The Early Period and the Golden Age of Ionia

Author(s): Ekrem Akurgal

Source: American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 66, No. 4 (Oct., 1962), pp. 369-379
Published by: Archaeological Institute of America
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The

Early

Period

and

the

Golden

Age

of

Ionia1

EKREM AKURGAL
PLATES

The excavations and researches carried out in

recent years in western Asia Minor provide us with
some new evidence about the Aeolians and Ionians
who, coming from mainland Greece, established
themselves in their new homeland after the Trojan
War and the collapse of the Hittite Empire.2 The
present article aims to discuss the emergence and
development of these colonies, and to examine the
position of Ionian art within the Hellenic world in
the light of new archaeological materials.3

The Early Period

(1050-650)

FIRST PHASE (1050-750).

NIES AND EXPANSION

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLOOF THE IONIAN

CITIES (PAN-

IONION)

The Anglo-Turkish excavations at Bayrakli, that

is ancient Smyrna, have yielded successive habitation levels from the Protogeometric period to Hellenistic times.4 The earliest Greek cultural remains
are Protogeometric vases which represent noteworthy products made after Attic models (pl. 96,
figs. 1-2). They have been found in Bayrakli in a
relatively noticeable quantity, although this level
was excavated to a rather limited extent only. Some
of the pieces may date from the i ith century.
A small well-preserved cottage of oval form belongs to the latter part of this Protogeometric level
and dates from the end of the ioth century (pl.96,
fig.3). It is a primitive house with mud-brick walls

96-103

and most probably with straw roof, consisting of a

single room. But it represents, with its handsome
courses of mud-brick and intact ground plan, the
best preserved of early Greek buildings, and in fact
is the earliest one in existence."
In the next level, characterized by east Greek
pottery of Early Geometric style and dating back
to the 9th century, rectangularhouses appear; these
likewise consist of a single but large room with
stone foundations. Three well-preserved houses of
this level have been uncovered.6 In one of them
primitive domestic installations of unbaked clay
were found in position on the floor.
The Protogeometric and Early Geometric levels
of Bayrakli represent the first phase of the AeoloIonian civilization. Miletus is the next Greek city
of Anatolia which has yielded remains belonging to
this time.' Here were found Protogeometric and
Early Geometric pottery in noticeable quantity. The
excavations at Phocaea also provided some Protogeometric sherds. And finally, John Cook has discovered a stratum with Protogeometric pottery on
a small peninsular site near Kugadasi,8 down the
coast from Ephesus. He likewise found Protogeometric sherds in Mordogan and Clazomenae.f
Thus the present state of research shows clearly
enough that the western coast of Anatolia was inhabited by the Aeolians and Ionians during the
ioth century at least.'0 It is even possible that the
upper limit may go back to the middle of the i ith

3For the position of Ionian art within the Hellenic world

see George M. A. Hanfmann, "Ionia, Leader or Follower?"
HSCP 61(1953)1-37; see also E. Akurgal, Die Kunst Anatoliens
academic year 1961-1962.
2 The systematic colonization of western Asia Minor and the (Berlin 1961).
Die Kunst Anatoliens will be quoted hereafter as DKA.
adjacent islands by the Greeks took place after the Trojan War
4 Concerning the results of the excavations of Old Smyrna
and the downfall of the Hittite Empire, as a continuation of
the Mycenaean establishments which were founded in this area see John M. Cook, JHS 67(1949)42ff; 70(1950)10-12; 71(1951)
during the third quarter of the second millennium. For the 247-249; 72(1952)104-10o6 and BSA 53-54(1958-1959)I-34.
problems of Ionian colonization see: F. Cassola, La lonia nel E. Akurgal, DKA 8ff, 175-190.
Mondo Miceneo (1957) and M. B. Sakellarion, La Migration
5 Akurgal, DKA 9.
6 ibid.
9-12, fig. 2.
Grecque en lonie (1958).
7 IstMitt 7(1957)102-132; 9-10o(1959-60)1-96.
The Mycenaean trade settlements and the kingdom of Ahhi8 John M. Cook, Greek Archaeology in Asia Minor (1960) 40.
jawa are, on the other hand, certainly related to the first Indo9 ibid. 40.
european invasion dating back to the end of the third mil10 For the historical and archaeologicalproblems of the Aeolennium, when the Hittites, Luwians, Lydians and many other
Indoeuropean peoples immigrated into Anatolia. See in this lian and Ionian cities see John M. Cook, CAH II chapter
connection A. Goetze, Kleinasien (Miinchen 1956) and G. L. 38(1961)1-33; cf. also J. M. Cook, Greek Archaeology in Western Asia Minor (1960)1-57.
Huxley, Achaeans and Hittites (1960).
1 This paper presents a part of the lectures which the writer
has given as visiting Professor at Princeton University in the

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370

[AIA 66
of ancient Smyrna, and especially the dwellings of
great and famous cities like Ephesus and Miletus,
were better and had more elaborate domestic installations than these houses beside the city wall facing the rocky southern slopes of Mount Sipylus.
However, it does not seem likely that the difference
could be a very great one.
The rectangular houses of the second level of
Bayrakli are covered with a burnt layer which
shows us that they have been destroyed by violence.
Perhaps this destruction of the buildings and the
city wall is connected with the conquest of the Aeolian Smyrna by the lonians of Colophon, an event
recorded by Mimnermus and Herodotus.'5 The
originally non-Ionian cities of Clazomenae and
Phocaea must have been conquered by the Ionians also as early as the capture of Old Smyrna. Thus
it seems that the expansion of the Ionians, which
was directed two centuries later towards the northern parts of western Anatolia, had begun at the end
of the 9th century.'"This means that the Panionion,
actually a political league of the Ionian cities, was
founded at least by the end of the 9th century.'
The rise of the Ionian cities is due to their early
political union which enabled them to enlarge their
territories to the disadvantage of the Aeolian cities.

EKREM AKURGAL

century. The future excavations on the western coast

of Anatolia and further research into the chronology of Protogeometric pottery will provide us with
a more definite idea about the date of the foundation of the Greek colonies. As of the present moment the writer has proposed the date 1050, which
is approximately that given by Eusebios for the
foundation of the Aeolian cities. The lower limit of
this first phase may be fixed to the middle of the
8th century, since the corresponding period in Old
Smyrna (levels I-II) ends without showing any late
geometric pottery.
The Greeks of the western coast of Asia Minor
during this first phase of their civilization led a
very simple existence based mainly on agriculture.
In the levels I-II of Old Smyrna there are no noticeable remains of any cultural artifacts besides
pottery. There is no sign at all of imports from the
Orient and of course we do not expect the use of
writing in this early time. But we may assume that
the settlers in their struggle with the native peoples
kept alive the custom of singing tales of the achievements of their ancestors. Thus they must have preserved as an oral tradition the song of the deeds of
Achilles and Agamemnon and of all Achaean heroes who preceded them in the adventure of colonization." The tumuli of Assarlik near Bodrum, in
which Protogeometric pottery was found,'2 reveal another Mycenaean element"3brought to Anatolia by the Greek invaders. These tumuli, showing
a krepis, a dromos and a stone chamber, observe
strictly the tradition of the Mycenaean tholoi. The
best known example of this kind of tumulus is the
so-called Tumulus of Tantalus at Smyrna,"4located
on the southern slopes of Mount Sipylus.
The low standard of living in this first phase of
Aeolo-Ionian civilization is distinctly reflected by
the primitiveness of the houses of Smyrna I-II described above. Certainly we may expect that the
buildings dominating the sea side of the city-mound
11 DKA 16.

PHASE(750-650).THE RISEOF IONIANCIVILISECOND

ZATION; CONTACT WITH THE ORIENT. CREATION OF THE
HOMERIC EPIC

The Early Geometric level of Smyrna (Bayrakli

II), with the rectangular buildings, was succeeded
by a third stratum (Bayrakli III) which reaches
from somewhere before the middle of the 8th century down into the middle ranges of the 7th, and
has yielded east Greek pottery of late geometric
style. In this level the oval house is dominant and
rectangular ones rarely appear. Curved buildings
of this era are already known from excavations
elsewhere in the Hellenic world, but Old Smyrna
Empire see Emily Townsend

12Bean-Cook, BSA 50(I955)I25,I66. E. Akurgal, DKA 16o.

13 A further Mycenaean survival in Anatolia is preserved on
a Phrygian monument dating from the first half of the 6th
century. Jaan Puhvel, Minoica, Festschrift 1. Sundwall (Berlin
and G. L. Huxley, Greek-Roman and Byzan1958)327-333
tine Studies 2 (Cambridge, Mass. I959) 85ff, have pointed out
that the title, Lawagetas and Fanax, of a king Midas, occurring
in the inscription of a Phrygian monument (Akurgal, DKA fig.
67), are similar to the names of classes of rulers written on
the Mycenaean tablets. For the Mycenaean cultural continuity
in Athens see 0. Broneer, AJA 52(1948)II1-114,

and for My-

Vermeule, Archaeology

13(1960)

74ff.
14 E. Akurgal, "Smyrne a lI'poque Archaique Grecque,"
Belleten 9(i946)77ff, pls.18,19.
15 DKA I2. See also G.L. Huxley, "Mimnermos and Pylos,"
Greek, Roman and Byzantine

Studies

2(1959)1o3-1o7.

16E. Akurgal, Anatolia I(I956)I5ff; see also DKA 12,20o.

17 For the early date of the foundations of Panionion cf:
M.O.B. Caspari, "The Ionian Confederacy," JHS (1915)177;
Carl Roebuck, "The Early Ionian League," CP I(1955)26-40;

Carl Roebuck, Ionian Trade and Colonization 30; John M.

Cook, "GreekSettlement in the EasternAegean and Asia Minor,"

cenaean survivals or "revivals" after the fall of the Mycenaean CAH 2, chapter 38(I96I)3I;

DKA 12,20.

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1962]

EARLY PERIOD AND GOLDEN AGE OF IONIA

371

presents us with the first complete, accurately dated

ground plans.
This phase of the Aeolo-Ionian civilization is the
first great period of the east Greek cities. The most
important religious buildings of Samos,'8 the first
Hekatompedos and its followers, belong to this
period.'9 Handsomely constructed houses have been
uncovered also in Antissa.20
Especially in the latter parts of this phase, belonging to the end of the 8th century and to the
first half of the 7th, the east Greek cities made considerable progress in different fields of cultural activity. We observe the first appearanceof an import
from the Orient. In Samos were found ivory and
bronze objects of Syro-Hittite origin going back to
the late 8th century.21 It is possible that some of the
earliest Greek bronze factories were at work in
Samos. Here may have been produced cauldrons
with griffin22and lion protomes and those with attachments in the form of a woman's and man's
head,23 all made after Urartian and Syro-Hittite
models,24artifacts which were in vogue in the whole
Mediterranean world about 700 B.c.
The excavations of Miletus conducted by Carl
Weickert have yielded also some bronze objects of
Syro-Hittite manufacture,2 and one handsome cauldron attachment in the form of a griffin protome of
the earliest type made by Greek artists.26
The most important achievement in this period
was the development of the Greek epic. As we have
already said, the new settlers needed, in the struggle with the native peoples in Anatolia, the heroic
songs of their ancestors, and kept, therefore, in the
form of an oral tradition, the epic which they had
brought from mainland Greece. After the period
of establishment, Homer, a poet of the Aeolo-Ionian border, possibly a Smyrniote, created the Iliad.
Certainly, Homer knew the subject matter of the
Hesiodic theogony in its essential features before

the Boeotian poet had composed his poems. The

Hurrian elements and other oriental influences in
Hesiod's works disclose that the earliest Greek
literary creations arose just after the middle of the
8th century.27 This is the crucial period in which
the Greeks came for the first time in close contact
with the Orient.
We may observe, if we look at the map of western
Asia Minor, that the Greek settlers established their
cities mainly on small peninsular sites or on islands
lying very near to the coast. The Greek Smyrna
was founded on a very small island28 located on the
northern part of the Smyrnian gulf and inhabited
since the beginning of the 3rd millennium.29 Pitane, Gryneion, Phocaea, Clazomenae, Side and also
colonies of later foundations, Sinope and Cyzicus,
likewise represent cities on peninsular sites, of
which some were originally islands but connected
afterwards by an artificial isthmus with the coast.
These cities were of very small dimensions. Smyrna and Phocaea had no more than some twenty
or thirty hectares of land at their disposal. It is clear
that only a couple of thousand inhabitants could
be housed30on these very small sites.s'
The semi-insular geographical position of the
Greek cities in western Asia Minor reveals that
they faced enemies both from the sea and from
the land side. Hence, they fortified themselves
with strong walls. Old Smyrna already possessed a
city wall in the 9th century.32
In the early days, the colonists lived, as we see
in the Iliad, from brigandage and piracy.33They
had at their disposal bondsmen among the native
peoples who cultivated the neighbouring land for
them.3"'The Aeolians and Ionians possessed, as did
the Phrygian and the Lydian aristocracy, a well
organized cavalry which was their weapon of superiority against the subjugated native people."3
In spite of the smallness both of population and

18Buschor, AM 55(I930)Ioff; Buschor and Schleif AM

58(1933)I46ff; Buschor, Ein friihhelladischer Ringhallentempel, Festschrift Andreas Rumpf 32-37.
19 George M.A. Hanfmann, "Ionia, Leader or Follower?"

Hethiter (Miinchen i961)52-54.

28 John M. Cook, "Old Smyrna," BSA 53-54(1958-1959)15,

9ff, n.42. Akurgal, DKA 15-16.

20W. Lamb, BSA 32(1931-1932)42,
pls.18,I9.
21 E. Akurgal, Spdthethitische Bildkunst 78, pl.37.
22 Ulf Jantzen, Griechische Greifenkessel 3off, pl.I fig.4, pl.2

fig.i and pls.11-15ff.

23Rodney S. Young, AJA 64(1960)386.
24 The Griffin and Lion protomes of the Barberini Tomb of
Praeneste are of oriental origin (DKA 56-69).

25 Carl Weickert, IstMitt

pl.40,I.
7(1957)126ff,
26 ibid.
129-130 and Akurgal, DKA 188-190, fig.145.
27E. Akurgal, DKA 16; Akurgal-Hirmer, Die Kunst der

fig.3.
29 Prehellenic Smyrna: Akurgal, Bayrakli, Erster Vorldufiger
Bericht iiber die Ausgrabungen in Altsmyrna (Ankara 1950)5458.
30 Concerning the problem of population in Ionia see John
M. Cook, BSA 53-54(i958-I959)i9ff; Carl Roebuck, Ionian
Trade and Colonization 21-23.
31 John M. Cook, CAH vol.2,25.

32 R.V. Nicholls, BSA

" Hermann Bengston, 53-54(I958-I959)35ff.
Griechische Geschichte 54.
34 Wilamowitz-Moellendorf,Ober die ionische Wanderung35.
85ibid. 41.

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EKREM AKURGAL

372

[AJA 66

of inhabited area, the Greeks in western Asia Minor

developed, probably under the inspiration of the
Hittite small states of Anatolia and Syria, the first
organized cities of the Hellenic world in the proper
sense of a Greek polis. Kingship seems to have
been the universal political institution in the Greek
cities of these early periods.36
A simple urban life based on agriculture with
constant warlike activity, under aristocraticinstitutions, was an appropriate climate for the development of the epic and of lyric poetry; but achievements at a high level in the fine arts are always
connected with a large international trade and foreign markets for the sale of manufactured products.
The Greek cities in western Asia Minor, which had
no notable sea trade before the middle of the 7th
century and which were landlocked because of the
autochthonous peoples of inner Anatolia,37 were
not able to develop a high standard of living based
on manufactured and industrial activity.
The finds in Al Mina,18 in the northern Syrian
harbour, show clearly that mainland Greece and
some islands had already begun with the conquest
of the Mediterranean in the second half of the 8th
century, whereas in the same location, that is Al
Mina, the east Greek products appear a century
later.
The artistic activity of Samos and Miletus which
was, as we saw, initiated at the end of the 8th century seems to have been of short duration. Since
they did not possess foreign markets, even these
wealthy cities of the east Greek World were not
able to compete with centres in the motherland.
Although these two Ionian cities and mainland
Greece commenced under Oriental inspiration from
the same starting point and at the same time, the
canonic types of lions, griffins and other fantastic
animals, and especially the perfection of the human
figure in painting and sculpture, were elaborated
in the following period, the second quarter of the
7th century, by the workshops of Corinth and Attica, but not by the artists of Samos and Miletus.39

The east Greek world depended, therefore,

throughout the whole 7th century, in the field of
fine arts, on mainland Greece, as was the case with
the previous periods. Thus the east Greek cities
received even Oriental influences through their
mother country."4
It is important to state once more that the Phrygians and the Lydians did not transmit, in this phase,
any noteworthy Oriental elements in the domain of
fine arts to the east Greek world. The successful
excavations by the University of Pennsylvania under the direction of Rodney S. Young at Gordion,
in the capital of King Midas, have indeed brought
to light magnificent works of art of fascinating
beauty and grandiose buildings.41All Phrygian remains of this period, between 725 and 675 approximately, are excellent witnesses to the high standard
of Phrygian civilization,42especially the monumental architecture in Gordion. For instance, the city
gate with its buttressed towers, standing to a height
of more than 30 feet, and the megaron house with
its magnificent pebble mosaic floor,43are unrivaled
among the Aeolian and Ionian cities of the same
period. But this does not mean that the Phrygian
civilization was superior to that of the Greek cities
in Anatolia, and that they were in a position to
transmit the culture of the Orient to the Greek
world. Midas was a powerful king with unlimited
political ambitions. Therefore in building his capital he profited from all the achievements of the
Orient and Occident of that time to strengthen his
prestige and reputation. However, the Phrygian
kingdom, which was in the very beginning of its
sudden and glorious rise, entered the scene a little
late, in the last quarter of the 8th century, and was
therefore not in a position to act as intermediary
between East and West. The Greek cities which
came directly into contact with the near eastern
world just after the middle of the 8th century, and
even founded colonies like Al Mina on the north
Syrian coast, certainly did not need Phrygian mediation to obtain works of art made in the Orient.4"

36 The problem of kingship in Ionia has been studied recently by C. Roebuck, Ionian Trade and Colonization 30-31,
and John M. Cook, CAH 2,31 (chapter 38).
37E. Akurgal, Phrygische Kunst Io8-iio.

41 Accounts of the discoveries are being published in this

journal annually; see especially AIA 60(1956)250-266;
61

38Martin

Robertson,

JHS 60(1940)20-21.

John Boardman,

"Greek Potters at Al Mina?" AnatSt 9(1959)I63-169.

39 DKA 68ff and Spdthethitische Bildkunst 76ff, 8Iff, 145.
Akurgal-Hirmer, Die kunst der Hethiter 105.
40 C. Schefold, Idl (1942)142; George M.A. Hanfmann, AJA
See also E. Akurgal, Spdthethitische Bildkunst
(1945)579-580.
145 n.289.

(1957)320-331;

42 DKA

62(1958)139-154;

66(1962)153-168.

70-121.

43 Rodney S. Young ILN (Nov.17, 1956) 859, figs.Io,II.

44 For the relationship between the Greeks of Western Asia

Minor and the Phrygians as well as the other autochthonous
peoples see T.J. Dunbabin, The Greeks and their Neighbours
(London 1957) and Rodney S. Young, AJA 64(I96o)385ff;
see also DKA 70-121.

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EARLY PERIOD AND GOLDEN AGE OF IONIA

1962]

Midas intended to create an empire with a great

future. He would perhaps have hindered the Ionians
from their mission to lay the foundations of western
civilization if the Cimmerian invasion had not put
an end to his ephemeral kingdom. But as long as
the western part of the Anatolian plateau, governed
first by a great number of smaller and bigger principalities and later by the Lydian kingdom, lay
between Phrygia and Ionia, the Phrygians were
not able to affect in any way the development of the
Aeolian and Ionian cities.
The Golden Age of lonia
(650-494)
was
at
its
Ionia
highest period of prosperity between 650 and 494 B.c. This is the Golden Age of
Ionia, which began just after the foundation of the
colonies in the Mediterranean and the Pontus and
came to an end with the Persian capture of Miletus.
The rise of Ionia and its Golden Age are due to
the favorable geopolitical conditions of the long period which emerged in Anatolia after the destruction of Troy and the collapse of the Hittite empire,
and which lasted until the formation of the powerful Achaemenid kingdom. Even the dangerous
Cimmerian invasions and the pressure which came
from the native peoples, as well as the Lydian
threat, turned out to be an advantage to the Greek
cities in Anatolia.
Certainly the Cimmerians devastated some Greek
cities,45but much more important, as we have already stated, was the fact that they caused the dissolution of the feudal kingdom of Midas, the continued existence of which would indeed have been
more dangerous to the Greeks.
The Lydian attacks also caused great trouble,
sometimes with catastrophic results. Herodotus"4
tells us that Gyges, Ardys and Alyattes fought
against Miletos, Smyrna, Kolophon and Priene.
The excavations of Bayrakli disclosed clearly enough
how pitilessly Alyattes destroyed the strong fortification of Smyrna, and, as is recorded by Strabo,47
that he indeed forced the inhabitants to leave the
city and to establish themselves in villages. On the
45 Lehmann-Haupt, Pauly-Wissowa, RE 77,1 (Kimmerier)398431.

373

whole the Greeks of Anatolia were strong enough

to deal with this situation. Nonetheless the Lydians
kept them from benefiting from the hinterland.
And the native peoples, who worked the earth for
the Greeks, probably profiting from the political circumstances caused by the Lydians, seem to have
liberated themselves from the subjugation of the
Ionian cities"8sometime in the first half of the 7th
century. The Ionians, who were thus deprived of
their hinterland and their bondsmen, sought to
find some other way of earning a living. So they
began, as Wilamowitz von Moellendorf has pointed
out,49 to develop an industry and to establish colonies in the Mediterranean and the Pontus.
FIRST

PHASE

(650-600).

FOUNDATION OF THE COLONIES

IN EGYPT AND THE PONTUS

A sherd found in the excavations at Smyrna,

bearing the name of one Istrokles and dating from
the middle of the seventh century, discloses clearly
that the Ionians had already penetrated the regions
of Istrus, that is, the west Pontus,50in the first half
of the 7th century. The remains which have come
to light in the Pontus up to the present do not go
back earlier than the date 630 given by the tradition.5' The investigations and excavations which
the writer made in Cyzicus and Daskyleion did not
yield pottery that could be earlier than the beginning of the 7th century.52 If this is not a mere
accident, then we must believe that the Ionian
expansion which had already begun in the 9th century continued toward the north of the western
coast not earlier than the beginning of the 7th
century. This would mean that the Ionians, who
began under the pressure of the Lydian threat to
seek colonies, first occupied the Propontis and then,
after the construction of the necessaryfleet,53started
to establish colonies in the Pontus and in Egypt
just after the middle of the 7th century.
As a result of the foundation of colonies, we observe in the Levant, for the first time, the appearance of east Greek ceramics like the bird bowls and
the vases of wild goat style, which became almost
dominant in the following period."4
shown by John M. Cook, ILN (Feb. 28, 1953) 329.

51 Robert M. Cook, "Ionia and Greece in the 8th and 7th

Centuries B.c.," JHS 66(1946)67-98; Akurgal-Budde, Vor48Wilamowitz-Moellendorf, Ober die ionische Wanderung Idufiger Bericht iiber die Ausgrabungen in Sinope.
46Her.

1.14-15.

47 Strabo 14.1.37(646).

52E. Akurgal, Anatolia 1(1956)24.

40.

49 ibid.
50 DKA 229 and
fig.23 on page 308. The connection between

the inscription and the colonization of the Black Sea was first

53Rhys Carpenter, "The Greek Penetration of the Black

Sea," AJA 52(I948)Iff.

54DKA 176.

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EKREM AKURGAL

374

The attractive vases of the wild goat style, with

the charm of their decoration and coloring, are one
of the most successful Greek creations55in the field
of fine arts. Architecture also attained in this period
a high standard of quality. The temple of Old
Smyrna, which was being enlarged at the time but
was destroyed by Alyattes at the end of the 7th
century, has a podium wall in rectagonal and
polygonal technique of exquisite beauty and perfection.5 It is the best and the earliest example of
a Greek wall we possess. A capital, a master work
of stone carving (pl.ioi, fig.22) which we shall consider in the following pages, also belonged to this
temple."' Smyrna was embellished during this period with a new and handsome polygonal city
wall."8 The walls of Phocaea, which are highly
praised by Herodotus"9but have totally disappeared
today, must have had, a generation later, a Lesbian
construction with fine joints and carefully smoothed
surfaces like that of Smyrna. The houses of Smyrna
which were uncovered in several trenches during
the excavations of Bayrakli and belong to this level
(Bayrakli IV) are oriented without exception from
north to south.60This means that in the second half
of the 7th century Old Smyrna was already built
according to a regular city plan, later called the
Hippodamian plan.61 The walls of the houses are
of stone and show in some examples the fine technique of Lesbian work.62 In one of these houses of
the late seventh century a small private bathroom
has been cleared; the bath itself is of terracotta.
Fragments of several other terracotta baths have
been brought to light in the course of excavations.63
The majority of them belong to houses from the
last quarter of the 7th century, and convey a good
idea of the high standard of living6' of the Ionian
cities in Anatolia at the time.
Writing spread in this period and came into
common use among the Greeks of Anatolia. The
earliest Ionian inscription known up to now is a
55W.

Schiering, Werkstdtten orientalisierender Keramik

auf Rhodos (Berlin 1957). DKA 178-181.

56 DKA 182ff, figs.131-i33.
pl.6.
57 John M. Cook, JHS 72(1952)104,
58 DKA 186, fig.I36.
59 Her. 1.163.
60E. Akurgal, ILN (Feb.28, 1953)328-329.

[AJA 66

graffitomentionedabove bearing the name of Istrokles.It dates, accordingto the style of a fragment of the dinos on which it is engraved,to the
middle of the 7th century.65This is the period in
which the Aeolian and Ionian lyric arose as one
of the finestpoeticcreationsof westerncivilization.
In the debrisof the templeof Smyrnawerefound
a greatnumberof terracottastatuettesand piecesof
a life-size terracottastatue,66all in Cypriotestyle.
Some of the vases show inscriptionsin the Carian
language;and a great deal of potterywith linear
decorationmust have belongedto the Lydiansliving in Smyrna.Lydian potteryand Lydian weapons were found in a tumulus of the necropolisof
the city, in which apparentlya Smyrniotecitizen
of Lydianorigin was buried.Thus the finds show
clearlyenough how cosmopolitewas.Old Smyrna
in this period of internationaltrade which the
Ioniansdevelopedafterthe middle of the 7th century. We have evidenceof this from other sources
as well. The fatherof Thales, Hexamyes,and the
dedicantof the statueof Hera from Samos in the
Louvre, Cheramyes,had Cariannames.67Chiton,
the characteristic
tunicof the Ionians,is alsoa Carian word.68Tyrannosis a Lydianword; and it was
from the Lydiansthat the Ionianslearnedto strike
coins.In SmyrnaandPitanewerefound representations,one in eachcity,of a lyrewith sevenstrings."6
We know that Terpanderof Lesboshad invented
the heptachordlyre underthe inspirationof Lydian
models.7"In the following pages we shall see that
in Ephesussome of the priestsand priestessesare
definitely a non-Greekethnic type, and we can
imagine how considerablythe Anatolian mother
goddess must have influencedthe Greek Cybele
and the goddessArtemisof Ephesus.Religion,music and dance are the fields in which the Ionians
were greatlystimulatedby the indigenouspeoples.
The luxuriousway of living that the Ioniansliked
was also influencedby their wealthyneighbours.71
mistakenly as the "2nd quarter." However, in the text (p.229)
correctly as "the middle" of the 7th century. For another early
Greek inscription from Smyrna, dating back to the second half
of the 7th century, see DKA 308, fig.24; the same inscription

now: L.H. Jeffery, The Local Scripts of Archaic Greece (1961)

341, pl.66, fig.69.
66John M. Cook, JHS 71(195I)247-249.

61 DKA 184.
E. Akurgal, Bayrakli, Erster vorldufiger Bericht iiber die
67 Cf. George M.A. Hanfmann, "Ionia, Leader or Follower?"
Ausgrabungen in Alt-Smyrna (Festschrift der Philosophischen 3.
Fakultdt der Universitdt Ankara vol. 8, 1950) pls. 2,3. DKA
68Rodney S. Young, AJA 64(I960)385.
62

184, fig-134.
64DKA
63John M. Cook, JHS 70(1950)IO-II.
I84ff.
65 DKA 308, fig.3. There the date is given in the caption

69 DKA 13ff, fig.3.

70 Max Wegner, Das Musikleben der Griechen 48. DKA 14.

71 Carl Roebuck, Ionian Trade and Colonization
3ff.

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1962]

EARLY PERIOD AND GOLDEN AGE OF IONIA

375

We may even say that the Ionian charm is partly

A Samianwooden statuette77
representingHera
due to the exotic contribution of the autochthonous and Zeusin the motif of the sacredmarriageis
another outstandingwork from the early Greek
peoples of Anatolia.72

period(pl.97,figs.8,9).The divinecoupleappears

SECOND
PHASE(600-545).THECLIMAXOF IONIANCIVILIZATION

The most brilliant years of Ionia73were of course

those between 600 and 545, in which the east Greek
world was leading in all aspects of cultural life
with the one exception of painting. In this crucial
epoch of history the cultural leadership of mankind
passed from Orient to Occident. The philosophers
and scientists of Miletus, Thales, Anaximander and
Anaximenes, laid the foundations of abstractgeometry and discovered the first positive way of thinking and research. In Samos, Miletos, Ephesos and
many other east Greek cities there arose monumental marble temples of the Ionic order which are not
only grandiose constructionsbut also representsome
of the most beautiful creations in the history of the
world. At the same time the softly smiling maidens
of the Ionian sculptors, together with the enigmatic
charm of Aeolo-Ionian poetry, conquered the heart
of all Hellas.
The earliest works of art of the Golden Age of
Ionia have come to light in Samos, Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna and some other cities of the east Greek
world. From this first phase, which can be dated, in
the present state of the finds, to the end of the 7th
century, we possess only ivory, wood and bronze
statuettes.Monumental sculpture, as we know from
some fragmentary remains,7' also existed, but not
in that high quality which Attic statues of the same
period possessed.
The most important center was Samos. The German excavations yielded excellent statuettesin ivory,
bronze and wood.75 The recently published ivory
statuette76of a youth shows a remarkablyhigh quality of execution (pl.97, figs.4-6). It is the best Greek
work of art of its time and category. The deeply
carved eyebrows betray the influence of oriental
models, but the sharp profile of the face shows that
we have to do with a Greek work.
72 George M.A. Hanfmann, "Ionia, Leader or Follower?" 22:
DKA

295ff.

73 Carl Roebuck has carefully and systematically studied the

problems of the social and economic development of the east
Greek world: Ionian Trade and Civilization (New York 1959).
74Buschor, Altsamische Standbilder
75 ibid. 4(I96o)6Iff.
76ibid. 62ff, figs.238-248.

2(1934)23ff.

77 D. Ohly, Holz, AM 68(I953)77ff, Beilage 13-15.

here in a Hittite ceremonialschema,in which the

goddessis alwaysshown to the left of her consort
(pl.97, fig.Io).7"The intertwinedarms of the deitiesreproducea Hittite motif79which occursas well
in Egyptianart, but the Hittite monument (pl.97,
fig.io), belongingto the beginningof the 7th century, is the exampleclosestin time to our Samian
statuette.
Another statuette from the same period found

in Delphi (pl.97,fig.7), is also,as P. Amandryhas

pointed out,so a product of an east Greek ivory
workshop. Karl Schefold has compared it with
early terracottafigures of Samos."8The rendering of
the features reminds one of the foregoing Samian
statuettes.82The lion here, with its head turned to

the side, is an exampleof the Milesian lion type

which goes back to Egyptian models.83The hair of
the god falls down his back in a mass; the strands
of the hair are shown with carefully incised lines.
The same hairdress occurs on a Samian bronze
statuette from the beginning of the 6th century."'
The Zeus of the foregoing Samian ivory statuette

also has the same hairdress(pl.97,fig.9).

A bronze statuette which came to light in the
excavations at Smyrna5 is the earliest stratified and
surely dated east Greek bronze work we have

(pl.98, figs.II-I3). It was found in the debris of

the temple and belongs, therefore, to the last decade

of the 7th century.It is importantto mention that

the essential characteristics of Ionian sculpture of

the 6th centuryalreadyoccurin this statuette.Specifically Ionian are the soft and fleshy modeling of

the body, the sloping shoulders,the roughly indicated and obliquelyset mouth. Its hairdressis exactly the same as that which we observed on the
above mentioned east Greek statuettes from Samos
and Delphi.
We find the same Ionian characteristics,but in
a more elaborate rendering, on a bronze statuette
78 E. Akurgal,Spdthethitische
BildkunstII I-I8.
Die Kunst der Hethiterpl.I39.
79Akurgal-Hirmer,
so P. Amandry,

Syria

24(I944-45)I9ff.
81Karl Schefold,Orient,
Hellas und Rom 107.
82 DKA 218.
83 ibid. 276ff.

84Buschor,AltsamischeStandbilderI, pls.5,7,8. DKA figs.

178-18o0.
85 DKA

I86ff, figs.137-I39.

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EKREM AKURGAL

376

in the National Museum of Stockholm (pl.98,

This fine piece86 is a generation later
figs.i4-i6).
than the statuette from Smyrna, and must have
been produced in one of the east Greek bronze
workshops belonging to the Milesian school.
Another east Greek ivory carving workshop located in Ephesus produced remarkably fine statuettes. The foundation deposit of the temple of Artemis contained some well preserved ivories,"8which
are now in the Museum in Istanbul.88
The woman with distaff and spindle (pl.99, fig.
17) is a unique representation from the period of
a woman shown in the act of spinning:8" in the
left hand, held across the waist, she grasps a distaff
on which is a ball of wool. The right hand, with
fingers extended, rests flat upon the thigh. Between
the right hand and the thigh passes the thread,
with the spindle hanging from it nearly to the feet.
It is interesting that the ivory carver was able, even
in the conventional and stiff archaic schema, to illustrate the act of spinning. The woman wears a
high cylindrical headgear which seems to represent
the Lydian mitra mentioned in Greek poetry. We
know that Sappho9o very much appreciated the
Lydian mitra, regretting only that she could not
get it for her daughter because the law-giver of
Lesbos, Pittacus, had forbidden the importation of
luxurious artifacts. An older example of this kind
of headgear occurs, as Poulsen and Barnett have
pointed out,91 on the late Hittite-Aramaean rockrelief of Ivriz near Konya. Here it is worn by
King Warpalawas, who lived in the last quarter of
the 8th century. The work from Ephesus dates
from about 6o00B.c.92The statuette shows a nonGreek profile; it may therefore represent one of
the Lydian maidens who were charged, as we know
from Aristophanes,93to stay in the temple in order
to venerate the goddess Artemis.
The statuette of a eunuch priest"9is also a fine
work in east Greek style (pl.99, fig.I8). He wears a
hat of nearly cylindrical form and a long chain of
beads around the neck, a sign of priesthood. The
squat and feminine structure of the body suggests
86 Oscar Antonsson, Antik Konst 33,
figs.I-2.

DKA 202-203,

figs.162-I64.

[AJA 66

its identification as a eunuch, who served as priest

for the worship of the goddess Artemis of Ephesus. The vivid expression of the face with its archaic
smile discloses the Greek origin of the statuette.
The finest ivory work of Ephesus is a representation of a priestess95of Artemis. She wears a luxurious dress with rich embroidery. She holds in her
right hand an oinochoe and in her left hand a Phrygian bowl.96 Both were probably in gold. The
priestess herself may be of Lydian or Phrygian
origin too. Her face, which is apparentlyrepresented
with all its individual characteristics,does not belong to the Greek ethnic type. But the mode of her
garment and her hair, falling down her back in a
long and large mass, and the stylized contours
and soft modeling of the forms, are typically east
Greek."9The bunched folds of the skirt between
the legs, ending with a zigzag edge just above the
feet, is also a peculiarity of Ionian art. The simplicity of this zigzag edge dates the statuette about
570 B.c.
The large-scale stone sculpture of Ionia reached
its ultimate achievement in the second quarter of
the sixth century. It is an absolutely original accomplishment, perfect in sense, spirit and style. In
the following paragraphswe shall consider only an
outstanding group of Ionian sculpture which has
not yet received the attention it merits from archaeologists. The marble head of a girl from Miletus,
now in Berlin, and the maidens from the sculptured
columns of the temple at Didyma, likewise in Berlin, belong to this group.
The woman in Berlin (pl.ioo, fig.19) exhibits
an original and charming beauty with her sensitive
and enigmatic face."98The sharp outlines of the
almond-shaped and narrow eyes and the fine edges
of the veil are delicately carved. They produce, together with the obliquely-set mouth, a successful
contrast to the softly modeled forms of her face and,
head. The slightly smiling and ironic expression
of the girl is typically east Greek.
The maidens from the temple in Didyma (pl.Ioo,.
fig.20) represent" a similar style of softly modeled
R.D. Barnett, JHS 68(1948)7.
92DKA 59,81, fig. 38. Akurgal-Hirmer, Die Kunst der

I02;

87Hogarth, Excavations at Ephesus (I908). P. Jacobsthal, Hethiter, fig.140, pl.24.

"The Date of the Ephesian Foundation-Deposit,"JHS 71(1951)
93DKA 207.
9'ibid. 198, figs.158-I59.
86.
96ibid. I08, pl.3a.
95ibid. 204-210, figs.I69-173.
97E. Langlotz, Bildhauerschulen 122. DKA 270.
figs.147-177.
S8DKA 192-2II,
89ibid. 195ff, figs.155-157.
90 See Mazzarino, Athenaeum

2I(1943)57-58,

and

Carl

Roebuck, Ionian Trade and Colonization 3.

91 Fr. Poulsen, Der Orient und die friihgriechische Kunst

98DKA 256,262, figs.221-222.

F.724. Greifenhagen,.
99 Th. Wiegand, Didyma I p1.214,
Antike Kunstwerke (Berlin I96I) I, pl.I. DKA 256, figs.223224.

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forms and sharply carved calligraphic design. They

have the same enigmatic smile of Mediterranean
nonchalance. They all belong to the same circle of
Milesian ateliers but are works of different sculptors.
A round base with dancing figures,1oo lately
found at Cyzicus (pl.Ioo, fig.21), is closely connected with the same artistic center in Miletus. The
woman in the middle has the same type of face and
wears a veil similar to that of the girl in Berlin.
The master has used the motif of the dancing
woman to show his artistic ability, and has given a
graceful liveliness to her body. The three-quarter
turn of the head and the asymmetric representation
of the veil, together with the slightly turning motion of the body and arms, extended sidewards, produce a charming effect full of life. The woman is
slim and conveys an idea of how slender a figure
each of the foregoing marble heads in Berlin must
have had. The incised lines indicating the folds of
her tunic are typically Samian and show us that the
round base and the maidens in Berlin belong to the
middle of the 6th century.
A head found in Ephesus"o' and belonging to
one of the sculptured columns of the temple of
Artemis is a further example of sculpture in which
the hair and the eyes are carved in precise design,
while the forms of the face are softly modeled.
The picturesque effect of a head found in Ephesus102 displays another characteristic of the Ionian
sculptors. The head is an extreme example of the
soft style with delicate transitions from plane to
plane. The contrast of light and shadow produces
an illusionistic impression, an artistic performance
unrivaled among the sculptors of mainland Greece.
Ionian sculpture, of which we have considered only a few examples, exercised, together with contemporary east Greek poetry, an important influence
on Attic sculpture of the second half of the 6th
century. The chiton, the himation, the representation of the folds of drapery and the joyful faces of
the maidens of the Acropolis are specifically characteristic of Ionian art.'03
The Ionic order in architecture, too, developed
100 DKA
256,257,262,

10o DKA 293.

Lehmann-Haupt, Armenien einst und jetzt 484ff; Lehmann-Haupt, "Zur Herkunft der ionischen Sdiule," Klio 13
108

106Koldewey, Neandria 33ff. L. Kjellberg, Corolla ArchaeoKarl Schefold

WJh 31(1938)42-52.

into its canonic form during the first half of the

6th century. Our material, formerly known from
several Aeolian and Ionian cities, has been enriched
by some new finds of great importance. The excavations at Phocaea have yielded a good number
of architectural fragments probably going back to
the archaic temple of Athena.'04 A capital consisting of a girdle of pendant leaves (pl.Ioi, fig.23)
belongs to the first construction of the temple, approximately the second quarter of the 6th century.
The most important find of an archaic capital"05
was made ten years ago in the excavations at Smyrna (pl.ioi, fig.22). It is the earliest exactly dated
capital in Greek architectureand belongs to the last
decade of the 7th century. It still bears some traces
of coloring in red and yellow. Another east Greek
capital,"'6probably dating also from the end of the
7th century, was found in Neandria (pl.Io2, fig.28).
The capitals from Neandria and Smyrna are east
Greek creations from oriental prototypes. Contemporary Assyrian, Phoenician and Urartian furniture
in bronze and ivory from the second half of the
seventh century might have served as models.7"'
The Urartian furniture in bronze,'08especially, has
columns representing girdles with hanging leaves
(pl.0o2, fig.26) which remind us very much of the
east Greek example.
The origin of the Ionic capital has often been
sought in the Orient, and has been connected by
many archaeologists with the hieroglyphic monograms of the Hittite kings under the winged sun
disc. The two signs in a symmetrical position supporting the sun-disc'09remind one indeed of Ionic
capitals. But this is a mere accident, since the sign
in question is a compound word and consists of two
symbols. The conic sign means "king" and the
volute shaped sign "great"; both together mean
"Great King." In the cartouche of the king they
appear in antithetic position because of heraldic
necessity. The Hittites, moreover, knew neither
column nor capital, but only the pillar."'
The Ionic capital is an original creation of the
east Greek architects and was developed from the
Aeolic capital. The Aeolic capital (pl.1o2, fig.28)
70-76. Anatolia 5(i96o)3ff. DKA 291.

figs.200,22o.
101 ibid. 247,
figs.212,213.
103 ibid. ix.
102 ibid. 247, figs.218,219.
104Anatolia I (I956)7ff. DKA 284ff.
105 DKA 284, fig.251.

logica 238ff.

377

EARLY PERIOD AND GOLDEN AGE OF IONIA

1962]

A. Gerkan,

Zum Tempel von Neandria, Festschrift Bernard Schweitzer

(1913)468-484;

Akurgal,

Anatolia

5(1960)7;

DKA

293.

109Akurgal-Hirmer, Die Kunst der Hethiter fig.78, pl.19.

11 R. Naumann, Architektur Kleinasiens 126ff;
AkurgalHirmer, Die Kunst der Hethiter 76.

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378

EKREM AKURGAL

[AJA 66

consists of two vertical volutes bound together; the power and fine artistic feeling of the Ionian spirit.
empty space between the volutes is filled with a When, in the Periclean Age in Athens, the Doric
palmette. Optically considered, the weight of the order, which had become canonic, needed enrichsuperstructure is supported only by this palmette. ment, Attic architects embellished the Doric temFurthermore, the wedge-shaped palmette produces ples with the elements and the slender proportions
an impression of dividing the capital into two parts. of the Ionic order.
The Greeks, who attached great importance to the
Painting was the only branch of the fine arts in
optical effect, could not long use such an untectonic which Ionia never held a leading position.'? The
element to carry the superstructuresof their marble Ionian potters produced, however, vases of fascinattemples. We possess Greek capitals showing sev- ing beauty. As the most important east Greek proderal types of attempts to avoid this optical illusion.111 ucts of this period in ceramics, we might mention
But it was an Ionian architect who linked the two the handsome Chian vases which were found in the
vertical volutes horizontally and solved the prob- excavations at Pitane, the ancient Aeolian city lolem in an ingenious way: the palmette disappeared; cated some 20 km. southeast of Pergamon. The
its upper part in the form of a fillet became the drawing of a stemmed skyphos crater, consisting
abacus; the girdle of the hanging leaves moved up of crouching sphinxes and lions, is careless, but the
between the volutes below the channel and the composition of the whole picture displays conIonic capital was created (pl.1o2, fig.29).
siderable charm, and the attractiveshape of the vase
The capital from Neandria mentioned in this has great elegance (pl.1o3,
fig-.3).
article (pl.1o2, fig.28) is a restored one."2 However,
The high artistic ability of the Ionian potters is
since we possess a representation of an "Aeolic" even to be seen in some vases of provincial quality.
capital on a bronze plaque." from Samos showing On an amphora from Pitane (pl.io3, fig.3o) we
the three essential elements of the capital of Nean- see an interesting figure of a man in a fantastic
dria, volutes, palmette and the girdle with the hang- world of ornaments, bending over, as if gathering
ing leaves (pl.io2, fig.27), we may assume that this flowers. This figure, which is full of expression and
type of capital really existed and served as a model looks like a caricature, is a creation of an Aeolian
for the creation of the Ionic capital. We may re- Greek from Pitane or Myrina. A similar face is
gard it as a step in the evolution of the Ionic capi- represented on an amphora in the Louvren7 which
tal, composed as it is of the two different types was found in Myrina (pl.Io3, fig.32). Both vases
which preceded it, that with the vertical volutes might be products of the same workshop, whether
and that with the girdle of hanging leaves.
in Pitane or Myrina is a question that only further
The canonic form of the Ionic capital must have excavations on both sites could resolve. But the
been perfected on the Anatolian coast at the begin- painters of this workshop were, in the provincial
ning of the second quarter of the 6th century. The landscape of Aeolis, great artists, who illustrated,
Naxian column in Delphi with an Ionic capital114 in an admirably expressive style, the humorous
supporting a sphinx, from about 570 or 56o B.c., character of the east Greek art of painting.
is the earliest example known up to the present
The capture of Sardis by Cyrus in 546 B.c.marked
that we can date almost certainly according to the the end of the splendor of
Ionia. The small cityof
the
The
marble
temwith
a
style
sphinx."5
magnificent
states,
only very restricted military effectiveple of Ephesus, erected before the middle of the ness, were not able to resist the well organized and
6th century, was one of the finest architecturalcrea- mighty Achaemenid kingdom. The final
political
tions of western civilization.
decline of the Ionian cities began a half century
The elegance, charm and originality of Greek later, with the destruction of Miletus in
494 B.c.,
architecture are in great part due to the creative but even in this period of desperation the scientific
111 W.B. Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Ancient Greece
I43,
fig.53; see also P. Amandry, "La colonne des Naxiens," FdD
2(1953) pl.I5, fig-3, pl.I6, fig.I.
112For the bibliography concerning the problem of the
restoration see supra n.Io6.
"I AM 58(1933)38 with picture.
114P. Amandry, "La colonne des Naxiens," FdD 2(1953)I32, pls.12ff.

115ibid. 3Iff. John Boardman, "Chian and Early Ionic

Architecture," AJ 39(I959)199116 DKA
175,178,280.
17
O. Rayet, BCH 8(1884)509-514,

pl.7; Clara Rhodos 6-7,

209; Pottier-Reinach, La Necropole de Myrina vol.2, pl.5I;

Hanfmann,

"Ionia, Leader or Follower?"

fig.I6.

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HSCP 6I(1953)22,

1962]

EARLY PERIOD AND GOLDEN AGE OF IONIA

work of Ionian scholars and artistic activity continued in many cities. In Phocaea, of which it is
recorded that a part of the population emigrated'1l
to the western Mediterranean, the workshops were
still active. As the architectural finds in stone and
terracotta (pl.ioi, figs.24-25) dating from the second part of the 6th century clearly reveal, the temple of Athena was restored to a great extentl9
after its destruction. Samos even enjoyed, under the
tyranny of Polycrates, a period of grandeur.'20
However, the sudden appearancein Etruria of vase
118

Her. i.I64ff.
119 Akurgal, Anatolia

I(1956)7.

1200. Reuther, Der Hera Tempel von Samos, der Bau seit
der Zeit des Polykrates (Berlin 1957).

121R.M. Cook, Greek Painted Pottery

I6o-I6I.

379

painting in the east Greek style,'21 exemplified by

Caeretan Hydriai and the vases of the Campana122 and the Northamptonl23 group,shows us that
some artists preferred to leave their homeland.
Those who continued their work in Anatolia did
not produce objects of great value,124 and Ionia
ceased to play a leading role in the Hellenic world,
after a period of glory which had lasted longer
than a century.
ANKARAUNIVERSITY
122F. Villard, MonPiot 43,54.
123A. Rumpf, Malerei und Zeichnung 57
n.I; R.M. Cook,

BSA 47(1952)I49.

124DKA 269ff.

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AKURGAL

FIG. I. Protogeometric crater from Bayrakli

FIG.

PLATE

96

2. Protogeometricamphora from Bayrakli

FIG. 3. Protogeometric house, Bayrakli

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PLATE

97

AKURGAL

FIG. 4

FIG. 6

FIG. 5

FIG.

ette, Delphi

Ivory statuette, Samos

FIG.

.. .

.....

FIG.

Wooden statuette, Samos

7. Ivory statu-

.. . ..... .... .. . .

FIG. Io.
Hittite gravestone from

Maras, Turkey. Adana

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AKURGAL

FIc. II

FIG. 12

98

PLATE

FIG. 13

Bronze statuette from Bayrakli (missing-formerly

Institute of Archaeology, Ankara)

FIG.

14

FIG.

IS

Bronze statuette in Stockholm

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FIG.

16

PLATE

FIG. 17

99

AKURGAL

Ivory statuettes from Ephesus. Istanbul

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FIG.

18

AKURGAL

FIG.

19. Marble head, Berlin

PLATE

FIG. 20. Marble head from Didyma. Berlin

FIG. 21. Round base from Cyzicus. Istanbul

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I00

PLATE

101

FIG.

AKURGAL

22. Limestonecapitalfrom Bayrakli.Izmir

w
FIG. 24

FIG.

23. Limestone capital and column drum

from Phocaea. Izmir
FIGs. 24-25. Terracotta revetments

from Phocaea. Izmir

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FIG. 25

AKURGAL

PLATE

102

FIG. 26. Urartian furniture,

bronze. British Museum

FIG.

28. Capital from Neandria. Istanbul

FIc. 27. Bronze

plaque, Samos

FIG.

29. Capital from Ephesus. British Museum

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PLATE

103

AKURGAL

FIG.

30. Amphora from Pitane (detail). Istanbul

FIG. 3I. Stemmed skyphos-crater

from Pitane. Istanbul

FIG. 32. Amphora from Myrina. Louvre

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