic properties can be produced. Approximately
25 ~o of the husk is converted to ash and it is estimated
that the cost of production of the ash is about 32 ~ that of
the cost of ordinary or ASTM type I cement (based on
prices in Thailand). This cost includes allowances for
material collection from the threshing site as well as
burning[6].
In this paper, the potential of rice husk ash as a low cost
cementitious material for use in the manufacture of
masonry units is discussed. Evaluation of the material was
based on its ability to replace cement in block making
practice currently employed in Thailand. Masoud et
al.[7] have already demonstrated the suitability of lime
rice husk ash bricks manufactured in an autoclave.
Equipment such as an autoclave or low pressure steam
curing equipment is generally not economically viable in
the small scale factories that produce block in Thailand or
other developing countries. Accordingly, simple curing
techniques were considered in the production of a block of
suitable properties. Finally in Thailand, the difference in
cost between lime and cement is small and it was decided
to investigate the behaviour of cement rice husk ash
mixes as well as lime-cement mixes.

IN DEVELOPING countries, the need for locally

manufactured building materials is increasing due to
greater demands for housing and, in some areas, the
depletion of traditional building materials. The development of locally manufactured materials is advantageous
from the point of view of increasing manufacturing
activity and reducing the need for imported materials.
This latter aspect is significant as the importation of goods
into developing countries is generally undesirable as it
reduces foreign currency reserves. It is apparent also that
in developing countries, building materials should be
relatively low cost due to low personal incomes and small
government expenditures on housing, relative to the cost
of provision of housing.
In Indonesia. considerable success has been achieved
with tile dc\cl,~pment of trass lime bl,~ck and blick~ Ior
domestic construction. The trass soil, on the island of
Java, has pozzolanic properties such that when it is mixed
with lime and hand tamped or machine rammed into
moulds, it produces masonry units of adequate strength.
Depletion of timber used for domestic housing in Java has
forced the slow acceptance of the trass-lime block and it is
made extensively on the cottage industry basis where
suitable deposits of trass are located. Cement, as an
alternative to the trass-lime mixture, is relatively expensive in Indonesia due to the lack of the raw materials for its
manufacture.
Previous research, at the Asian Institute of Technology[l,2] has indicated that ash obtained from {he
controlled burnin~ of rice husks has pozzolanic properties. Rice husks are a waste material obtained from the
threshing of the rice and constitute about one fifth of the
weight of the harvested crop. Little use has been found for
the husk despite substantial investigation[3-5] and it is

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
The pQzzolanic activity of any material containing
reactive silica can be determined by adding calcium oxide
to the pozzolan with water free from c~,rbon dioxide and
measuring the total alkalinity and calcium oxide content
after a specified reaction time[8]. Previous research has
indicated that rice husk ash can be classed as a pozzolan
on the basis of its reactivity measured in the above manner
and that it conforms to the requirements of an ASTM
C618 Class N pozzolan[9]. A typical chemical composition is shown in Table 1 together with the specific
gravity and Blaine fineness of the ash used in the
investigation. It can be seen from the table that the ash is
composed essentially of silica with small amounts of other
oxides.

*Senior Lecturer, School of Civil Engineering, University of

New South Wales, Kensington, Australia.
*Associate Professor, Division of Structural Engineering,
Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand.
$Research Assistant, International Ferrocement Information
Centre, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand.
281

?~2

Darid .I. C o , k. Ricardo I'. Pama and Bishwemtu K. Paul

Table I. Chemical composition and physical pro-

2:30

2:00

Constituent

"~

Percentage
E

SiO,
AI,Oj
I:c,O3
CaO
MgO
Na:0
K20
Ignition loss
Blaine fineness
Specific gravity

Sod,urno l u m , n o t e ~

0%

perties of rice husk ash

/ x ~

1:30

92.995
0.592
0.152
0.432
O.415
0.037
2.190
2.932
12,500 cm-" .g
2,36

I% Sodium a l u m i n a t e

!0as

0:30

2W. Sodium a l u m l n o t e !

0100

90

80

70
Cement,

60
%

50

i
!

Fig. 1. Initial setting time of cement rice husk ash pastes.

Malquorii-8] has indicated that pozzolans containing a
high proportion of silica, while combining readily with
lime, produce hardened materials with poor mechanical
strength. Compounds of higher strength, however, can be
formed by the addition of reactive alumina (the low
temperature form of gamma alumina and related forms).
The reaction between lime and pozzolanic materials is
generally slow and accelerated strength gain can be
achieved through autoclaving or low pressure steam
curing, as mentioned previously. In the research described
herein, minimal curing as consistent with the techniques
used in the local block industry, was to be used.
Accordingly it was decided to add reactive alumina to the
mix in the form of sodium aluminate in an attempt to
improve both the early and later strength characteristics
of the mixes containing lime and rice husk ash.
The experimental program consisted of three parts, vie.

4:oo /

3:00 I /

~
E 2:30

Three mix types were used in this part of the

investigation. The first consisted of natural river sand,
cement and rice husk ash (with no sodium aluminate).

o.~2

' Sodium
'

J~
c

~.

alummote

o
2T00

[ ~ ~ 2 %

Sodlumalummol"e

1:30
ifI O0

0:30

0
qO0

I
70
Cement,

80

90

60
%

50

Fig. 2. Final setting time of cement rice husk ash pastes.

I0~_

0%

81-

olummate

Sodium

*/. Sodium a l u m , n o t e

/ I
-~

2%

Sodium o l u m m o t e

2
I

0100

Setting time tests

Compressive strength tests

o/

' c

(i) an investigation of the influence of rice husk ash

and sodium aluminate on the initial and final set of
cement and lime
(it) the determination of suitable mix proportions of
lime, cement and rice husk ash, with sodium
aluminate as an additive, consistent with adequate
strength and low cost.
and
(iii) the evaluation of concrete block made with the
mixes determined from part ( i i )

Six mix types were used to determine the influence of

rice husk ash and sodium aluminate on the setting time of
cement and lime. Mixes with 0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 % rice
husk ash and 0, 1 and 2 % sodium aluminate (by weight of
either cement or lime) were cast. Ordinary or ASTM type
1 cement was used together with commercial grade lime
and sodium aluminate. Tests with cement were carried
out in accordance with ASTM C191-71 which specifies
the use of the Vicat needle while tests with lime were
carried out using ASTM C266-71 which specifies the usc
of the Gilmore needle. The results of the tests are shown in
Figs. 1--4.

o % Sodium a l u m , n o t e

33o -~>f-~

90

80

70
Lime,

60

50

Fig. 3. Initial setting time of lime-rice husk ash pastes.

I
/

0%
/1%

28124N

r\

16

12

Sodium o l u m ~ n a t e
Sodium oluminoi'e

/ / 2 . Sod,amo,omiote
~

' ~,

~ -

'

x x

8
4

0 iO0

90

80

70
Lime,

60

50

Fig. 4. Final setting time of lime-rice husk ash pastes.

Rice Husk Ash-Lime.-Cement Mixes

283

Table 2. Compresssive strength of cement-rice husk ash mortars continuously moist cured
Age at test
Mix description
Cement + RHA:Sand

7 days
28 days
90 days
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water/Cement + RHA
Compressive strength (MPaI*

(1 +0):2.75
(0.9 +0.1 ):2.75
(0.8 + 0.2 ): 2.75
(0.7 +0.3):2.75
(0.6 + 0.4):2.75
(0.5 + 0.5): 2.75

0.60
0.63
0.72
0.77
0.78
0.80

14.48
11.03
10.69
10.00
8.27
5.86

15.17
15.17
13.79
14.48
14.00
6.55

16.92
16.38
15.47
16.25
15.90
8.23

*Average of three specimens.

Table 3. Compressive strength of lime-rice husk ash mortars cured at 55~C for 7 days
Age at test
Mix proportion
Lime+ RHA:Sand

Percentage*
sodium
aluminate

t0.5 + 0.5):2.75
0.5
1.00
2.50
5.00
7.50
(0.33 + 0.67): 2.75
0.33
0.67
1.67
3.33
5.(X)
10.25 + 0.75):2.75
0.25
0.50
1.25
2.50
3.75
(0.20+0.80):2.75
0.20
0.40
1.00
2.00
3.00

Water/Lime + RHA

Saturated
density
(kg/m 3)

1.114
1.130
1.227
1.379
1.442
1.504
1.176
1.177
1.219
1.304
1.372
1.467
I. 194
1.224
1.233
1.267
1.383
1.391
1.220
1.251
1.275
1.278
1.364
1.439

1826
1826
1810
1778
1762
1762
1810
1810
1826
1810
1762
1762
1826
1826
1794
1810
1778
1762
1826
1810
1778
1778
1794
1762

7 days
28 days
90 days
................
Compressive strength
(MPal't
0.41
0.74
0.99
1.94
1.94
1.96
1.07
1.81
2.12
1.81
4.34
6.51
1.45
1.46
1.72
2.58
3.64
4.53
0.45
0.55
1.09
1.27
1.32
1.34

0.65
0.84
1.09
2.14
2.06
2.28
1.34
1.86
2.20
2.70
4.64
6.90
1.65
1.62
1.75
2.63
3.81
4.85
0.57
0.61
1.14
1.43
1.37
1.65

0.83
1.31
1.21
2.64
2.33
2.70
1.43
1.94
2.27
2.72
4.80
7.09
1.68
1.61
1.79
2.54
3.83
5.01
0.61
0.64
1.09
1.50
1.5 I
1.56

*By weight of lime ~- rice husk ash.

"l'Average of three specimens.

Mix details are given in Table 2. T h e specimens used were

5 0 m m cubes which, after demoulding, were kept in a
fogroom (22 + 2'C, 95 + 3 ~o R.H.) until the time oftesting.
T h e results of the tests are s h o w n in Table 2.
The second type of mix used consisted of lime and rice
husk ash with sodium a l u m i n a t e added as an additive.
The water content of these mixes was determined in
accordance with A S T M C593 which specified a flow of 70
/
+ 5 o,o.
These mixes were cured by placing the test
specimens ( 5 0 m m cubes) a b o v e water at 55 + 2C after
moulding for 7 days. The specimens were then d e m o u l d e d

and stored in the fogroom until the day of test. Details of

the mix p r o p o r t i o n s and the results of the test are given in
Table 3.
O n the basis of the information o b t a i n e d from the
second s,eries of mixes, a third series of mixes were selected
which c o n t a i n e d lime, cement, rice husk ash a n d sodium
aluminate. The water content of these mixes was
considerably reduced a n d c o m p a c t i o n in the 50 m m cube
moulds was achieved by h a n d t a m p i n g with a 12.5 m m
square w o o d e n rod. The specimens were d e m o u l d e d after
casting and stored in the fogroom for 3 days. They were

2S4

I)~tl'id I ( .... I,. Ri~ ardo I" t'am~t aml Iqi,hwcmhl K I',~tl!

Table 4. (_ompressive strength of cement lime rice husk ash mortars moist cured for 3 da3.s
Age at test
7 days
Mix proportion
Cement + Lime
+ RHA.'Sand

2~ days

91) day~,

Percentage
sodium
aluminate

Water
Cement + Lime
+ RHA

Saturated
density
{kg,.'m3)

Compressi,..e strength
(MPal*

1.25
2.50
1.25
2.50
1.25
2.50
1.00
2.(X)
1.00
2.00

0.624
0.644
0.644
0.675
0.561
0.605
0.560
0.580
0.623
0.644

1970
1986
1970
1922
2034
2018
1970
1970
1986
2018

0.27
1.05
3.82
3.97
4.06
4.57
4.65
4.90
5.31
5.47

(0.05 + 0.317 +0.623):2.75

(0.10 + 0.30 +
0.60):2.75
(0.15 + 0.283 +
0.5671:2.75
q0.50 + 0 + 0.50)
:2.75
10.60 + 0.40]
:2.75

1.64
1.92
1.80
1.98
1.90
2.00
2.59
3.26

0.65
1.85
4.65
4.6~
5.49
5.63
6.18
6.04
6.69
6.72

*Average of three specimens.

Table 5. Evaluation of masonry units

Mix proportions
(Cement + Lime+ RHA}:
Sand
(0.10 + 0.30 + 0.60):2.75
(0.15+0.283+0.567):2.75
(0.50+ 0 +0.50):2.75
(0.60 + 0 + 0.40):2.75

Percentage
sodium
aluminate

Water
Cement +
Lime+RHA

Density
!kg/m 3)

Linear
shrinkage
(%)

1.25
1.25
1.00
1.00

0.604
0.580
0.619
0.604

1938
1970
1938
1922

0.036
0.041
0.043
0.040

Compressive
Moisture
strength* (MPa)
content
....................
in a % of
7 days
28 days
total absorption
..............
(%)
Cube Block Cube Block
27.23
22.67
31.52
38.84

1.79
2.27
3.38
3.51

1.94
2.33
3.45
3.49

3.77
3.94
5.43
5.72

3.85
3.87
5.08
5.32

*Average of five tests.

then transferred to the a m b i e n t e n v i r o n m e n t where they

were stored until the day of testing. Details of the mixes
a n d results of the tests are s h o w n in Table 4.
Evaluation o f masonry units

F o u r mixes were selected from the compressive

strength p r o g r a m o n the basis of a d e q u a t e strength with a
m i n i m u m a m o u n t of sodium aluminate. Sodium aluminate is nearly 20 times more expensive than lime or
cement (in T h a i l a n d ) and from the point of view of
providing a low cost unit it was considered desirable to
reduce the a m o u n t of sodium a l u m i n a t e to as little as
possible compatible with a d e q u a t e strength.
F o r each mix, 10 m a s o n r y units of a s t a n d a r d size (393
x 187 x 92 m m ) were made. The mixes were h a n d t a m p e d
into the moulds, the units d e m o u l d e d after c o m p a c t i o n
a n d cm:ed in the fogroom for 3 days. In c o n j u n c t i o n with
the m a s o n r y units, 50 m m cubes were cast. E v a l u a t i o n of
the units was carried out to assess c o n f o r m a n c e with
A S T M C90-7"5 S t a n d a r d Specification for Hollow LoadBearing Concrete M a s o n r y Units a n d A S T M C129-75
S t a n d a r d Specification for N o n - L o a d - B e a r i n g Concrete
M a s o n r y Units. Tests for the evaluation consisted of
measuring drying shrinkage, m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t a n d absorp-

tion, strength, unit weight a n d durability. This latter test

consisted of cyclic wetting and drying which is not
included in A S T M C90 or C129 but is used in A S T M
D559 to determine the durability of soil-cement mixes.
The mix p r o p o r t i o n s used and the results of the
evaluation are shown in Table 5.
DISCUSSION
Setting time tests

I h e results of the setting time tests for the cement- rice

husk ash mixes, shown in Figs. 1 and 2, indicate that the
addition of sodium a l u m i n a t e accelerates b o t h initial and
final set. It is also a p p a r e n t that beyond a b o u t 200
cement replacement by the rice husk ash, the influence of
the rice husk ash c o n t e n t on setting time is small.
F o r the lime--rice husk ash mixes, increasing the
percentage of the sodium a l u m i n a t e a n d the rice husk ash
has the affect of accelerating set. This was the case for b o t h
initial a n d final set. F o r the mix c o n t a i n i n g 50 % rice husk
ash and 2 % sodium aluminate, the final set was
accelerated from 2 6 h for the control mix to 8 h. The
initial set also showed a significant reduction falling from
9 h for the control mix to 3~ h for the mix mentioned
above.

Rice Husk Ash-Lime-Cement Mixes

Mortar compressive strength
For the continuously fogroom cured mortar specimens,
the compressive strength results indicate that up to 40 ~,
replacement of the cement can occur without the 90 day
strength being significantly reduced. The rate of gain of
strength over the 90 day test period indicates the
occurrence of the pozzolanic reaction. A comparison of
these results (shown in Table 2) and those for similar
mixes (shown in Table 4) highlights the significance of
curing. For the latter two mix types in Table 4 containing
1% sodium aluminate, the 90 day strength is only 75 0/o
and 42 % of the respective mix shown in Table 2. The
mixes in Table 4 were cured in the fogroom for 3 days only
then stored in ambience while mixes in Table 2 were
continuously cured in the fogroom.
The test results shown in Table 3 indicate the benefit of
the hot water curing on initial strength gain. For most of
the mixes, 80-85 ~o of the 90 day strength was achieved in
the first 7 days. Also it is apparent that as the percentage of
the sodium aluminate was increased, the strength at all
ages also increased. Relatively high strengths were
obtained for the (0.33 +0.67) 2.75 mix with 3.33 and 5 ?i,
sodium aluminate and the (0.25 + 0.75) 2.75 mix with 2.50
and 3.75 ~'/osodium aluminate. The compressive strength
of the other mixes was comparatively low and not worthy
of further consideration for use in the masonry units.
The proportions of the mixes shown in Table 4 were
selected to conform as closely as possible with the mixes of
highest strength shown in Table 3. The percentage of
sodium aluminate was reduced and 5, 10 and 15 /
/ O of
cement added to the cementitious mixture. Sodium
aluminate contents were varied from 1.25 to 2.50. Only
the mixes containing 10 and 15~o of cement had
compressive strengths of any significance and the difference in strength for the mixes containing the 2.5 ~'osodium
aluminate compared to the 1.25% sodium aluminate
mixes, was less than 3 ?~,.The cement-rice husk ash mixes
were also not significantly improved by the increase of the
sodium aluminate content from 1 to 2 %. It was decided
therefore in selecting mixes for the masonry evaluation to
use mixes with 1.25% sodium aluminate for mixes
containing lime and 1.0 % for the cement-rice husk ash
mixes.

Evaluation of masonry units

The results of the evaluation shown in Table 5,
compared to the ASTM requirements shown in Table 6,
indicate that only the cement-rice husk ash mixes conform
to the strength requirements of the non-loading bearing
masonry specification. There were however some restrictions to the use of these mixes in arid conditions from
the point of view of moisture content relative to linear
shrinkage. The strength of the mixes containing lime were
only 6 % less than the requirements and the average of the
best 3 specimens from the 5 tested would have exceeded
the requirements.
It is apparent that longer moist curing and perhaps
even low pressure steam curing is required for the strength
of the units to conform to the requirements of load
bearing block. This is particularly the case for the cementrice husk ash mixes where the pozzolanic reaction is
secondary to the hydration of the cement.

285

Table6. ASTM requirements for non load-bearing and load

bearing block
Property

ASTM requirements

Compressive strength
(1) Non load-bearing
individual unit
average of 3 units
(2) Load-bearing
grade N
individual unit
average of 3 units
grade S
individual unit
average of 3 units
Linear shrinkage ('~%)

0.03 or less
0.03-43.045
0.04543.065, max

3.45 MPa
4.14 MPa

5.50 MPa
6.90 M Pa
4.10 MPa
4,80 MPa
Moisture content (~) for job
site humidity conditions
InterHumid mediate Arid
45
40
35

40
35
30

35
30
25

It was noted, during the course ofthe investigation, that

the typical strength of factory made load bearing concrete
block was only 4 M P a at 3 days: at 42 days, however ii
had risen to nearly 10 MPa.
The results of the cyclic wetting and drying tests carried
out on units made from the four mixes are shown in Figs. 5
and 6. The results showed that the length change of the
cement-rice husk ash units was greater than lhai nf the
cement-lime-rice husk ash units. This finding was
reasonably consistent with the shrink'age values shown in
Table 5.
The loss-in-weight relationships, shown in Fig. 6, are
not consistent with the shrinkage values. The (0.10 + 0.30
+0.60): 2.75 mix had the highest weight loss over the 12
cycles but the lowest linear shrinkage. While all units
exhibited cyclic wetting and drying behaviour that was
within tolerable limits[10], it was apparent that the units
made from the (0.60+0+0.40): 2.75 and 10.15+0.283
+ 0.567): 2.75 mixes were more dimensionally stable than
the other two mixes.
It is difficult to assess the cost of the masonry units
relative to the cost of factory made units because the
material composition of the factory made units is not
generally available. For comparison purposes it was
assumed that the composition was (1.0+0+0): 2.75
(cement:sand), but as can be seen from Table 2 the
strength of this mix would be in excess of requirements
and the cement content would be reduced in normal
circumstances. However the relative cost of material for a
masonry unit, based on the five mix proportions, is shown
in Table 7. In this table it can be seen that the mixes
containing the greatest amount of rice husk ash land
therefore least amount of cement) are the most economic.
CONCLUSIONS
The results presented in this paper indicate that up to
60 % of rice husk ash (by weight) can be incorporated in a
mortar to produce units that will, in general, satisfy the

Dm'id .I. ( " . o k . Ric'ardo I'. Puma and Bi,shwemtu K. Paul

"~'("

O.60r

05(

0.4C

g
.

gc

0 3C

5
0.20

J
0.10

Shrmkaqe
0

Expansion

-0.08

Number

of

'""

Id'

II

cycles

Fig. 5. Length change characteristics of cement .lime rice husk ash mortars subjected to cyclic
wetting and drying

4-

9~'~

?._._ --~

Cement/

I, m e / R H A

9""

_o~_~.- ._g___8---

3 --

L
I

q-'-'" ~

,':/*,, ..........
,

'---Y

..____ x+

. ~ * ~

~ ....

I---

60/40

Cement/RHA

..........

,5/28.3,56
Cement/hme/RHA
4

5
Number

6
of

I0

il

12

cycles

Fig. 6. Loss in weight of cement lime -.ricehusk ash mortars subjected to cyclic wetting and drying.

requirements for nonload bearing masonry. A 23'~,,

increase in compressive strength (to a minimum of
6.9 MPa) is required before the mixes used in this study
can be considered for the manufacture of load bearing
masonry. It is probable that this strength increase could
most economically be achieved by more prolonged moist
curing beyond the 3 days used in this investigation.
The inclusion of sodium aluminate was beneficial from
the point of view of both initial and final set and

compressive strength, particularly for the mixes containing lime. The relatively high cost of sodium aluminate
however mitigates against the use of the material in
proportions higher than those considered in this investigation.
An economic assessment of the viability of block
manufacture based on the use of rice husk ash requires
further experimental investigation. This is currently being
carried out at the Asian Institute of Technology.

T,~tal relative cost

Sand
Cement
Lime
Rice husk ash
Sodium aluminate

Mix components

Mix propt~rt i(111~

1.00
23.7
19.9
7.7
410.0

Relative
cost per
kg

4.776
1.733

Quantity
(kg)
4.583
23.700
5.128
6.560

4.583
1.00
0.666
0.016

4.776
41.072

45.848

39.971

Relative
cost

cost

Quantity
Ikg)

(0.60 + 0 + 0.40):2.75

Relative

(1.0 + 0 + 0):2.75

0.800
0.016

4.400
0.800

Quantity
(kg)

36.080

6.160
6.560

4.400
18.960

Relative
cost

(0.50 + 0 + 0.50):2.75

(Cement + Lime + Rice husk ash):Sand

Table 7. Relative cost comparison of masonry units made with different mixes

4.033
0.146
0.439
0.879
0.018

Quantity
(kg)

30.377

4.033
3.460
8.736
6.768
7.300

Relative
cost

(0.10 + 0.30 + 0.60): 2.75

4.033
0.219
0.415
0.831
0.018

Quantity
(kg)

31.259

4.033
5.190
8.258
6.398
7.380

Relative
cost

(0.15+0.283 +0.567):2.75

t',

"x

2~

David .1. ("ook, Ricardo P. Pama and Bishwendu K. Paul

REFERENCES
I. D.J. Cook, R. P. Pama & S. A. Damer, ]'he behaviour of concrete and cement paste containing rice 11t.sk
ash. Proc. ('ol!]~ on Hydraulic Cement Pastes. Their Structure and Propertie.s, SheO~eld, pp. 268 2x2.
Cement and Concrete Association, London 11976).
2. D. J. Cook, R. P. Pama & S. A. Darner, Rice husk ash as a pozzolanic material. Proc. (ot!]. on New
Horizons m Con.struction Materials, Lehigh University (1976},
3. P. L. Day & S. R. J. Robbins, An economic evaluation of the -I'PI process for the production ol
light~,eight concrete building bl~cks utilizing rice husk as the aggregate. Report G63, Tropical Products
Institute. London (19701,
4. D.J. Cook, Waste product utilization - A n investigation of materials application for rice hulls, UN ICI V
Report R- I(X), University of New South Wales [ 1972).
5. M. Staackman & I . C. Goodale. Rice hull utilization. Final Report, URS Research Co. 11970).
6 B K. Patti. A sludv of lime- rice husk ash mixltlre', fi~r use a'; building materials. M . E n g Fhcsis, Asian
Institute of Technology. Bangkok 119761.
7. M.A. Masoud. S. M. Elwan & A. T. H usscin, Load bearing construction from the ash of rice hulls. Mater.
Construct. 16,371 382 11970).
8. G. Malquori, Portland-pozzolan cement, Proc. Fourth Int. Syrup. Chemistry qlCement, pp. 983 .I(X~,
Washington ( 1960l.
9. S. A. Darner, Rice hull ash as pozzolanic material. M.Eng. Thesis. Asian Institute of Technology,
Bangkok t 1976).
10. ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 169-A, Significance of tests and properties of concrete and
concrete making materials ( 1966i.