1 Introduction

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Abstract 1.1 The
Flat Rolling Process
1.2 The
Hot Rolling Process
1.1.1 Hot, cold and warm rolling
. 1.2.1 Reheating furnace 
. 1.2.2 Rough rolling 
. 1.2.3 Coil box 
. 1.2.4 Finish rolling 
. 1.2.5 Cooling 
. 1.2.6 Coiling 
. 1.2.7 The hot strip mill 
. 1.2.8 The Steckel mill 
. 1.3 Continuous Casting 
. 1.4 Mini-Mills 
. 1.5 The Cold Rolling Process 
1.5.1 Cold rolling mill configurations

. 1.6 The Warm-Rolling Process 

. 1.7 New Equipment 
. 1.8 Further Reading 
. 1.9 Conclusions 

2 Flat Rolling A General Discussion

Abstract
2.1
2.2
2.3
The Flat Rolling Process
2.1.1 Hot, cold and warm rolling2.1.2 Mathematical modelling2.1.3 The independent and dependent
variablesThe Physical Events Before, During and After the Pass 2.2.1 Some assumptions and
simplifications
. 2.2.1.1 Plane-strain flow 
. 2.2.1.2 Homogeneous compression 
The Metallurgical Events Before and After the Rolling Process
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3
2.4
2.5
Contents

Limitations of the Flat Rolling Process

. 2.4.1 The minimum rollable thickness 
. 2.4.2 Alligatoring and edge-cracking 
Conclusions
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Mathematical and Physical Modelling of the Flat Rolling Process

Abstract
. 3.1 A Discussion of Mathematical Modelling 
. 3.2 A Simple Model 
. 3.3 One-dimensional Models
.

3.3.1 The Classical Orowan model 

3.3.2 Sims model 

3.3.3 Bland and Fords model 

. 3.4 Refinements of the Orowan Model 

3.4.1 The deformation of the work roll
3.5 The Effect of the Inertia Force
3.5.1
3.5.2

. 3.6 The 

. 3.7 The 3.7.1 3.7.2 
The equations of motion
A numerical approach
Predictive Ability of the Mathematical Models Friction Factor in the Flat Rolling Process
The mathematical model Calculations using the model
. 3.7.2.1 Cold rolling of steel 
. 3.7.2.2 Distribution of the roll pressure at the contact 
. 3.8 The Use of ANN
.

3.8.1 Structure and terminology 

3.8.2 Interconnection 

3.8.3 Propagation of information 

3.8.4 Functions of a node 

3.8.5 Threshold function 

3.8.6 Learning 

3.8.7 Characteristics of neural networks 

3.8.8 Back-propagation neural networks 

3.8.9 General Delta Rule 

3.8.10 The learning algorithm 

3.8.11 Drawbacks of B-P networks 

3.8.12 Application of neural networks to predict the roll forces in cold rolling of a low
carbon steel 

. 3.9 Extremum Principles 

3.9.1 The upper bound theorem
. 3.10 Comparison of the Predicted Powers 
. 3.11 The Development of the Metallurgical Attributes of the Rolled Strip 3.11.1 Thermal
mechanical treatment3.11.1.1 Controlled rolling of CMn steels 

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3.11.1.2 3.11.1.3 3.11.1.4

Contents

Dynamic and metadynamic recrystallization-controlled rolling Effects of recrystallization type on the

grain size Controversies regarding the type of recrystallizationin strip rolling
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3.11.2 Conventional microstructure evolution models
3.11.2.1 3.11.2.2 3.11.2.3 3.11.2.4
Static changes of the microstructure Dynamic softeningMetadynamic recrystallizationGrain growth
3.11.3 Properties at room temperatures
3.11.3.1 3.11.3.2 3.11.3.3
Ferrite grain size Lower yield stress Tensile strength
3.11.4 Physical simulation

. 3.12 Miscellaneous Parameters and Relationships in the Flat Rolling Process

.

3.12.1 The forward slip 

3.12.2 Mill stretch 

3.12.3 Roll bending 

3.12.4 Cumulative strain hardening 

3.12.5 The lever arm 

. 3.13 How a Mathematical Model should be Used

.

3.13.1 Establish the magnitude of the coefficient of friction 

3.13.2 Establish the metals resistance to deformation 

3.14 Conclusions

4 Material Attributes
Abstract
4.1 4.2
4.3 4.4 4.5
4.6
IntroductionRecently Developed Steels
. 4.2.1 Very low carbon steels 
. 4.2.2 Interstitial free (IF) steels 
. 4.2.3 Bake-hardening (BH) steels 
. 4.2.4 TRIP steel 
. 4.2.5 High strength low alloy (HSLA) steels 
. 4.2.6 Dual-phase (DP) steels 
Steel and AluminumThe Independent Variables Traditional Testing Techniques
. 4.5.1 Tension tests 
. 4.5.2 Compression testing 
. 4.5.3 Torsion testing 

Potential Problems Encountered During the Testing Process

. 4.6.1 Friction control 
. 4.6.2 Temperature control 
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Contents

. 4.6.2.1 Isothermal conditions 

. 4.6.2.2 Monitoring the temperature 
. 4.7 The Shape of StressStrain Curves
.

4.7.1 Low temperatures 

4.7.2 High temperatures 

. 4.8 Mathematical Representation of StressStrain Data 

4.8.1 Material models: stressstrain relations
. 4.8.1.1 Relations for cold rolling 
. 4.8.1.2 Relations for use in hot rolling 

. 4.9 Choosing a StressStrain Relation for Use in Modelling the Rolling Process 
. 4.10 Conclusions 

5 Tribology
Abstract
. 5.1 Tribology A General Discussion 
. 5.2 Friction
.

5.2.1 Real surfaces 

5.2.2 The areas of contact 

5.2.2.1 The relationship of the apparent and the true areas of contact
. 5.2.3 Definitions of frictional resistance 
. 5.2.4 The mechanisms of friction 
5.3 Determining the Coefficient of Friction or the Friction Factor
. 5.3.1 Experimental methods
.

5.3.1.1 The embedded pin transducer technique 

5.3.1.2 The refusal technique 

5.3.1.3 The ring compression test 

. 5.3.2 Semi-analytical methods

.

5.3.2.1 Forward slip coefficient of friction relations 

5.3.2.2 Empirical equations cold rolling 

5.3.2.3 The study of Tabary et al. (1994) 

5.3.2.4 Empirical equations and experimental data hot rolling 

5.3.2.5 Inverse calculations 

5.3.2.6 Negative forward slip 

5.3.2.7 The correlation of the coefficient of friction, 

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5.4 Lubrication
5.4.1
The lubricant5.4.1.1 The viscosity5.4.1.2 The viscositypressure relationship5.4.1.3 The viscosity
temperature relationship5.4.1.4 The combined effect of temperature and pressure
on viscosity
determined in the laboratory and in industry
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5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4

5.4.5
5.4.6 5.4.7
The lubrication regimesA well-lubricated contact in flat rolling Neat oils or emulsions?
. 5.4.4.1 Roll force and roll torque 

. 5.4.4.2 The coefficient of friction 

Oil-in-water emulsions
. 5.4.5.1 Behaviour of the droplets 
. 5.4.5.2 Entrainment of the emulsion 
. 5.4.5.3 The emulsion in the contact zone 
A physical model of the contact of the roll and the strip The thickness of the oil film
. 5.4.7.1 Measurement of the thickness of the oil film 
. 5.4.7.2 Calculation of the oil film thickness 
5.5 Dependence of the Coefficient of Friction or the Roll Separating Force on the Independent
Variables
. 5.5.1 The dependence of coefficient on reduction 
. 5.5.2 The dependence of coefficient on speed 
. 5.5.3 The dependence of coefficient on the surface roughness of the roll 
. 5.5.4 The dependence of the roll separating force on the lubricants viscosity 
. 5.5.5 The dependence of the coefficient of friction on temperature 
5.5.5.1
5.5.5.2
5.6 Heat Transfer
The layer of scaleThe effect of the scale thickness on friction
. 5.6.1 Estimating the heat transfer coefficient on a laboratory rolling mill 
. 5.6.2 Measuring the surface temperature of the roll 
. 5.6.3 Hot rolling in industry the heat transfer coefficient on production mills 
. 5.7 Roll Wear 
. 5.8 Conclusions
.

5.8.1 Heat transfer coefficient 

5.8.2 The coefficient of friction

5.8.2.1 Cold rolling 

5.8.2.2 Hot rolling 

5.8.3 Roll wear 

5.8.4 What is still missing 

6 Applications and Sensitivity Studies

Abstract6.1 The Sensitivity of the Predictions of the Flat Rolling Models
6.1.1 The sensitivity of the roll separating force and the roll torque to the coefficient of friction and the
reduction
Contents

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Contents

. 6.1.2 The sensitivity of the roll separating force and the roll torque to the strain-hardening coefficient 
. 6.1.3 The dependence of the roll separating force and the roll torque on the entry thickness 
. 6.2 A Comparison of the Predictions of Power, Required for Plastic Deformation of the Strip 
. 6.3 The Roll Pressure Distribution 
. 6.4 The Statically Recrystallized Grain Size 
. 6.5 The Critical Strain 
. 6.6 The Hot Strength of Steels Shidas Equations 
6.6.1 The shape of the stressstrain curve, as predicted by Shida
6.7 Conclusions

Temper Rolling
Abstract
. 7.1 The Temper Rolling Process 
. 7.2 The Mechanism of Plastic Yielding 
. 7.3 The Effects of Temper Rolling 
7.3.1 Yield strength variation
. 7.4 Mathematical Models of the Temper Rolling Process
.

7.4.1 The Fleck and Johnson models 

7.4.2 Roberts model 

7.4.3 The model of Fuchshumer and Schlacher (2000) 

7.4.4 The Gratacos and Onno model (1994) 

7.4.5 The model of Domanti et al. (1994) 

7.4.6 The Chandra and Dixit model (2004) 

7.4.7 The models of Wiklund (1996a, 1996b, 1999, 2002) 

7.4.8 The model of Liu and Lee (2001) 

7.4.9 The studies of Sutcliffe and Rayner (1998) 

7.4.10 The model of Pawelski (2000) 

. 7.5 Comments from Industry 

. 7.6 Conclusions 

Severe Plastic Deformation Accumulative Roll Bonding

Abstract
. 8.1 Introduction 
. 8.2 Manufacturing Methods of Severe Plastic Deformation (SPD) 

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8
8.2.1 8.2.2 8.2.3 8.2.4 8.2.5 8.2.6 8.2.7
High-pressure torsionEqual channel angular pressing (ECAP)Cyclic extrusion-compressionMultiple
forgingContinuous confined strip shearingRepetitive corrugation and straightening (RCS)
Accumulative roll-bonding (ARB)
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. 8.3 A Set of Experiments

.

8.3.1 Material 

8.3.2 Preparation and procedure 

8.3.3 Equipment 

. 8.4 Results and Discussion

.

8.4.1 Process parameters 

8.4.2 Mechanical attributes at room temperature

8.4.2.1 Hardness 

8.4.2.2 Yield, tensile strength and ductility 

8.4.2.3 The bending strength 

8.4.2.4 The cross-section of the roll-bonded strips 

8.4.2.5 The strength of the bond 

. 8.5 The Phenomena Affecting the Bonds 

8.5.1 Cracking of the edges
. 8.6 A Potential Industrial Application: Tailored Blanks 
. 8.7 A Combination of ECAP and ARB
.

8.7.1 The ECAP process 

8.7.2 The rolling process 

8.7.3 The microstructure after ECAP and the rolling passes 

. 8.8 Conclusions 

9 Roll Bonding
Abstract
9.1 9.2
9.3 9.4 9.5
9.6
9.7 9.8
IntroductionMaterial, Equipment, Sample Preparation, Parameters
. 9.2.1 Material 
. 9.2.2 Equipment 
. 9.2.3 Sample preparation 
ParametersTesting of the Shear Strength of the Bond Results and Discussion
. 9.5.1 The roll force and the torque 
. 9.5.2 The shear strength of the bond 
. 9.5.2.1 The effect of the speed of rolling 
. 9.5.2.2 The effect of the normal pressure 
. 9.5.2.3 The effect of the entry temperature warm bonding 
. 9.5.2.4 The effect of the entry temperature cold bonding 
Examination of the Interface
. 9.6.1 Warm bonding 
. 9.6.2 Cold bonding 
. 9.6.3 Side view of the bond 
The Phenomenon of Bonding Conclusions
Contents

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xiv

10
Contents

Flexible Rolling
Abstract
. 10.1 Introduction 
. 10.2 Material, Equipment, Procedure, Sample Preparation 10.2.1 Material 10.2.2 Equipment 10.2.3
Procedure 

10.2.4 Sample Preparation

10.3 Results and Discussion
10.3.1 Roll separating forces and the roll gap

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313 334 340

11
. 10.4 Predictions of a Simple Model 
. 10.5 Strain at Fracture 
. 10.6 Conclusions 

Problems and Solutions

AbstractPart 1: Problems Part 2: Solutions
References Author Index Subject Index