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Overview
Syllabus
Overview (4 hrs)
Electrical Power and National Development, Role of Electrical Engineer, Introduction to Power
Generation, Transmission, Distribution and Utilisation including Modern Drives, SI Units, Basic
concepts.
Network Theorems (4 hrs)
Ohms Law, Kirchoffs Law, Superposition Theorem, Thevenins theorem, Nortons theorem,
maximum power transfer theorem, Millmanns theorem; star-delta transformations. Introduction to
nodal and mesh analysis..
Alternating Current theory (6 hrs)
Sinusoidal waveform, phasor and complex representation, Impedance, Power and Power factor.
Analysis of simple R, L, and C circuits using alternating current Solution of simple network
problems by phasor and complex number representation.
Three Phase - Advantage of three phase, Star and Delta configurations.
Balanced and unbalanced systems. Power factor correction.
Phase sequence.
1.0 Overview
You may find it amusing that this lecture series starts with a cartoon
which appeared in the magazine Punch in London on 25th June
1881(Figure 1.1). It shows King Steam and King Coal discussing
Baby Electricitys chances of success in life. Baby electricity is
obtaining nourishment from the feeding bottle marked storage of
force. Prior to 1881, Coal gas was widely used to obtain light and
steam was used to drive machinery and as such the advent of baby
electricity into this market made King Coal and King Steam become
anxious about their future.
It was around this time that electricity started gaining ground for
lighting and for power applications. The success was based primarily
on the discovery of electromagnetic induction and the construction of
the first dynamo by Michael Faraday in 1831.
From ancient times, the use of non human forms of energy transfer has
been associated with the development of man. For example, stone age
man used spears to hunt animals for food. However he had to be close
enough to be able to succeed. But this had a lot of dangers. So he
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Water power in water wheels and wind power through wind mills were the first forms of non-muscle power to
be used. The invention of the steam engine in the 1780s was a real break through in that it lead to an ever
increasing material progress.
With the advent of large scale electrical generation and transmission about 100 years later, the rate of increase of
power has been rocketing. Although this is wonderful for our material prosperity, the machines too have to be
fed and our limited resources of fossil fuel, as is used today, are fast dwindling.
The standard of living of a country can be measured by the amount of energy consumed per person (per capita
consumption). While many developed countries need energy to heat the environment during the harsh winter we
are fortunate not to have that requirement. Even so our per capita consumption of energy is still too low for us
to become an industrialised country.
Engineering economics play a vital role in the development of a country. The role of the electrical engineer is to
facilitate the means by which this can be achieved through the proper management of resources. His role is to
economically design, operate, maintain and manage the equipment associated with the generation, transmission,
distribution and utilisation of electrical energy and at the same time maintaining safety. He should also be able
to adequately communicate with the lower and higher rungs of the organisation, and be able to relate to the
environment. He must realise that electrical engineering is an ever expanding field and that he needs to
continually develop himself to meet the needs of society and that industrial problems rarely have a well defined
or unique solution.
Generation, transmission and distribution are directly concerned with electrical power and are handled by supply
authorities. Utilisation is by all walks of people for all types of purposes. The electrical equipment would
consist not only of purely electrical equipment such as for lighting, heating, machinery, and transport but also
for other applications such as computers and communication equipment.
In the past over 90% of motors used in industry have been traditional induction motors. In the present day, more
and more power electronic devices are used to control motors.
1.1 Generation, Transmission and Distribution of Electricity
The consumer needs to use electricity for his day to day activities in his home, office or other workplace. It is
neither economical nor feasible to produce electricity (i.e. convert from non electrical form of energy to
electrical energy) where it is required. Thus electricity is produced centrally in generating stations. In the home
or office, we would normally use electricity at 230 V (110 V is used in the US) between live and neutral wires
phase voltage. Voltages higher than that would not be at all safe and voltages lower than that would not be
economical as they require larger currents and hence larger size conductors [Note: for the same power output, a
lower voltage would require a higher current]. We would also have a protective earth wire to give us additional
safety.
The supply is an alternating current at a frequency of 50 Hz. A typical house in Sri Lanka would normally not
consume more than about 2 to 3 kW of power even during the peak giving a peak current of about 10 A. Since
there are a number of houses down your lane and all of them require electricity a common distribution line is run
along the side of the road and power is tapped for each house from it using 2 wires (live and neutral) and the
earth wire is provided from an electrode at your premises. When the current flows, there will be a considerable
power loss in both the live and neutral wires and a considerable voltage drop [Note: voltage drop is different
from the voltage of the line]
You are familiar with the fact that forces along three sides of an equilateral triangle add up to zero. Likewise,
three currents, equal in magnitude but with phase angles of the sinusoidal waveform differing by 1200 (or 2/3
rad), would add up to zero.
R phase
Y phase
B phase
current
100
50
0
0.000
-50
angle (rad)
1.571
3.142
4.712
6.283
-100
Figure1.2 - Three phase waveforms
Making use of this property, if we could balance the electrical loads taken by the various households equally
into three phases and supply them at different phase angles (as shown in figure 1.2), we would have almost no
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neutral current. Thus the total power loss would be effectively halved. Therefore power distribution is
normally carried out using three phase.
Red
Using trigonometry, it can be easily shown (figure 1.3) that the voltage
between two live wires would now not be 230 V but 2 230 3/2 or 400
230 V
V. [The voltage between live and neutral is still 230 V]. Thus the low
voltage distribution from which supply is obtained to your house is called
300
400 V, 3 phase, 50 Hz supply. The house in turn has a 230 V, 1 phase, 50
1200
400 V
Hz supply.
Blue
Figure 1.3
Yellow
When we consider all the houses down your lane, and perhaps the adjacent
lane, the total current may approach around 500 A per phase and would
require a power supply of the order of 350 kVA.
Since the power loss in a line is proportional to the square of current (I2R), the loss rapidly increases with
increase in current or power distributed (VI). This power loss may be reduced by sending the power at a higher
voltage as power loss is proportional to the square of current, while power distributed is proportional to the
current.
Thus power is distributed at a higher voltage such as 3 phase, 11 kV (Lanka Electricity Company) or 3 phase, 33
kV (Ceylon Electricity Board). Big industries (such as Steel Corporation) and large workplaces (such as
University of Moratuwa) are supplied at these voltages. The voltage is stepped down from these voltages to 3
phase, 400 V using transformers (usually rated at 100 kVA, 250 kVA, 400 kVA etc) for low voltage
distribution. Thus there are two levels of distribution - low voltage and medium voltage (figure 1.4).
Transmission Line
220 kV
Generating Station
13.8 kV
Distribution Lines
33 kV
Transmission Line
132 kV
Load
33 kV, 3
Distribution Lines
11 kV
Loads
230 V,1
Loads
400 V, 3
Loads
400 V,3
Loads
230V, 1
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A very important use of Solar energy is in powering remote power applications such as repeater stations,
transmitters at hill tops, and in extra terrestrial applications.
(vii) Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is the heat from the inside of the earth. The temperature of the earth crust increases from
about 200C at the earths surface to about 10000C at a depth of 40 km. Energy can be obtained by drilling at
suitable locations to release high pressure steam or hot water which is produced by ground water coming into
contact with molten rock. These can be circulated through a heat exchanger to produce steam to run a steam
turbine. In areas where the ground water supply is limited, water could be pumped into a cavity created in the
hot rock to obtain hot water and steam.
(viii) Ocean Energy
Energy from the ocean can be developed in three different ways. These are (a) tidal power, (b) ocean waves and
(c) ocean thermal gradient.
In tidal power, we make use of the tide which occurs twice a day and rises and falls by as much as 10m. When
the tide rises, water flows in to the land and when the tide falls, water flows out. This vast amount of energy
transfer can be used to generate electrical energy using hydro turbines.
Ocean waves are created by the wind and a vast amount of energy is available in the waves. A kilometer long,
one meter wave would contain about 10 MW of power. Reciprocating generators are commonly used. The
mechanism to trap the wave energy would be moored in the middle of the ocean (say 80 km from shore).
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) uses the natural temperature difference between the warm surface
water (250C) and the cooler ocean bed at 50C. Due to the low temperature difference, the turbines use fluids
such as ammonia as the working fluid.
About 50 km away from the coast line in Sri Lanka, in Mannar, Trincomalee and Unawatuna, are some of the
best sites for OTEC in the world. A 1 MW OTEC plant is under construction near Mannar.
(ix) Magneto hydro-dynamic (MHD) Generation
Magneto hydro dynamic generation is also based on Faradays laws of induction. The main difference from a
conventional generator is that the conductor is a gas at a very high temperature and pressure where it is
conductive. The gas may also be seeded with a small amount of vaporised metal such as potassium.
In MHD generation, the gas passes through a pipe (whose cross-section gradually increases from beginning to
end) across which a magnetic field is applied (in a perpendicular direction to the flow of gas). An emf is thus
induced in a circuit in a third mutually perpendicular direction.
(x) Fuel Cells
Fuel cells use hydrogen-oxygen interaction through a catalyser to yield a flow of electrons in a load connected
externally. Each cell develops about 0.7V and sufficient modules in series yield an output voltage of around 1115 kV and can reach power outputs of around 1 MW.
(xi) Biomass energy
Biomass is the abbreviation for biological mass, the amount of living material provided by a given area of the
earth's surface. Biomass energy may be obtained from forests, vegetation and animal refuse. In various forms,
it is probably the major supplier of energy in Sri Lanka.
1.3 Utilisation
(i)
Electric Drives
Due to the various advantages of electric drives, they are universally used in industry. They may operate on
either alternating current (a.c.) or direct current (d.c.). Most applications use a.c. induction motors. However
they operate at almost constant speed and low starting torque. For variable speed drives and high starting torque
applications d.c. has been preferred. However, with modern power electronic controlled drives a.c. motors may
also be controlled relatively easily.
(ii)
Electrical Heating
The heating characteristic of an electric current is used extensively in industrial and domestic heating
applications. They have relatively high efficiency (>75%), clean, easy to control, low maintenance and can be
protected against overheating easily.
Electric heating can be obtained from (a) resistance heating, (b) induction heating, (c) eddy current heating (d)
dielectric heating, and (e) electric arc heating.
(iii) Electric Welding
The word welding means the joining of two metals together by heating them to melting point. In electrical
welding, a very high electric current produces the heat needed to melt the material. Due to the reliability of the
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welded joints in comparison to riveted or bolted joints, electrical welding has been adopted in many fields of
engineering. The types of electric welding are resistance welding and arc welding.
(iv)
Air Conditioning
By air conditioning, the temperature, humidity and the purity of the air are controlled. In tropical countries like
Sri Lanka, air conditioning only cools the air and not heats it, but in cold countries both modes are available.
The working substance in the cooling type of air conditioner is the refrigerant vapour which readily evaporates
and condenses.
(v)
Electric Lighting
Light is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength to which the eyes are sensitive (380 nm to 780 nm), bounded
at one end by infra-red radiation of 780 to 10,000 nm and ultra-violet radiation of 10 nm to 380 nm wave length
at the other end. The colour associated with the various wavelengths are given in table 1.
Wave length
(nm)
colour
380-420
420-495
violet
blue
495-566
566-589
green
yellow
table 1
The eye is most sensitive to the colour yellow-green (wavelength = 555 nm).
589-627
627-780
orange
red
Electric Traction
Two major application of electric traction are electric trains and electric hoists. The good controllability of speed
and torque of electrical drives without resorting to lossy gear systems is used in these applications. In addition
to this characteristic, the very high initial torque and almost constant power requirement in a vast range of speed
torque combinations of a DC series motor is frequently utilised. This allows the Internal Combustion (IC) engine
in a train, supplying power to the generator, to run at relatively low range of speeds, even at high running speeds
of the train. This enhances efficiency and cuts down wear and tear of the engine significantly.
(vii)
Electrical energy is extensively used in metallurgical and chemical industries for the extraction, refining and
deposition of metals and manufacture of chemicals. Though the various processes are different in apparent
detail, they are fundamentally alike, being based on the principle of electrolysis.
Extraction and refining of metals are similar electrochemical processes except that extraction is the term used for
the production of metals with commercially acceptable purity, while refining is the process by which a highly
concentrated of metals is subjected to electro-chemical treatment for recovering not only the principal metal in
pure form, but also the precious metals like silver gold etc which may be present in the form of minute traces.
(viii) Electronics
Electronics is the branch of science that deals with flow of electrons and other charged particles through gases,
vacuum and semiconductor materials. The principle electronic devices are the vacuum tubes, gas-filled tubes,
and semiconductor devices like selenium rectifiers, silicon diodes, transistors and silicon controlled rectifiers.
The applications of electronic devices and their circuit arrangements are numerous and varied
(ix) Information storage and transmission
The computer is the most powerful tool designed by man. Todays computer is a complex electronic machine
capable of storing, processing, manipulating and retrieving large volumes of data/information at incredibly high
speeds. Consequently they are finding ever increasing applications in every field of industrial, commercial and
business activity, science and space research, medical diagnostics etc resulting in greater production, higher
productivity, reduced costs and more reliable and accurate results.
(x) Biomedical Systems
Bioelectrical Engineering is the area of biomedical engineering concerning bioelectric activity, which
encompasses the nervous system and regulates most life processes. The bioelectrical engineer assists this
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regulation and uses bioelectric signals for diagnostic purposes. Developments have led to the invention of the
pacemaker, the defibrillator, and the electrocardiograph. The monitoring of many other bioelectric functions by
means of electrodes plays an important part in surgical recovery rooms and intensive-care units.
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Electric Motors
Pinput
Ploss,elect
Mechanical
Load
Ploss,mech
If
Ea ra
field supply Vf
Pmech
Figure 1.6 - two-pole dc motor
Ia
Rf
+
V armature
supply
V = Ea + ra Ia
The dc motor needs slip rings or split rings (commutator) on the rotor shaft and a set of brushes positioned over
them to supply the armature winding. [symbol for the armature basically shows the rotor and a pair of brushes]
dc supply
dc supply
dc supply
dc supply
dc supply
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Electric Motors
The dc motors can be categorised into four basic types dependent on the method of connection of the field
winding (figure 1.8). These are the (a) separately excited field, (b) shunt connected field, (c) series connected
field, and (d) compound connected field.
In the separately excited type, the field winding is connected to a separate or external dc source. In the shunt
excited type, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding so that the same dc voltage
source is used. In the series excited type, the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding,
again making use of the same dc voltage source. Compound excitation involves both the series and shunt
excited windings.
In the case of very small motors, the field may be created by a permanent magnet rather than having a field
winding. These are known as permanent magnet dc motors.
Speed-torque characteristics of dc motors
The shunt, series and compound motors exhibit distinctive speed-torque characteristics, which are best suited for
specific tasks. Thus a study of motor characteristics is essential for one to decide on a specific application using
these motors. Figure 1.9 shows the speed-torque characteristics of dc motors. In addition, other characteristics
such as torque-current should be considered when selecting motors.
cumulative
differential
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Electric Motors
The supply for these motors is either 3-phase or single-phase. 3 phase motors are found in larger sizes and have
mainly industrial applications. Single-phase motors are used mainly for domestic and agricultural applications.
In the fractional kilowatt sizes, they are used in large numbers for washing machines, refrigerators and so on.
AC motors are classified to various groups based on their principle of operation; most common are the induction
motor and synchronous motor.
Induction Motors
As the name implies, the induction motor is based on the induced voltage in a winding in the rotor. The rotor
does not receive electric power by conduction but by induction in exactly the same way as the secondary of a
transformer receives its power from the primary. Of all the ac motors, the three-phase induction motor is the one
which is extensively used for various kinds of industrial drives.
An induction motor consists essentially of two main parts, namely (a) a stator and (b) a rotor (figure 1.10).
(a) stator
slip =
s=
Ns N
.
Ns
The rotor of an induction motor can be of two types, namely (a) squirrel cage and (b) wound rotor as seen in
figure 6(b) and 6(c).
(a) Squirrel cage rotor
About 90% of induction motors are squirrel cage type, because this type of rotor has the simplest and most
rugged construction and is almost indestructible. The rotor consists of a cylindrical core with parallel slots for
carrying the rotor conductors which are not wires but heavy bars of copper, aluminium or alloys. The rotor bars
are permanently short-circuited at the ends to form the winding.
Because of the absence of moving parts in the circuitry, the motor is useful for duties in hazardous areas. It
finds applications for most industrial drives, where speed control is not required. These are specially used with
loads requiring low starting torque and substantially constant speeds. It can be shown that by increasing the
effective rotor resistance, the torque-speed characteristic can be modified such that the starting torque is
increased. However the operating slip also increases. With low rotor resistance, these are used in fans,
centrifugal pumps, most machine tools and wood working tools. With high rotor resistance, they are used in
compressors, crushes, reciprocating pumps etc. With very high rotor resistance, are used in punching presses,
shears, hoists and elevators.
(b) Wound rotor
Unlike the cage rotor type, the wound rotor type is provided with a three-phase winding in the rotor. Usually, the
three phases are connected internally as a star. The other three winding terminals are brought out and connected
to three insulated slip-rings mounted on the shaft with brushes resting on them. This makes possible the
introduction of additional resistance in the rotor circuit during the starting period for increasing the starting
torque of the motor and for changing its speed-torque/current characteristics.
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Electric Motors
When running under normal conditions, the slip-rings are automatically short-circuited and the brushes lifted
from the slip-rings. Hence, it is seen that under normal running conditions, the wound rotor is short-circuited on
itself just like the squirrel cage rotor. Applications of the wound rotor type include high-inertia drives requiring
variable speed, fly wheel machine drives, air-compressors, ram pumps, crushing mills, cranes, hoists, winches
and lifts.
Typical Torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor are shown in figure 1.11. The effect of increasing
the rotor resistance on the characteristic is also shown.
Synchronous Motors
Synchronous motors operate on the same fundamental principles of electromagnetic induction as dc motors.
They usually consists of a 3-phase stator winding and a rotor winding which carries a dc current (figure 1.12).
When the 3-phase stator winding is fed by a 3-phase supply, a magnetic flux of constant magnitude but rotating
at synchronous speed, is produced (as in 3-phase induction motors). This field interacts with the field produced
by the dc field winding on the rotor and produces a torque which can be used to rotate a load. It runs at a
constant speed (synchronous speed). However, the synchronous motor is not self-starting and hence needs
additional means for starting.
Ns =
3000
; where p = pairs of poles
p
Although the induction motor is cheaper for small power applications, the synchronous motor is preferred for
applications above 50 kW. Typical applications include Banbury mixers (used to mix raw ingredients for rubber
production), cement grinding mills, centrifugal compressors, mine ventilating fans, pumps, reciprocating
compressor drives, electric ship propulsion drives, large low head pumps, rolling mills, ball mills, pulp grinders,
etc. They are also used for power factor correction and voltage regulation.
Single-Phase Motors
Single phase motors are designed to operate from a single-phase supply and are manufactured in a large number
of types to perform a wide variety of useful services in homes, offices, factories, workshops, vehicles, air crafts,
power tools, etc.
Single-phase motors are usually classified based on their operating principle and method of starting, such as
(1) Induction motors (split-phase, capacitor, shaded-pole etc.)
(2) Repulsion motors (some times called inductive series motors)
(3) AC series motors
(4) Synchronous motors.
The single-phase induction motor is similar to a three-phase induction motor except that its stator is provided
with a single phase winding and a special mechanism employed for starting purposes (It does not develop a
rotating field but a pulsating field). It has a distributed stator winding and a squirrel cage rotor. Special
mechanisms are employed for starting and there are different motor types based on starting method such as splitphase (fans, blowers, centrifugal pumps, washing machines, small machine tools, duplicating machines,
domestic refrigerators), capacitor start (small power drives) and shaded-pole (small fans, toys, instruments, hair
dryers, ventilators, circulators, electric clocks). Repulsion type motor applications include machine tools,
commercial refrigerators, compressors, pumps, hoists, floor-polishing and grinding devices, garage air-pumps,
petrol pumps, mixing machines, lifts and hoists. The ac series motor is a modified ordinary dc series motor that
can be connected to an ac supply. A similar one is the universal motor, which is a small version of ac series
motor. This can work with both ac and dc and used in applications such as vacuum cleaners, food mixers,
portable drills and domestic sewing machines. Single-phase synchronous motors are typically used in signaling
devices, recording instruments and in many kinds of timers and house hold electric clocks.
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Network Theorems
dq
i=
dt
q = i dt
to
To move an electron in a conductor in a particular direction, or to create a current, requires some work or
energy. This work is done by the electromotive force (emf) of the source or the potential difference. This is
also known as voltage difference or voltage (with reference to a selected point such as earth).
The voltage vab between two points a and b is the energy (or work) w required to move a unit charge q from
a to b. [Unit of voltage is the volt (V)]
dw , [Note: The suffixes ab need not be written when there is no ambiguity (more than one meaning)
dq
In addition to current and voltage, we need to know the power p handled by an electric circuit. Power is the rate
of doing work or transferring energy. [Unit of power is the watt (W)]
vab =
Thus
p=
dw dw dq
=
. = v . i i.e. p = v.i
dt dq dt
w=
to
p dt = v . i dt
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Network Theorems
loop
Branch
node
v
i
non-inductive resistor
R=
l
A
where is the resistivity, l the length and A the cross section of the material
w = R . i 2 dt
conductor
Silver
Resistivity ( m) 16.410
Copper
-9
17.210
-9
semi-conductor
Gold
24.510
insulator
2810
-9
4010
-6
0.47
640
1010
Mica
0.510
Glass Teflon
12
1012
31012
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Network Theorems
v
i
L=
N 2 A
l
d
di
v=N
=L
dt
dt
for a coil; where is the permeability, N the number of turns, l the length and A cross
section of core
Energy stored in an inductor = L i2
No energy is dissipated in a pure inductor. However as practical inductors have some wire resistance there
would be some power loss. There would also be a small power loss in the magnetic core (if any).
Capacitance C [Unit: farad (F)]
v
i
C=
i=
dq
dv
=C
dt
dt
for a parallel plate capacitor; where is the permittivity, d the spacing and A the cross section
of dielectric
Energy stored in an capacitor = C v2
No energy is dissipated in a pure capacitor. However practical capacitors also have some power loss.
2.2 Fundamental Laws
The fundamental laws that govern electric circuits are Ohms law and Kirchoffs laws.
Ohms Law
Ohms law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the current i flowing through it.
v i,
v=R.i
A short circuit in a circuit element is when the resistance (and any other impedance) of the element approaches
zero. [The term impedance is similar to resistance but is used in alternating current theory for other
components]
An open circuit in a circuit element is when the resistance (and any other impedance) of the element approaches
infinity.
In addition to Ohms law we need the Kirchoffs voltage law and the Kirchoffs current law to analyse circuits.
Kirchoffs Current Law
Kirchoffs first law is based on the principle of conservation of charge, which requires that the algebraic sum of
the charges within a closed system cannot change. Since charge is the integral of current, we have Kirchoffs
Current Law that states that the algebraic sum of the currents entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero .
i=0
ia
i1
i5
id
i2
i4
i3
i1 + i2 i3 + i4 i5 = 0
ic
ib
ie
ia ib + ic id + ie = 0
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Network Theorems
v=0
v1
v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 = 0
depending on the convention, you may also write
v2
loop
v1 v2 v3 v4 = 0
Note: v1, v2 may be voltages across either
v3
v4
v2
v1
i1
i2
R1
v
i
R2
When elements are connected in series, from Kirchoffs current law, i1 = i2 = i and from Kirchoffs Voltage
Law, v1 + v2 = v. Also from Ohms Law, v1 = R1 i1 , v2 = R2 i2 , v = R i
R1 i + R2 i = R i, or R = R1 + R2
v
Also, v1 = R1 i1 = R1 i = R1 , and 1 =
v2
R2 i 2
R2 i
R2
R1
,
R1 + R2
v2
R2
..voltage division rule
=
v
R1 + R2
That is, in a series circuit, the total resistance is the sum of the individual resistances, and the voltage across the
individual elements is directly proportional to the resistance of that element.
v1
Parallel Circuits
i1
i
R1
v2
i2
R2
When elements are connected in parallel, from Kirchoffs current law, i1 + i2 = i and from Kirchoffs Voltage
Law, v1 = v2 = v. Also from Ohms Law, v1 = R1 i1 , v2 = R2 i2 , v = R i
v + v = v
R1
R2
Also, i1
i2
v1
=
v2
or
R1
R2
1
1
1
=
+
R R1 R2
or
R=
R1 R2
R1 + R2
R2
R2 v R2 , and i1 =
,
=
i R2 + R1
R1 v R1
i2
R1
..current division rule
=
i
R2 + R1
That is, in a series circuit, the total resistance is the sum of the individual resistances, and the voltage across the
individual elements is directly proportional to the resistance of that element.
Example
I1 1
I2
12 V
2
10 V
Solving gives
I B
I = I1 + I2 ,
17
1210 = 1 I1 2 I2,
10 = 2 I2 + 5 I + 17 I
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Network Theorems
y2
y1
Linear
Passive
Bilateral
Network
Es1
I1 1
I2
12 V
Is1
17
Is2 =
A 5 Ir1
1 A 5 Ir2
Vr1
17
Is2
2
Vr2
B
17
10 V
E
I s1 =
similarly,
1
2
12 V
10 V
E
From sub-circuit 1,
Is2
I B
V
Es1
Ir2
Linear
Passive
Bilateral
Network
Ir = Ir1 + Ir2
Is2
Example
Ir1
Linear
Passive
Bilateral
Network
12
2
= 4.23529 A, I r1 =
4.23529 = 0.35294 A
1 + 2 // ( 5 + 17)
2 + ( 5 + 17)
10
1
= 3.38235 A, I r 2 =
3.38235 = 0.14706 A
2 + 1 // ( 5 + 17)
1 + ( 5 + 17)
from superposition theorem, I = Ir1 + Ir2 = 0.35294 + 0.14706 = 0.50000 = 0.5 A (same result as before)
2.3.2 Thevenins Theorem
Any linear active bilateral single-port (a component may be connected across the 2 terminals of a port) network
can be replaced by an equivalent circuit comprising of a single voltage source Ethevenin and a series resistance
Rthevenin (or impedance Zthevenin in general) .
Rthevenin
Linear
Active
Bilateral
Network
Port
Ethevenin
If the port is kept on open circuit (current zero), then the open circuit voltage of the network must be equal to
the Thevenins equivalent voltage source. If all the sources within the network are replaced by their internal
resistances (or impedances), then the impedance seen into the port from outside will be equal to the Thevenins
resistance (or impedance).
5
I1-oc 1
5
0 B
I1 1
A
I B
A
I2
12 V
I2-oc
17
12 V
Voc
17
10 V
10 V
E - JRL/Oct2001
University of Moratuwa
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Network Theorems
If we are interested in determining V and/or I, open circuit the port BE as shown (temporarily disconnect 17
resistor).
Then, I1-oc = I2-oc = (12 10)/(1 + 2) = 0.66667 A , and VAE-oc = 12 - 1 0.66667= 11.33333 V
1
5
A
V
V = 11.33333 - 5 0 = 11.33333 V
thevenin =
oc
Zin
E
5.66667 I
11.33333 V
B
17
Bilateral
Network
If the port is kept on short circuit (voltage zero), then the short circuit current of the network must be equal to
the Nortons equivalent current source. If all the sources within the network are replaced by their internal
conductances (or admittances), then the admittance seen into the port from outside will be equal to the Nortons
conductance (or admittance).
Example
I 1
I2
12 V
I1-sc 1
I B
17
A Isc 5
I2-sc
2
12 V
10 V
17
10 V
E
E
Consider obtaining the equivalent circuit across the points AE. Short circuit AE as shown.
Then Isc = I1-sc + I2-sc and I1-sc = 12/1 = 12 A, I2-sc = 10/2 = 5 A, so that Isc = 12 + 5 = 17 A
i.e. Inorton = 17 A.
Total conductance of a parallel circuit is the addition of the individual conductances.
Nortons equivalent circuit is
The current I is given by 17
(same result as before)
17 A
1.5 S or
0.6667
B
17
E
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Example
I 1
2001/02
I2
2
12 V
I B
V
17
R = +1 ,
10 V
- I R = 0.5 1 = 0.5 V
I1 1
Network Theorems
I2
I B
I =
18
0.5 V
E
2.3.5 Millmanns Theorem
S
Y1
Yn
n
Y2
Y3
1
2
3
0.5
0.5
=
= 0.02113
18 + 5 + 2 // 1 23.6667
Yq
VSN =
Yp
N
reference
Y p V pN
p =1
Y p
p =1
p
n
I p = 0 , and I p = Y p (V pN
p =1
VnN
Example
Four resistances, 2 , 1 , 4 , and 2.5 are connected in star at a common point S across AS, BS, CS and
DS. If the potentials of the other ends of the respective resistances with respect to earth E are VAE = 100 V, VBE
= 80 V, VCE = 60 V and VDE =120 V, find the potential of the star point with respect to earth VSE.
Using Millmanns theorem,
1 100 + 1 80 + 1 60 + 1 120
50 + 80 + 15 + 48
193
1
4
2.5
V SE = 2
=
=
= 89.77 V
1 +1 +1 +1
0.5 + 1 + 0.25 + 0.4 2.15
2
1
4
2.5
Note: Millmanns theorem can also be applied when a number of practical generators are connected in parallel
to find the equivalent source. Thus theorem is also sometimes referred to as the Parallel Generator theorem.
2.3.6 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
The maximum power transfer theorem states that the maximum power that can be supplied from a given source
with internal resistance rs to a purely resistive load R occurs when R = rs . [A slightly different result occurs in
the case of complex loads, but where the Load impedance becomes equal to the conjugate of the source
impedance, but this is outside the scope of this course]
A
E
I Proof: Power delivered to load = P = V. I, where I =
, V = R. I
rs
rs + R
P = R. I 2 =
B
E2
( R + rs )
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Network Theorems
dP
E2
2
R
r
=0=
.
+
.1 R.2( R + rs )
(
)
s
4
dR
R
r
+
( s)
, or R + rs - 2 R = 0, i.e. R = rs
Example
A certain car battery has an open circuit voltage of 13.5 V and an internal resistance of 0.015 . Determine the
maximum power that the battery can supply to a load. Determine the voltage of the load under these conditions
and the value of the resistance of the load.
Solution
From maximum power transfer theorem, the load resistance must equal the source resistance.
YAS
YCS
C
YCA
YAB
YBS
B
YBC
A star connected network of three admittances (or conductances) YAS, YBS, and YCS connected together at a
common node S can be transformed into a delta connected network of three admittances YAB, YBC, and YCA
using the following transformations.
Y AB =
Y AS .YBS
YBS .YCS
YCS .Y AS
, YBC =
, YCA =
Y AS + YBS + YCS
Y AS + YBS + YCS
Y AS + YBS + YCS
Note: You can observe that in each of the above expressions if we need to find a particular delta admittance
element value, we have to multiply the two values of admittance at the nodes on either side in the original starnetwork and divide by the sum of the three admittances.
Y pq =
Y pS . YqS
n
Y
r =1
rS
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Network Theorems
When n=3, m = n(n-1)=3 but when n=5, m=10. It will be easily seen that the star and mesh networks will
have the same number of elements only when n=3; otherwise m>n always. Thus the reverse process of
transformation will only be possible when n=3. For this case only the Delta-Star transformation is also defined.
Delta-Star Transformation
ZCA
C
ZAS
ZAB
ZCS
ZBC
ZBS
B
A delta connected network of three impedances (or resistances) ZAB, ZBC, and ZCA can be transformed into a
star connected network of three impedances ZAS, ZBS, and ZCS connected together at a common node S using the
following transformations. [You will notice that I have used impedance here rather than admittance because
then the form of the solution remains similar and easy to remember.]
Z AS =
Z AB .Z CA
Z AB .Z BC
Z CA .Z BC
, Z BS =
, Z CS =
Z AB + Z BC + Z CA
Z AB + Z BC + Z CA
Z AB + Z BC + Z CA
Note: You can observe that in each of the above expressions if we need to find a particular delta element value,
we have to multiply the two impedance values on either side of node in the original star-network and divide by
the sum of the three impedances.
I2
The usual practice for a network such as this is to mark only two
independent currents I1 and I2 and the other current I would become
a dependent variable (based on Kirchoffs current law). Then we
17 write down the Kirchoffs voltage law equation for the two
identified loops. [This is how we solved it in the first place]. Mesh
analysis makes use of this, but marks currents in a different manner.
12 V
I B
10 V
E
I1 1
I2
12 V
im1
im2
10 V
I B
17
I2
12 V
17
10 V
E
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Network Theorems
10
A
2
12
A
1
Let VAE and VBE be the potentials (or voltages) of A and B with respect to the reference E. From these
voltages and using Ohms law the currents in the individual resistors (1 , 2 , 5 and 17 ) can be written as
VAE/1 , VAE/2, (VAE VBE)/5 and VBE/17.
Applying Kirchoffs current law to node A and to node B, we have
12/1 VAE/1+10/2 VAE/2 (VAE VBE)/5 = 0,
i.e. 17 VAE VAE/2 VAE/5 + VBE/5 = 0,
These equations may be solved to give the node voltages at A and B. The branch currents can then be obtained.
In fact we need not even take node B, but take the branch (5+17) as connected to A.
12/1 VAE/1+10/2 VAE/2 VAE /22 = 0, or 17 - VAE (1 + 0.5 + 0.04545) = 0, i.e. VAE = 11.0000 V
This is the same result we had in the first example with Ohms law and Kirchoffs laws and you can see that
only one equation was required to obtain the answer.
Both the Mesh Analysis and Nodal Analysis theory is usually built up using matrices so that they may be used
for analysis on the computer. However this section is considered to be beyond the scope of this course.
v
t
t
v
t
a
b
c
d
e
f
You will notice that waveforms a, b and c are unidirectional, where as d, e and f have positive and negative
values. You will also notice that d, e and f are repetitive waveforms (periodic). Also d and e have mean
values which are zero, where as f has a positive mean value. Repetitive waveforms can always be represented
by a combination of waveforms with mean value zero (alternating component) and with a positive or negative
mean value (direct component).
The peak value of a waveform is not indicative of its useful value. On the other hand a non-zero waveform can
have a zero mean value.
1 T
i (t ).dt
T 0
1
1
=
i (t ).dt
T positive
T
I mean =
and
I average
negative
i (t ).dt
Thus the mean value alone is not useful. One method commonly used is to invert any negative part of the
waveform and obtain the average value of the rectified waveform. This too is not fully indicative of the useful
value. The useful value or effective value of a alternating waveform is the value with which the correct value
of power can be obtained.
T
or
I eff =
1 T 2
i (t ).dt
T 0
We can see that the effective value is obtained by taking the square root of the mean of the squared waveform.
Because of the method of obtaining this value, it is usually called the root-mean-square value or rms value.
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To +T
v( t ) dt
To
The mean value of the sinusoidal a.c. waveform is 0 since positive and negative areas cancel. (It can also be
shown by integration). If To = /
vrect (t)
To +T
1
T
average value =
v rect ( t ) dt
To
1
T
rms value =
To +T
( t ) dt
T
v2(t)
To
T =
To +T
To
v2 (t)
1
2
dt , or V effective
=
R
T
To +T
( t ) dt
To
The effective value or rms value of the waveform is thus the square root of the mean of the squared waveform
for the sinusoidal a.c. waveform.
and can be shown to be equal to 1
2
Vm
Unless otherwise specified, the rms value is the value that is always specified for ac waveforms, whether it be a
voltage or a current. For example, 230 V in the mains supply is an rms value of the voltage. Similarly when we
talk about a 5 A, 13 A or 15A socket outlet (plug point), we are again talking about the rms value of the rated
current of the socket outlet.
For a given waveform, such as the sinusoid, the peak value, average value and the rms value are dependant on
each other. The peak factor and the form factor are the two factors that are most commonly defined.
Form Factor =
rms value
average value
Vm
2
2Vm
2 2
= 1.1107 1.111
The form factor is useful such as when the average value has been measured using a rectifier type moving coil
meter and the rms value is required to be found. [Note: You will be studying about these meters later]
Vm
2
= 2 = 1.4142
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v( t ) = L.
di
d
= L . ( I m sin ( t + )) = L . . I m cos ( t + ) = L . . I m sin ( t + + / 2)
dt
dt
v( t ) =
1
1
1
1
. i dt = I m sin ( t + ) dt =
. I m cos ( t + ) =
. I m sin ( t + / 2)
C
C
C
C
c. Sinusoidal waveforms have the property of remaining unaltered in shape when other sinusoids having the
same frequency but different in magnitude and phase are added to them.
A sin (t+) + B sin (t+)
= A sin t. cos + cos t. sin + B sin t. cos + B cos t. sin
= (A. cos + B. cos ) sin t + (A. sin + B. sin ) cos t
= C sin (t + ), where C and are constants obtained from trigonometry.
d. Periodic, but non-sinusoidal waveforms can be broken up to its fundamental and harmonics.
e. Sinusoidal waveforms can be represented by the projections of a rotating phasor.
a(t)
Amsin t
or e j t = cos t + j sin t
Amsin ( t+)
R
t
P
R
T
Rotating Phasor diagram
If we consider more than one phasor, and each phasor rotates at the same angular frequency, then there is no
relative motion between the phasors. Thus if we fix the reference phasor OR in a particular reference direction
(without showing its rotation), then all others phasors moving at the same angular frequency would also be
fixed at a relative position. Usually this reference direction is chosen as horizontal on the diagram for
convenience.
Am
A=
Ax
Am
2
Ay
reference direction
Phasor diagram
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ac theory
It is also usual to draw the Phasor diagram using the rms value A of the sinusoidal waveform, rather than with
the peak value Am. This is shown on an enlarged diagram. Thus unless otherwise specified it is the rms value
that is drawn on a phasor diagram.
It should be noted that the values on the phasor diagram are no longer time variables. The phasor A is
characterised by its magnitude A and its phase angle . These are also the polar co-ordinates of the phasor
and is commonly written as A . The phasor A can also be characterised by its cartesian co-ordinates Ax
and Ay and usually written using complex numbers as A = Ax + j Ay.
Note: In electrical engineering, the letter j is always used for the complex operator
is regularly used for electric current.
It is worth noting that
A=
Also, Ax = A cos ,
Ax
Note: If the period of a sinusoidal waveform is T, then the corresponding angle would be T. Also, the period
of a waveform corresponds to 1 complete cycle or 2 radians or 3600. T = 2
3.2 Phase difference
Consider the two waveforms Amsin ( t+1) and Bmsin ( t+2) as shown in the figure. It can be seen that they
have different amplitudes and different phase angles with respect to a common reference.
2 1
y(t)
Bmsin ( t+2)
Amsin ( t+1)
1 O
2 1
B=
Bm
2
T
j(t+ )
A
1
These two waveforms can also be represented by either rotating phasors Am e
A= m
j (t+ )
2 with peak amplitudes Am and Bm, or by a normal phasor diagram
and Bm e
2
2-1
with complex values A and B with polar co-ordinates A 1 and B 2 as
1
0
shown .
Any particular value (such as positive peak, or zero) of a(t) is seen to occur at a time T after the corresponding
value of b(t). i.e. the positive peak Am occurs after an angle (2 1) after the positive peak Bm. Similarly the
zero of a(t) occurs after an angle (2 1) after the corresponding zero of b(t). In such a case we say that the
waveform b(t) leads the waveform a(t) by a phase angle of (2 1). Similarly we could say that the waveform
a(t) lags the waveform b(t) by a phase angle of (2 1). [Note: Only the angle less than 180o is used to specify
whether a waveform leads or lags another waveform].
We could also define, lead and lag by simply referring to the phasor diagram. Since angles are always
measured anticlockwise (convention), we can see from the phasor diagram, that B leads A by an angle of
(2 1) anticlockwise or that A lags B by an angle (2 1).
Addition and subtraction of phasors can be done using the
C
same parallelogram and triangle laws as for vectors, generally
B
using complex numbers. Thus the addition of phasor A and
phasor B would be
A + B = (A cos 1 + j A sin 1) + (B cos 2 + j B sin 2)
= (A cos 1 + B cos 2) + j (A sin 1 + B sin 2)
= Cx + jCy = C c = C
2
0
C y
1 ( A sin 1 + B sin 2 )
= tan
C
(
A
cos
B
cos
)
+
x
1
2
c = tan 1
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ac theory
Example
Find the addition and the subtraction of the two complex numbers given by 10 30o and 25 48o.
Addition = 10 30o + 25 48o = 10(0.8660 + j 0.5000) + 25(0.6691 + j 0.7431)
= (8.660 + 16.728) + j (5.000 + 18.577) = 25.388 + j 23.577 = 34.647 42.9o
Subtraction = 10 30o 25 48o = (8.660 16.728) + j (5.000 18.577) = 8.068 j 13.577 = 15.793 239.3o
Multiplication and division of phasors is most easily done using the polar form of complex numbers.
Thus the multiplication of phasor A and phasor B would be
A * B = A 1 * B 2 = A e
B e
= A*B e
j( + )
1
= A*B 1+ 2 =C c
C = A/B and c = 1 2
Thus, whenever we need to do addition and subtraction, we use the cartesian form of complex numbers, whereas
for multiplication or division we use the polar form.
Example
Find the multiplication and the division of the two complex numbers given by 10 30o and 25 48o.
Multiplication = 10 30o * 25 48o = 250 78o
Division = 10 30o 25 48o = 0.4 18o
3.3 Currents and voltages in simple circuit elements
3.3.1 Resistor
i (t)
R
v (t)
v(t) = R.i(t)
R
Imcos t
Vmcos t
i.e. V = R . I
i (t)
v (t)
d i( t )
v( t ) = L
dt
j L
V
It can be seen that the rms magnitude of voltage is related to the rms
magnitude of current by the multiplying factor L. It also seen that the
voltage waveform leads the current waveform by 90o or /2 radians or that
the current waveform lags the voltage waveform by 90o for an inductor .
T
O
Phasor diagram
The impedance Z of the inductance may thus be defined as j L , and V = Z . I corresponds
to the generalised
form of Ohms Law.
Remember also that the power dissipation in a pure inductor is zero, as energy is only stored and as there is no
resistive part in it, but that the product V . I is not zero.
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3.3.3
ac theory
Capacitor
for a sinusoid, consider i(t) =Real part of [ Im ej(t+) ] or Im cos (t+)
i (t)
v(t) = Real [ 1 I e j ( t + ) . dt ] = Real [ 1 . Im e(jt+) ] = Real [ 1 Vm e(jt+) ]
m
C
j
C. j
v (t)
or v(t) = 1 I cos( t + ). dt = 1 .Im sin (t+) = 1 .Im cos (t+/2)
m
C
C
C
1
v ( t ) = i ( t ). dt
cos
(t+/2)
=V
m
Imcos t
C
1
Vm = 1 .Im and Vm/2 = 1 .Im/2
Vmsin t
I
j C
C
C
/2
O
t
C
V
It can be seen that the rms magnitude of voltage is related to the rms
magnitude of current by the multiplying factor 1 .
C
It also seen that the voltage waveform lags the current waveform by 90o
or /2 radians or that the current waveform leads the voltage waveform by
90o for a capacitor.
T
I
V
Phasor diagram
Thus it is usual to write the relationship as V = 1 .I or V = 1 .I 90
j C
C
The impedance Z of the inductance may thus be defined as 1 , and V = Z . I corresponds to the generalised
j C
form of Ohms Law.
Remember also that the power dissipation in a pure capacitor is zero, as energy is only stored and as there is no
resistive part in it, but that the product V . I is not zero.
3.4 Impedance and Admittance in an a.c. circuit
The impedance Z of an a.c. circuit is a complex quantity. It defines the relation between the complex rms
voltage and the complex rms current. Admittance Y is the inverse of the impedance Z.
V = Z . I,
I = Y.V
where
Z = R + j X,
and
Y=G+jB
jL
VL
V = (R + jL).I
so that
VL
VL
VR
I
Phasor diagram
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The above phasor diagram has been drawn with I as reference. [i.e. I is drawn along the x-axis direction]. The
current was selected as reference in this example, because it is common to both the resistance and the inductance
and makes the drawing of the circuit diagram easier. In this diagram, the voltage across the resistor VR is in
phase with the current, where as the voltage across the inductor VL is 90o leading the current. The total voltage
V
V is then obtained by the phasor addition (similar to vector addition) of VR and VL.
If the total voltage was taken as the reference, the diagram would just rotate as
VL
I
shown. In this diagram, the current is seen to be lagging the voltage by the
VR
same angle that in the earlier diagram the voltage was seen to be leading the
current. VL has been drawn from the end of VR rather than from the origin for
Phasor diagram
ease of obtaining the resultant V from the triangular law.
In an R-L circuit, the current lags the voltage by an angle less than 90o and the circuit is said to be inductive.
Note that the power dissipation can only occur in the resistance in the circuit and is equal to R . I 2 and that this
is not equal to product V . I for the circuit.
3.5.2 R-C series circuit
VR = R.I, VC =
j C
.I=j 1 .
j C
C
1
VC
and V = VR + VC
VR
V = (R + 1 ).I
j C
VR
VC
so that the total series impedance is Z = R +
Phasor diagram
VR
j C
VL
The phasor diagrams has been drawn first with current I as reference and then
with voltage V as reference.
In an R-C circuit, the current leads the voltage by an angle less than 90 and the circuit is said to be capacitive.
Note that the power dissipation can only occur in the resistance in the circuit and is equal to R . I 2 and that this
is not equal to product V . I for the circuit.
3.5.3 L-C series circuit
V
1
j C
jL
VL
VC
.I = j 1
j C
C
1
VL = jL.I, VC =
VC
or V
I
VC
and V = VL + VC
V = (jL + 1 ).I
VL
VL
Phasor
= jL j 1
j C
j C
C
It is seen that the total impedance is purely reactive, and that all the voltages in the circuit are inphase but
perpendicular to the current. The resultant voltage corresponds to the algebraic difference of the two voltages
VL and VC and the direction could be either up or down depending on which voltage is more.
so that the total series impedance is Z = jL +
When L = 1 the total impedance of the circuit becomes zero, so that the circuit current for a given supply
C
voltage would become very large (only limited by the internal impedance of the source). This condition is
known as series resonance. In an L-C circuit, the current either lags or leads the voltage by an angle equal to 90o
and the resultant circuit is either purely inductive or capacitive.
Note that no power dissipation can occur in the circuit and but that the product V . I for the circuit is non zero.
3.5.4 R-L-C series circuit
R
V
jL
j C
VL
VR
V = (R + jL + 1 ).I
j C
VC
VR = R.I, VL = jL.I, VC =
.I=j 1 .
j C
C
1
and V = VR +VL + VC
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1
Z = R + L
ac theory
In an R-L-C circuit, the current can either lag or lead the voltage, and the phase angle difference between the
current and the voltage can vary between 90o and 90o and the resultant circuit is either inductive or capacitive.
Note that the power dissipation can only occur in the resistance in the circuit and is equal to R . I 2 and that this
is not equal to product V . I for the circuit.
3.6 Simple Parallel Circuits
3.6.1 R-L parallel Circuit
IR
I
IL
considering V as reference
jL
IR
IL
I =V + V
Phasor diagram
j L
IL
j L
IC
j C
IL
I = V + V . j C
IR
IL
considering V as reference
Phasor diagram
jL
IL
and I = IR + IL + IC
1
IC
IC
considering V as reference
j L
IR
Phasor diagram
IL+IC
I = V + V + V . j C
j C
j L
As in the case of the series circuit, shunt resonance will occur when
shunt admittance.
Note that even in the case of a parallel circuit, power loss can only occur in the resistive elements and that the
product V. I is not usually equal to the power loss.
3.7 Power and Power Factor
It was noted that in an a.c. circuit, power loss occurs only in resistive parts of the circuit and in general the
power loss is not equal to the product V . I and that purely inductive parts and purely capacitive parts of a
circuit did not have any power loss. To account for this apparent discrepancy, we define the product V . I as the
apparent power S of the circuit. Apparent power has the unit volt-ampere (VA) and not the watt (W), and watt
(W) is used only for the active power P of the circuit (which we earlier called the power)
apparent power S = V . I
Since a difference exists between the apparent power and the active power we define a new term called the
reactive power Q for the reactance X.
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The instantaneous value of power p(t) is the product of the instantaneous value of voltage v(t) and the
instantaneous value of current i(t).
i.e.
p(t)
v(t)
p(t)
Vm Im cos
T
t
i(t)
inphase
quadrature
It can be seen that the waveform of power p(t) has a sinusoidally varying component and a constant component.
Thus the average value of power (active power) P would be given by the constant value Vm Im cos .
active power P = Vm Im cos = Vm . I m .cos = V . I cos
2 2
The term cos is defined as the power factor, and is the ratio of the active power to the apparent power.
Note that for a resistor, = 0o so that P = V . I
and that for an inductor, = 90o lagging (i.e. current is lagging the voltage by 90o) so that P = 0
and that for an capacitor, = 90o leading (i.e. current is leading the voltage by 90o) so that P = 0
For combinations of resistor, inductor and capacitor, P lies between V. I and 0
For an inductor or capacitor, V. I exists although P = 0. For these elements the product V. I is defined as the
reactive power Q. This occurs when the voltage and the current are quadrature (90o out of phase). Thus
reactive power is defined as the product of voltage and current components which are quadrature. This gives
reactive power Q = V. I sin
Unlike in the case of inphase, where the same direction means positive, when quantities are in quadrature there
is no natural positive direction. It is usual to define inductive reactive power when the current is lagging the
voltage and capacitive reactive power when the current is leading the voltage. It is worth noting that inductive
reactive power and capacitive reactive power have opposite signs.
Although reactive power does not consume any energy, it reduces the power factor below unity. When the
power factor is below unity, for the same power transfer P the current required becomes larger and the power
losses in the circuit becomes still larger (power loss I2). This is why supply authorities encourage the
industries to improve their power factors to be close to unity.
3.8 Three Phase Power
As you already know, to transmit power using single phase ac, we need two wires. Of course you may have an
earth wire for protection, but this wire does not usually carry any current. You may also have seen that
distribution lines usually have 4 wires. What are these 4 wires ? It is the three phase wires and the neutral wire.
3.8.1 Balanced Three Phase
Now why do you need three phase wires ? This is in order to make our transmission efficient. You are already
aware that if we have three equal forces at angles of 120o to each other, if we use the triangular law we get an
equilateral triangle in which the resultant force is zero. A similar thing happens in three phase except that we
have phasors instead of vectors. That is, we have 3 voltages (or currents) which are equal in magnitude but
differing in phase angle by 120o from each other.
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ac theory
R phase
current
Y phase
B phase
100
50
angle (rad)
/ 2
0
-50
3/ 2
-100
Three phase waveforms
120o
B
120o
120o
If the R phase is taken as reference and drawn vertical (reference need not always be
drawn horizontally), then the three phases would have the phasor diagram shown.
If vR(t) = Vm cos t, then vY(t) = Vm cos ( t 2/3) and vB(t) = Vm cos ( t +2/3)
It can easily be seen that the addition of these three waveforms at any instant is zero.
This is not only true for balanced three phase voltages, but for balanced three phase
currents. Thus if we have a balanced three phase system of currents, then their addition
would become zero, and no neutral wire would be required. However in practice, three
phase currents are never perfectly balanced and the neutral wire would carry the
unbalance.
If VR, VY, and VB are the r.m.s.voltages of the three phases with respect to the
neutral, then they are normally called the phase voltages. The voltage between
any two phase wires (or lines) is called the line voltage.
As can be seen from the diagram, the magnitude of the line voltage is 3 times
the phase voltage for a balanced system. In a three phase system, it is always
the r.m.s. line voltage that is specified, unless otherwise specified. For example
in the domestic supply, in single phase we say that the voltage is 230 V and in
three phase we say that the voltage is 400 V (~ 230 3).
ZD
ZS
ZS
ZD
ZS
ZD
ZD = 3 ZS
It can also be shown that the total three phase power in a star connected load, or delta connected load can be
expressed in terms of the line quantities as
P = 3 VL IL cos
where cos is the power factor of the load, VL is the line voltage and IL is the line current.
The reactive power in a three phase circuit may be similarly defined as
Q = 3 VL IL sin
and
tan = Q/P
Since the magnitudes of the three phases are equal (for both voltage and current) in a balanced three phase
system, it is sufficient to calculate the quantities for one of the phases and obtain the others by symmetry.
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Example
A 3 phase, 12 kW balanced load at a lagging power factor of 0.8 is supplied from a 3 phase, 400V, 50 Hz
supply. Determine the line current in magnitude and phase relative to the supply voltage, the apparent power
and the reactive power drawn.
P = 12 kW, VL = 400V, cos = 0.8 lag, P = 3 VL IL cos , i.e. 12000 = 3 400 IL 0.8
The active power of the load is unchanged by the capacitor bank, P = 12000 W
new reactive power = P tan = 12000 tan (18.19o) = 3944 = 3.944 k var
reactive power supplied from capacitor bank = 9000 - 3944 = 5056 = 5.056 k var.
Each of the 3 capacitors in the delta connected bank must supply = 5.056/3 = 1.685 k var.
Since they are connected in delta, each would get a voltage of 400 V.
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= q
[The Unit of both electric flux and charge q is the coulomb (C)]
electric flux
electric charges
q1
q4
q2
q3
Electric flux density D is the amount of electric flux coming out per unit area
normal to the direction of the flux. [Unit: coulomb per meter2 or C/m2]
D = /A
Consider an imaginary sphere of radius r surrounding a point charge q as shown.
2
Electric flux = q will go out equally in all directions through a surface area of 4 r ,
normal to this surface.
is
Dr =
q
4 r 2
q2
q1 . q 2
q .q
= k. 1 2 2
2
d
d
The Inverse square law of electrostatics states that the force exerted by two
point charges, on each other, is proportional to the product of their charges
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
The Electric field at a point is defined as the force exerted on a unit
positive charge placed at that point.
If the field is produced by a charge q1, then the force acting on a charge q2 = +1 will be r
= k.
q1 1
r2
at a
It can be seen that the electric flux density Dr and the electric field r are both proportional to q and inversely
proportional to r2 and are thus proportional to each other.
The permittivity of the medium is thus defined as their ratio. i.e. D = .
[Unit of permittivity is farad per meter or F/m]
Thus the constant k in the inverse square law equation becomes 1/k = 4 and the inverse square law can be
stated as
F=
q1 . q 2
4 d 2
. dx
= - dV
or
dV
dx
4.1.3 Capacitance of a dielectric (or insulating material) is the ability to store charge when placed between two
electrodes across which a potential difference has been applied. Thus capacitance is defined as the ratio of the
amount of charge transferred to the applied potential difference.
i.e. C = q/V
or
q = C.V
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D = / = q/A, also D = = q
and for a uniform field, = dV/dx = V/d
D=V = q , C = q = A
Cylindrical capacitor
A common form of capacitance obtained, especially with co-axial cables, is the case where both electrodes are
cylindrical and have the same axis .
From Gausss theorem, = q
r1
Dr = / = q/2 r l,
also D = = q/A and = dV/dr
dV = q
dr 2 rl
r2
V2
Integration gives
r2
dr
r1 2 l r
dV =
V1
C=
V1 + V2 =
r
ln 2
2 l r1
q
2 l
ln[ r2 / r1 ]
v i dt = v dq = v C dv = 12 Cv
v dq
v dq
volume = d . A = d D =
1
2
D2
= 12 D
d D
J/m3
Consider moving the electrodes of a parallel plate capacitor so that the spacing changes by dx
change in energy stored = D. (change in volume) = D. A. dx
Also, change in energy stored = work done = F . dx
F . dx = D. . A. dx
or
F = D. . A
/m2
l =
l
A
J A
A
This gives Ohms law for an electric field as = . J or more commonly written as J = .
where conductivity = 1/
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magnetic field
current
H d l = I
current
Flux path
or
Hr =
I
2 r
I
N turns
toroid
NI inside the toroid. [variation of the magnetic field inside the cross section of the
magnetic field H =
2 a
toroid is usually not necessary to be considered and is assumed uniform].
4.2.5 Magnetic flux density
The magnetic field H gives rise to a magnetic flux , which has a magnetic flux density B for a given area A.
The relationship between B and H is given by the permeability of the medium ..
o = 4 10-7 H/m [permeability of air is generally taken to be equal to that of free space in practice]
[Unit of permeability is henry per meter (H/m)]. [Unit of magnetic flux density is the tesla (T) ]
= B.A
[Unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb)]
4.2.6 Reluctance of a magnetic path
A magnetic material presents a Reluctance S to the flow of magnetic flux when an mmf is applied to the
magnetic circuit. [This is similar to the resistance shown by an electric circuit when an emf is applied]
Thus
or
= S.
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and
= B. A = H. A
1 A
=
S
l
e=N
Induced emf
d
di
=L ,
dt
dt
N = L i,
N
i
L=
The self inductance L of a winding is the flux linkage produced in the same winding due to unit current flowing
through it.
For a coil of N turns, if the flux in the magnetic circuit is , the flux linkage with the coil would be N. .
also since N I = S ,
L=
N 2 N 2 A
=
S
l
Thus the inductance of a coil of N turns can be determined from the dimensions of the magnetic circuit.
4.2.8 Mutual Inductance
When two coils are present in the vicinity of each others magnetic circuit, mutual coupling can take place. One
coil produces a flux which links with the second coil, and when a current in the first coil varies, an induced emf
occurs in the second coil.
Induced emf in coil 2 due to current in coil 1:
M 12 =
N 2
i1
e2 = N 2
d 12
di
= M 12 1 ,
dt
dt
N2 12 = M12 i1,
12
The Mutual inductance M12, of coil 2 due to a current in coil 1, is the flux linkage in the coil 2 due to unit
current flowing in coil 1.
also since N1 I1 = S 1 , and a fraction k12 of the primary flux would link with the secondary, 12 = k12 . 1
M 12 =
k 12 N 1 N 2 k 12 N 1 N 2 A
, k12 is known as the coefficient of coupling between the coils.
=
S
l
k12 = k21 so that M12 = M21. For good coupling, k12 is very nearly equal to unity.
4.2.9 Energy stored in a magnetic field
Energy stored in an inductor =
di
v i dt = L dt i dt = L i di = 12 Li
=
4.2.10 Force exerted in an magnetic field
d
i dt
N i d
N i
dt
=
=
d = H dB
A
volume
l
A. l
dB =
1
2
B2
= 12 B H
J/m3
F = B. . A
/m2
or
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R1
R3
The detector (or galvanometer) is made more and more sensitive near
the balance point, where the detector current becomes zero and the
potential difference across the detector also becomes zero. Under this
condition, using potential divider action, it can be easily shown that
D
R2
R4
R1 R3
=
R2 R4
It must be noted that the balance condition of the bridge does not depend on the source voltage E, nor on the
detector impedance. At balance, if three of the resistances are accurately known, the remaining resistance will
also be calculated to the same accuracy. For good sensitivity, all 4 arms should have similar values of
resistance.
The principle of the Wheatstone Bridge can also be extended to a.c. bridges having inductances and
capacitances in addition to resistances. In this case the balance condition is a complex equation and the source
would be an a.c. source.
Z1 Z 3
=
Z2 Z4
Bridges are mostly used when accurate measurements are required such as in calibrating an indicating
instrument.
Indicating Instruments
Unlike null deflection techniques, which require a number of steps in the balance process, indicating instruments
give the reading directly.50They may be either analogue or digital. Analogue instruments give a continuous
range of values, where as in a digital instrument only an exact number appears.
100
0
0 2Digital1.Meter3 5
Analogue Meter
Analogue meters may be direct deflecting (such as an ammeter or voltmeter), integrating (such as an energy
meter) or recording (such as a graph plotter).
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Electrical Measurements
300
Pointer
fixed coil
moving coil
fixed coil
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Electrical Measurements
In this case, the deflection would be proportional to the product of the two magnetic fields, and hence to the
product of the currents in the fixed coils and the moving coil. Thus, if used as an ammeter will measure the
mean square value, or usually calibrated to read the r.m.s. value.
(d) Electrostatic meters
Electrostatic meters basically work on the principle that the force (or torque) of attraction is proportional to the
product of the charges. Since a single voltage produces the charges, the force is proportional to the square of the
voltage. Thus this meter too reads the mean square value and hence is calibrated to read the root mean square
value. The electrostatic meter is thus basically a spindle
voltmeter as its operation is based fundamentally on a voltage,
disc
where as the moving coil meter and the moving iron meter are basically
ammeters as their performance is based
on current.
Coil A
Coil B
(e) Induction type meters
The induction meter depends on the torque produced by the reaction between a flux (whose value depends on
the value of the current in coil A) and the eddy currents which are induced in a non-magnetic disc (usually
aluminium) by another flux (produced by current in coil B). Since the action depends on induction, they can be
used to measure alternating quantities only. The meter would have a deflection proportional to the product of
the two currents. A damping magnet ensures that the speed of rotation is constant for a given set of currents and
the meter is not normally used as an ammeter or voltmeter, but as an integrating meter, where the number of
revolutions would be proportional to the integral of the product of the two currents.
5.4 Voltmeters and Ammeters
Voltmeters for the measurement of voltage, and ammeters for the measurement of current are generally based on
the same principle. However, there is one basic difference in their use. While voltmeters are connected in
parallel to measure the voltage, ammeters are connected in series to measure the current.
A good meter should not interfere with the quantity that is being measured. That is, the introduction of the
meter should not change the quantity that is being measured. Therefore a voltmeter should rideally
have an
m
infinite resistance, and an ammeter should ideally have a zero resistance. Obviously thisAcannot happen in
I a practical V
practice,
voltmeter should
Im the resistance of
VAthe
r so that
r haveIVa very high
Vmresistance (much rhigher than
device across which the voltage is being measured) and a practical
ammeter should have a very low resistance
(much
current
R resistance of theEdevice throughRwhich the V
Rm is being measured).
R
E lower than the
E
,
R+r
R
V = E.
R+r
IV =
I=
E
E
=
,
R
.
R
R // Rm + r
m
+r
R + Rm
Vm = IV .
R . Rm
E . R . Rm
=
R + Rm R . Rm + r . ( R + Rm )
Im =
E
,
R + r + rm
VA = E .
R
R + r + rm
Example
A source with an emf of 12 V and internal resistance of 20 , supplies a load of resistance 1000 . Find the
current supplied to the load and the voltage across it. The voltage is measured using a voltmeter with an
effective resistance of 5 k. Find the voltmeter reading. The current is then measured using a milliammeter
with an effective resistance of 120. Find the reading of the ammeter.
Solution
Load current = 12/(20+1000) = 0.011764 = 11.77 mA, Load voltage = 0.011771000 = 11.77 V
When voltmeter is connected, reading Vm = 1210005000/(10005000+20(1000+5000)) = 11.72 V
When ammeter is connected, reading Im = 12/(1000+20+120) = 0.01053 = 10.5 mA
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It can be seen that the meters do not read the exact value, but as can be seen the error is quite small. Voltmeter
usually have a much higher resistance (order of 100 k) and ammeters a much lower resistance (order of 10
m) so that the errors would generally be even smaller.
current
ic coil rc
ic
i
ip
Supply
vp
potential
coil
Rp
ip
v
potential
coil
vp
Rp
Supply
i
R
Load
ic = i, vp = v + rc ic, vp = Rp.ip
Reading ic.ip ic.vp i.(v + rc.ic)
2
Reading v.i + rc.ic
v
Load
vp = v, ic = i + ip, vp = Rp.ip
Reading ic.ip ic.vp (i + ip).v
Reading v.i + vp.ip
The average value of the instantaneous power v.i is the active power P that has to be measured. It is seen that
neither of the wattmeter connections give the exact reading. In the first connection shown, there is an error of
rc.ic2 corresponding to the power loss in the current coil. The current coil of a wattmeter must thus have an
almost zero resistance in order for the error to become negligible [since the current coil is in series, this is similar
to the case of the ammeter]. In the second connection shown, there is an error of vp.ip corresponding to the
power loss in the potential coil. The potential coil of a wattmeter must thus have an almost infinite resistance in
order for the error to become negligible [since the potential coil is in parallel, this is similar to the case of the
voltmeter]. The selection of which connection is to be used, is thus based on which gives the smaller loss.
5.6 Measurement of three phase power
Power = Real {VRN.IR* + VYN.IY* + VBN.IB*}
R
W1
Three
Phase
Load
Y
W2
but
B
University of Moratuwa - JRL/Oct2001
= W1 + W2
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Electrical Measurements
The power in a three phase system may be measured using three wattmeters between the live and the neutral for
each phase. However, in many high power systems, the neutral wire may not be available. Even when the
neutral is available, a convenient way of measuring power in a three phase system is the two wattmeter method.
5.7 Measurement of Energy
potential
coils
disc
current
coils
i
Supply
v
Load
Electrical energy is the time integral of electrical power. Thus to measure energy, we not only need to obtain an
expression for power as in the wattmeter, but also have a time dependent element. This is done by having a
continuous rotatation of a disc, rather than a deflection. The number of revolutions at a constant speed would be
proportional to the time, and if the speed is made proportional to the power, then energy would be obtained. The
a.c. energy meter (also known as the house service meter or the kWh meter) is usually of the induction type.
[Note: Since the basis is the instantaneous values of current and voltage, the effect of power factor angle would
automatically be taken into account]
5.8 Measurement of Resistance
Resistance can usually be measured using a Wheastone Bridge or a voltmeter-ammeter method. However
neither of these methods can be used when the value to be measured is a very low resistance (of the order of
m) or a very high resistance (of the order of M). In these cases special care has to be taken to avoid errors
caused by contact resistance (Kelvin Double Bridge is commonly used) for very low resistances, and to avoid
leakage currents on the surface of instruments (insulation megger is commonly used). Special methods are also
used to find the effective earth resistance of an installation. These are outside the scope of this lecture and will
not be dealt in this course.
5.9 Extension of Ranges of Instruments
Other than for the electrostatic meter, analogue meters are generally basically designed as micro-ammeters,
typically giving a full scale deflection (f.s.d.) for a current of around 25A to 25 mA.
Ifsd
rm
They may be used to measure higher currents and also voltages with suitable resistances in parallel (shunts) or
series.
Rsh
Ifsd
Ifsd
rm
Example
rm
Rs
A moving coil ammeter has a basic range of 200 A with an internal resistance of 800. It is to be used as (a)
an ammeter with a range of 5A, and (b) as a voltmeter with a range of 100 V. Show how resistances may be
connected to obtain the required range.
(a) when Ifsd = 200 A, I = 5 A. current through shunt path = 5 - 20010-6, rm = 800
from current division rule, Rsh = 80020010-6/(5 - 20010-6) = 0.032001 = 32 m in shunt with meter.
(b) when Ifsd = 200 A, V = 100 V, rm = 800 . 100 = 20010-6 (800 + Rs)
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Electrical Measurements
The analogue to digital converter (ADC) is the most critical component of the DVM. It determines the accuracy
permanent
and
the resolutionmoving
of the DVM.
iron
moving coil
electrostatic
hot-wire type
induction type
magnet
with Rectifier
5.12
Symbols
moving
coil on dials of meters
The following symbols and abbreviations are used to denote the type of measuring element, kind of supply, and
normal position of use of a given instrument.
vertical position
for normal use
horizontal position
for normal use
Note: The hot-wire type of thermal instrument has not been described earlier in the notes. It works on the
principle of a wire heating up due to the passage of current and causing an expansion. Details beyond this are
beyond the scope of the lecture.
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Protection must be provided against excess currents and earth leakage. Protective equipment must possess the
following features:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Certainty and reliability of operation under fault conditions and non-operation under normal conditions.
Discrimination
Rapidity of operation
Simplicity, low initial and maintenance cost
Easy adjustment and testing.
Rated
current
current (A)
Fuses: Fuses are the earliest means of protection against overcurrents in circuits. Basically, the fuse consists of a short length of
suitable material (often a thin wire). When the current flow is
greater than the fusing current of the fuse, it will get hot and burn
(melt), thus interrupting the fault current before damage could be
caused. The size of the wire is designed to carry indefinitely the
normal circuit current (rated current) and usually designed to fuse
(melt/burn) at about 1.7 2 times the rated current carrying
capacity. They have inverse time characteristics as shown in
Figure 1. Accordingly, the operation of the fuse is faster when the
fault current is larger.
In addition to operating for short circuits between the live and neutral, fuses are expected to operate under overload conditions. Over-loading occurs when extra power is taken from the supply. The increased current due to
over-loading will have an immediate effect on the cables; they will begin to heat up. If the over-loading is
sustained the result could be an accelerated deterioration of the cable insulation and its eventual breakdown to
cause an electrical fault. A heavy-sudden over-load for a very short period (e.g. such as in Motor starting) is not
very serious since the over-load current flows for a short time and the rise in cable temperature is not very high.
6.2 Fuses
Terms commonly used with fuses
Fuse: a devise for opening a circuit by means of a conductor designed to melt when an excessive current flows along it.
Fuse element: part of a fuse, which is designed to melt and thus open a circuit
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Fuse link: part of a fuse, which comprises a fuse element and a cartridge (or other container) and is capable of being
attached to the fuse contacts
Current rating: this is the maximum current, which the fuse will carry for an indefinite period without undue
deterioration of the fuse element
Fusing current: this is the minimum current that will cause the fuse element to heat up melt or blow
Fusing factor: this is the ratio of the fusing current to current rating
very easy for an inexperienced person to replace a blown fuse-element with a wire of incorrect size or type
the time taken for the fuse to blow may be as long as several seconds during which time considerable
electrical and physical damage may result to the circuit conductors and the equipment being protected.
10 A
motor
Oxide layer
5A
fan
unsuitable for circuits which require discriminative protection. i.e. it is possible in certain circuit conditions
for the 15 A rated fuse element to start melting before the 10 A rated element completes fusing
not capable of discriminating between a transient high current (such as motor starting current) and a
continuous fault current. i.e. some times may burn during motor starting
when the fault current is particularly high, though the fuse works, an arc may still be maintained by the
circuit voltage (through air and metallic vapour)
Due to the above reasons, the semi-enclosed or re-wirable fuses are not regarded as a suitable means of
protection against over currents and are now not recommended.
6.2.2 Fully enclosed (cartridge) fuse was developed to overcome the disadvantages of the re-wirable type of
fuse.
Fuse body
Metal caps
Fuse wire
In its simplest form, the fuse wire is enclosed in an evacuated glass tube with metal end caps. Non-deterioration
of the fuse element is one of the most reliable features and is usually more accurate. However, cartridge fuses
are more expensive to replace.
Both re-wirable and cartridge type fuses are usually of low rupturing capacity (product of maximum current
which the fuse will interrupt, and the supply voltage). They are used in general house-hold, commercial and
small scale industrial applications.
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EE 101 Electrical Engineering
Electrical Installations
6.2.3 High rupturing capacity (HRC) fuses are used for high current applications.
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Electrical Installations
Current operated protection Residual Current Circuit Breakers (RCCB) or Residual Current Device (RCD)
The earth leakage protection device is commonly known as Trip Switch by electricians.
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB):
Neutral earthing: This is important because the performance of the system in terms of short circuits, stability,
protection, etc., is greatly affected by the state of the neutral conductor. When the neutral is properly grounded,
voltages of the phases are limited to near phase to ground voltage.
Equipment earthing: This refers to grounding of all metal work of equipment other than the parts which are
normally current carrying. This is governed by various regulations such as the IEE regulations. The objective of
this grounding is to ensure effective and rapid operation of the protective gear in the event of earth fault currents
which might otherwise be undetected and cause fire and also protect against danger to life through shock due to
installation metal work being maintained at a dangerous potential relative to earth.
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Electrical Installations
In these, the first letter denotes the earthing arrangement at the supply authority side and the second letter
denotes the relationship of the exposed conductive parts of the installation to earth.
With the First letter, T (short for terra or earth) refers to a direct connection of one or more points of the source
to earth, and I (short for isolated) indicated that all live parts are isolated from earth or one point connected to
earth through a high impedance.
With the Second letter, T denotes a direct electrical connection of the exposed conductive parts of the
consumers installation to earth, independently of the earthing of any point of the supply authority side, while N
denotes a direct electrical connection of the exposed conductive parts to the earthed point of the supply authority
side, which for ac is usually the neutral point.
[There are further sub-divisions of the TN system, but are considered to be beyond the contents of this course.
Even the details of the earthing systems other than the one used in Sri Lanka will not be dealt with in this
course]
TT System
The TT System of earthing is the one used in Sri Lanka. In this system, the supply is earthed at the source end,
and all exposed-conductive parts of the installation are connected to an electrically independent earth electrode
at the consumer end.
source of energy
L1
L2
L3
consumer installations
source earth
equipment in
installation
exposed
conductive parts
installation
earth electrodes
The normal earthing practice is to provide a circuit protective conductor throughout every installation. A circuit
protective conductor connects exposed conductive parts of equipment to the main earthing terminal. As
mentioned earlier, the most common method employed for earthing, at the domestic installations in Sri Lanka, is
to use an earth electrode (commonly a galvanized iron pipe). The resistance of this electrode to earth also
depends on the condition of soil and may have values in excess of 100 . Thus in the TT system of earthing, it
is now essential to use an RCCB for protection.
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Electrical Installations
Service cables
Service
fuse box
Fuse
Energy meter
Consumers
Main Switch
Fuse
single gang
switch
lamps
RCCB
Trip Switch
Final
Circuits
L1
L2
L3
E
3-gang
switch
ceiling
rose
MCBs
N1
N2
N3
Consumer Unit
earth
lamp
Figure shows the use of loop-in method for wiring a final circuit for
lighting. The loop in method enables all joints and terminations in a
single final circuit to be made at ceiling roses, switches or other
accessories. This makes all joints accessible for the purpose of
alterations and for testing. Each final circuit has both its live
conductor as well as the neutral conductor terminating at the
consumer unit. The wires are usually laid in PVC conduits. Lamp
circuits do not normally need an earth wire unless there is a metallic
fitting which needs to be earthed for safety.
Two way switches
L
two-way
switch
two-way
switch
lamp
two-way
switch
two-way
switch
lamp
N
circuit off
circuit on
A two-way switch is used when it is necessary to operate a lamp from two positions, such as at the top and
bottom of a staircase and at the ends of a long corridor. The connection and operation are shown in the figure.
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Electrical Installations
socket
outlet
E
N
L
joint
box
30A MCB
permanent
connected
appliance
spur box
A typical ring circuit connection is shown in the figure. A ring circuit may have an unlimited number of socket
outlets provided that the floor area served by the ring does not exceed 100 m2 and that the maximum demand of
the circuit does not exceed the MCB (or fuse) rating. A kitchen should usually have a separate ring circuit.
(b) Radial circuits
Each circuit commences from the consumer unit/distribution board through an MCB/fuse of specific rating (e.g.
20A), loop into each socket outlet but ends at a socket outlet (does not return to the original fuse/mcb).
socket
outlet
N
L
joint box
20A MCB
Figure shows a typical radial circuit connection.
10000
1000
100
10
0.1
10
100
1000
10000
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No sensation
Perceptibility of current, but no harmful effect (10 mA is the threshold of let-go)
Mascular contractions and difficulty in breathing. Usually no danger of ventricular fibrillation
(0.5% probability)
Zone 4 - Probability of ventricular fibrillation increases
a - up to 5% , b - up to 50% , c - greater than 50%
Ventricular fibrillation of the heart is the prevention of the heart to act as an effective pump, and thus causing a
stoppage of blood circulation to all parts of the body, resulting in death in a very short time.
It can be seen that a current of 30 mA never goes into zone 4, and is thus typically used in residual current
devices used for safety of persons.
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Electric Motors
Electric Drives
Electromechanical energy conversion:
Electrical Energy is obtained by the conversion of other forms of energy, based on the principle of conservation
of energy. The main advantage of this conversion is that energy in electrical form can be transmitted, utilised
and controlled more easily, reliably and efficiently than in any other form.
An electro-mechanical energy conversion device is one which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
(electric motors) or mechanical energy into electrical energy (electric generators). The electro-mechanical
energy conversion process is a reversible process. However, devices are designed and constructed to suit one
particular process rather than the other. In an energy conversion device, out of the total input energy, some
energy is converted into the required form, some energy is stored and rest is dissipated.
For practical application we need to convert electrical energy into the required useful form, such as mechanical
energy, heat, light, sound and electromagnetic waves. One of the major applications is electric drives which
uses motors.
shaft
Poutput
Electric Motor
Pinput
Mechanical
Load
Ploss,mech
If
Ea ra
field supply V
f
Pmech
Figure 2 - two-pole dc motor
Ia
Rf
+
V armature
supply
V = Ea + ra Ia
The dc motor needs slip rings or split rings (commutator) on the rotor shaft and a set of brushes positioned over
them to supply the armature winding. [symbol for the armature basically shows the rotor and a pair of brushes]
dc supply
dc supply
dc supply
dc supply
dc supply
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The dc motors can be categorised into four basic types dependent on the method of connection of the field
winding (figure 4). These are the (a) separately excited field, (b) shunt connected field, (c) series connected
field, and (d) compound connected field.
In the separately excited type, the field winding is connected to a separate or external dc source. In the shunt
excited type, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding so that the same dc voltage
source is used. In the series excited type, the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding,
again making use of the same dc voltage source. Compound excitation involves both the series and shunt
excited windings.
In the case of very small motors, the field may be created by a permanent magnet rather than having a field
winding. These are known as permanent magnet dc motors.
Speed-torque characteristics of dc motors
The shunt, series and compound motors exhibit distinctive speed-torque characteristics, which are best suited for
specific tasks. Thus a study of motor characteristics is essential for one to decide on a specific application using
these motors. Figure 5 shows the speed-torque characteristics of dc motors. In addition, other characteristics
such as torque-current should be considered when selecting motors.
cumulative
differential
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Electric Motors
The supply for these motors is either three-phase or single-phase. Three phase motors are found in larger sizes
and have mainly industrial applications. Single-phase motors are used mainly for domestic and agricultural
applications. In the fractional kilowatt sizes, they are used in large numbers for washing machines, refrigerators
and so on.
AC motors are classified to various groups based on their principle of operation; most common are the induction
motor and synchronous motor.
Induction Motors
As the name implies, the induction motor is based on the induced voltage in a winding in the rotor. The rotor
does not receive electric power by conduction but by induction in exactly the same way as the secondary of a
transformer receives its power from the primary. Of all the ac motors, the three-phase induction motor is the one
which is extensively used for various kinds of industrial drives.
An induction motor consists essentially of two main parts, namely (a) a stator and (b) a rotor (figure 6).
(a) stator
slip =
s=
Ns N
.
Ns
The rotor of an induction motor can be of two types, namely (a) squirrel cage and (b) wound rotor as seen in
figure 6(b) and 6(c).
(a) Squirrel cage rotor
About 90% of induction motors are squirrel cage type, because this type of rotor has the simplest and most
rugged construction and is almost indestructible. The rotor consists of a cylindrical core with parallel slots for
carrying the rotor conductors which are not wires but heavy bars of copper, aluminium or alloys. The rotor bars
are permanently short-circuited at the ends to form the winding.
Because of the absence of moving parts in the circuitry, the motor is useful for duties in hazardous areas. It
finds applications for most industrial drives, where speed control is not required. These are specially used with
loads requiring low starting torque and substantially constant speeds. It can be shown that by increasing the
effective rotor resistance, the torque-speed characteristic can be modified such that the starting torque is
increased. However the operating slip also increases. With low rotor resistance, these are used in fans,
centrifugal pumps, most machine tools and wood working tools. With high rotor resistance, they are used in
compressors, crushes, reciprocating pumps etc. With very high rotor resistance, are used in punching presses,
shears, hoists and elevators.
(b) Wound rotor
Unlike the cage rotor type, the wound rotor type is provided with a three-phase winding in the rotor. Usually, the
three phases are connected internally as a star. The other three winding terminals are brought out and connected
to three insulated slip-rings mounted on the shaft with brushes resting on them. This makes possible the
introduction of additional resistance in the rotor circuit during the starting period for increasing the starting
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torque of the motor and for changing its speed-torque/current characteristics. When running under normal
conditions, the slip-rings are automatically short-circuited and the brushes lifted from the slip-rings. Hence, it is
seen that under normal running conditions, the wound rotor is short-circuited on itself just like the squirrel cage
rotor. Applications of the wound rotor type include high-inertia drives requiring variable speed, fly wheel
machine drives, air-compressors, ram pumps, crushing mills, cranes, hoists, winches and lifts.
Typical Torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor are shown in figure 7. The effect of increasing the
rotor resistance on the characteristic is also shown.
Synchronous Motors
Synchronous motors operate on the same fundamental principles of electromagnetic induction as dc motors.
They usually consists of a 3-phase stator winding and a rotor winding which carries a dc current (figure 8).
When the 3-phase stator winding is fed by a 3-phase supply, a magnetic flux of constant magnitude but rotating
at synchronous speed, is produced (as in 3-phase induction motors). This field interacts with the field produced
by the dc field winding on the rotor and produces a torque which can be used to rotate a load. It runs at a
constant speed (synchronous speed). However, the synchronous motor is not self-starting and hence needs
additional means for starting.
Although the induction motor is cheaper for small power applications, the synchronous motor is preferred for
applications above 50 kW. Typical applications include Banbury mixers (used to mix raw ingredients for rubber
production), cement grinding mills, centrifugal compressors, mine ventilating fans, pumps, reciprocating
compressor drives, electric ship propulsion drives, large low head pumps, rolling mills, ball mills, pulp grinders,
etc. They are also used for power factor correction and voltage regulation.
Single-Phase Motors
Single phase motors are designed to operate from a single-phase supply and are manufactured in a large number
of types to perform a wide variety of useful services in homes, offices, factories, workshops, vehicles, air crafts,
power tools, etc.
Single-phase motors are usually classified based on their operating principle and method of starting, such as
(1) Induction motors (split-phase, capacitor, shaded-pole etc.)
(2) Repulsion motors (some times called inductive series motors)
(3) AC series motors
(4) Synchronous motors.
The single-phase induction motor is similar to a three-phase induction motor except that its stator is provided
with a single phase winding and a special mechanism employed for starting purposes (It does not develop a
rotating field but a pulsating field). It has a distributed stator winding and a squirrel cage rotor. Special
mechanisms are employed for starting and there are different motor types based on starting method such as splitphase (fans, blowers, centrifugal pumps, washing machines, small machine tools, duplicating machines,
domestic refrigerators), capacitor start (small power drives) and shaded-pole (small fans, toys, instruments, hair
dryers, ventilators, circulators, electric clocks). Repulsion type motor applications include machine tools,
commercial refrigerators, compressors, pumps, hoists, floor-polishing and grinding devices, garage air-pumps,
petrol pumps, mixing machines, lifts and hoists. The ac series motor is a modified ordinary dc series motor that
can be connected to an ac supply. A similar one is the universal motor, which is a small version of ac series
motor. This can work with both ac and dc and used in applications such as vacuum cleaners, food mixers,
portable drills and domestic sewing machines. Single-phase synchronous motors are typically used in signaling
devices, recording instruments and in many kinds of timers and house hold electric clocks.
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