Sheet Metal Testing Guide

July 2013

In this guide:
Formability of Sheet Metals
Measuring the Plastic Strain Ratio of Sheet Metals

July 2013 - Copyright 2013 ADMET, Inc. Norwood, MA. All Rights Reserved.

Introduction
Formability is a measure of the amount of deformation a material can
withstand prior to fracture or excessive thinning. Our first article explains
how to determine the formability of sheet metal using Tensile Testing.
In the second article, we go into more detail with a specific aspect, the
plastic strain ratio, which indicates the ability of the sheet metal to resist
thinning or thickening when being deep drawn into a cup, for example.
We hope you find both articles useful and dont forget to check out our
blogs, white papers, and videos on all spects of materials testing at ADMET.
com.

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Copyright 2013 ADMET, Inc. 51 Morgan Drive, Norwood, MA 02062

Tensile Testing for Determining the Formability of Sheet Metals

by
Richard Gedney
ADMET, Inc.
Norwood, MA 02062
Tel: 781-769-0850
www.tensiletesters.com

Introduction - Sheet metal forming operations consist of

simple bending, to stretching to deep drawing of complex
parts. The mechanical properties of the sheet material
greatly influences its formability. Formability is a measure
of the amount of deformation a material can withstand prior
to fracture or excessive thinning. Determining the extent
to which a material can deform is necessary for designing a
reproducible forming operation. Testing the incoming sheet
material is also essential because material properties may
vary from coil to coil and effect part quality and scrap rate.

properties. Therefore, sample orientation relative to the roll

direction should be reported with each property.

The outcome of a forming process is dependent on both

material characteristics and process variables such as strain,
strain rate and temperature. Stress and strain fields are so
diverse during a forming process that one test cannot be used
to predict the formability of materials in all situations. However, an understanding of material properties is important to
determining the success of a forming process. The standard
tensile test is used to measure the characteristic properties of
sheet metals. More specialized tests such as the Simple Bend
Test, Limited Dome Height Test, Cup Test, Hole Expansion
Test or Wrinkling Test may be performed to simulate straining conditions found during the actual process.

Figure 2 - Hole expansion specimen tested to failure.

The Tensile Test - A graphical description of the amount of
deflection under load for a given material is the stress-strain
curve (Figure 3). The stress-strain curve is generated by pulling a metal specimen in uniaxial tension to failure. ASTM
E8/E8M Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing Metallic
Materials governs the methods used for the determination of
Yield Strength, Ultimate Tensile Strength, Percent Elongation at Break and Reduction of Area, the latter two being
measures of ductility. Engineering stress (S) is obtained by
dividing the load (P) at any given time by the original cross
sectional area (Ao) of the specimen.

Figure 1 - Tensile specimen pulled to fracture. Depicts region where necking occurred.

Material properties that have a direct or indirect influence

on formability and product quality are, Ultimate Tensile
Strength, Yield Strength, Youngs Modulus, Ductility, Hardness, the Strain Hardening Exponent and the Plastic Strain
Ratio. All of these parameters, except hardness, can be
determined by cutting a test specimen from the blank and
performing a tensile test. Most metalworking processes
involve metal being deformed in various directions. Because
of the resulting anisotropy of rolled metal, sample orientation can be significant to the measurement of mechanical

S = P/Ao

Eq. 1

Engineering strain (e) is obtained by dividing the elongation

of the gage length of the specimen (L) by the original
gage length (Lo).

e = L/Lo = (L - Lo)/Lo

Eq. 2

Figure 3 depicts a typical stress-strain curve. The shape and

magnitude of the curve is dependent on the type of metal
being tested. In Figure 3, point A represents the proportional
limit of a material. A material loaded in tension

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Copyright 2013 ADMET, Inc. 51 Morgan Drive, Norwood, MA 02062

beyond point A when unloaded will exhibit permanent or

plastic deformation. The proportional limit is often times
difficult to calculate, therefore, two practical measurements,
Offset Yield Strength and Yield by Extension Under Load
(EUL) were developed to approximate the proportional limit.
The initial portion of the curve below point A represents
the elastic region and is approximated by a straight line.
The slope (E) of the curve in the elastic region is defined as
Youngs Modulus of Elasticity and is a measure of material
stiffness.

Ductility is defined as the capacity for plastic deformation.

Two measures of ductility governed by ASTM E8/E8M are
Total Elongation and Reduction of Area. Total Elongation
is the amount of uniaxial strain at fracture and is depicted
as strain at point Z. It includes both elastic and plastic deformation and is commonly reported as Percent Elongation
at Break (The gage length used for measurement is reported
with the result.).

Reduction of Area like Elongation at Break is another measure of ductility and is expressed in percent. Reduction of
Area is calculated by measuring the cross sectional area at
the fracture point.

E = S /e = (S2-S1)/(e2-e1)

Eq. 3

Total Elongation

Engineering Stress, S

Offset-B
Yield
Prop-A
Limit

C-Yield
EUL

Reduction of Area (%) = (Ao-Az)/Ao

Fracture X

Engineering Strain, e

Eq. 5

In general, as Reduction of Area increases the minimum

allowable bend radius for a sheet material decreases. Total Elongation and Reduction of Area both increase with
increasing cross-sectional area of the specimen. Percent
Elongation decreases with increasing gage length due to
localized necking in the specimen. Therefore, consistency
in specimen dimensions and gage length are paramount for
comparing results and ensuring process quality.

Ultimate
Tensile
Strength

Elongation at Break (%) = ez = 100*(Lz-Lo)/Lo Eq. 4

Figure 3 - Stress-Strain Curve.

Point B represents the Offset Yield Strength and is found by
constructing a line X-B parallel to the curve in the elastic
region. Line X-B is offset a strain amount O-X that is typically 0.2% of the gage length. Point C represents the Yield
Strength by Extension Under Load (EUL) and is found by
constructing a vertical line Y-C. Line Y-C is offset a strain
amount O-Y that is typically 0.5% of gage length. The
Ultimate Tensile Strength or peak stress is represented by
point D in Figure 3. Necking begins (dP = 0) at the peak
point D on the Stress-Strain curve.
Yield Strength and Ultimate Tensile Strength are not directly
related to formability, however, the closer the magnitude of
the two stresses, the more work hardened the metal. A work
hardened metal exhibits lower ductility which reduces its
ability to stretch. Both elastic and plastic deformation occur
during the forming process. Upon removal of the external
forces, the internal elastic stresses relax. If the forming
process is not designed properly, the stress relaxation or
springback will cause the part to change shape or distort.
A material with a lower value for Youngs Modulus, E, and/
or a higher value for Yield Strength will exhibit greater
springback or shape distortion.

The Strain Hardening Exponent is a measure of how

rapidly a metal becomes stronger and harder due to plastic
deformation. The deformation remaining after an applied
load is removed is called plastic deformation. ASTM
E646 Standard Test Method for Tensile Strain-Hardening
Exponents of Metallic Sheet Materials governs the determination of the Strain Hardening Exponent. ASTM E646
is a tensile test that measures the stress-strain response in
the plastic region prior to necking (dP=0). In Figure 4 that
is the region of the curve between Yield Strength point B
and Ultimate Strength point D. In the B-D strain hardening region, the stress-strain curve is approximated by the
following equation.
s=Ken Eq. 6
where, sis the true stress, K is the strength coefficient, e is
the true strain and n is the Strain Hardening Coefficient.
Equation 6 is a power curve and requires conversion to a
logarithmic form (Eq. 7) in order to calculate the Strain
Hardening Coefficient, n.
log s=log K + n log e Eq. 7

The exponent, n, is obtained from the true stress-true strain
curve which is derived from the engineering stress-engineering strain curve. Assuming constant specimen volume, the
relationship between true stress and engineering stress and
true strain and engineering strain is as follows.

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True Stress s = S(1+e)

True Strain e = ln(1+e)

length, respectively. Knowing that P=sA and at the onset of

necking dP=0, the following expression can be constructed
from dP = sdA + Ads = 0.

Eq. 8
Eq. 9

Equation 7 is presented in the form of a straight line where

n is the slope of the line and log K is the y-intercept. Using linear regression analysis, the equation for the Strain
Hardening Exponent, n, becomes

NSxy - SxSy
n =
NSx2 - (Sx)2

where,

y = log (S(1+e)),
x = log (ln(1+e)),
b = log K,
N = Number of data pairs.

Eq. 10

Elastic
Deformation

Eq.13

The volume of a metal specimen in the plastic region remains

constant. Therefore, -dA/A = dL/L = de. Substituting into
Eq. 13 gives

ds/de=s
Eq. 14
By substituting Eq. 6 into Eq. 14 we get nKen-1 = Ken and

In order to calculate n, at least 5 data pairs between points

B and D should be selected. If the stress-strain curve has
a discontinuity between points B and D, then select a portion of the curve between B and D that is continuous or
else discard the test.

n = e

Eq. 15

Therefore, the true strain at the onset of necking is equal to

the Strain Hardening Exponent, n. Hence, the higher the
value of n, the more a piece of material can be stretched
prior to necking. Said another way, the greater the value
of n, the greater the difference between Yield and Ultimate
and the further the material can be stretched before failure.
The Plastic Strain Ratio, r, indicates the ability of the sheet
metal to resist thinning or thickening when being deep drawn
into a cup for example. The r value is calculated from width
and longitudinal strain and is a measure of sheet metal
drawability. ASTM E517 Standard Test Method for Plastic
Strain Ratio r for Sheet Metal governs its determination.
Because rolled sheet metals develop planar anisotropy, the
test specimens are cut at 0o, 45o and 90o, respectively to the
roll direction. The average ratio ravg, is then given by

Plastic
Deformation

Offset n=1
Yield
D
n=0
B
dP=0: onset
Region used to
of necking
calculate Strain
Hardening Coef.
A
Fracture X

Engineering Stress, S

ds/s = -dA/A

Ultimate
Tensile
Strength

ravg = (r0 + 2r45 + r90)/4

Eq. 16

The calculation of r is as follows

O

Engineering Strain, e

Figure 4 - Stress-Strain Curve.

The ability to form sheet metal by stretching depends on
strain hardening. At the onset of necking, the material is
thinned and weakened. Therefore, it is important to know
the strain at the onset of necking. At any given time, true
stress is given by

True Stress s = P/Ai

Eq. 11

and true strain is given by

True Strain de = dL/Li

where Ai and Li are is the instantaneous area and gauge

Eq. 17

where true width strain ew = ln(wf/w0),

true longitudinal strain et = ln(tf/t0),
wf = final width,
w0 = original width,
tf = final thickness,
t0 = original thickness.
Assuming the volume of the specimen remains constant,
the lognitudinal strain et can be expressed as et = ln(Lowo/
Lfwf) . Invert as follows to eliminate negative values and
the Plastic Strain Ratio, r, is given by

Eq. 12

r =ew/et

ln(w0/wf)
r =
ln(L w /L w )
f

Eq. 18

where, Lf = final length,

L0 = original length.

Copyright 2013 ADMET, Inc. 51 Morgan Drive, Norwood, MA 02062

Equation 18 enables the Plastic Strain Ratio, r, to be calculated with two extensometers, one to measure the change
in axial gage length and the other to measure the change in
width (See Figure 5). The final values are usually calculated
at 10, 15 and 20% elongation.

dependent on the rate of straining, the tensile test can be

used to measure the strain rate sensitivity, m, of a material
by testing at different strain rates. The strain rate sensitivity
relationship is given by

s=Cem Eq. 19
where
s is the true stress, C is the strength coefficient and e
.
is the true strain rate. As a rule, an increase in m causes an
increase in ductility, total elongation and elongation after
the onset of necking. Also, the value of m decreases with
metals of increasing strength.
Hardness is measured by applying specific loads to a material with an indentor and measuring the resulting amount
of permanent indentation. There are several methods for
measuring hardness each with various scales. ASTM E10
Standard Test Method for Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials and ASTM E18 Standard Test Methods for Rockwell
Hardness and Rockwell Superficial Hardness of Metallic
Materials are two such tests.

Figure 5 - Axial and Averaging Extensometers used to

measure axial strain and change in specimen width for
determining the Plastic Strain Ratio, r.
The limiting drawing ratio, LDR, is defined as the ratio of
maximum blank diameter to punch diameter that will produce a successful component when a flat sheet is shaped into
a cylindrical or boxlike shape. When ravg is plotted against
LDR on a log-log graph, there is a linear relationship between the two parameters. Therefore, ravg is proportional
to the maximum drawing depth.

Hardness can be used as an indirect measure of sheet metal

formability. Typically, the harder the material, the stronger
and more brittle the material and the less it will stretch
before failure.
Table 1 lists average properties for selected metals. Exact
values may vary widely with changes in composition, temperature, heat treating and cold working.

Strain Rate Sensitivity - The speed of testing is very important because the strength properties of many materials
increase at higher strain rates. ASTM E8 specifies an
upper and lower limit on deformation rates based on strain
rate, stress rate or crosshead separation. With some metals,
the strain rate variation allowed in E8 may result in Yield
Strength variations up to 20%. Variations in ductility and
the strain hardening exponent may also occur. Therefore, a
valid and constant strain rate should be used for comparing
like tensile tests. Conversely, since strength may be

Test Methods and Specifications - Copies of the ASTM

test methods mentioned in this article may be obtained from
ASTM, the American Society for Testing and Materials. The
test methods are available from the ASTM Web site (www.
astm.org) or through Customer Service (610/832-9585;
e-mail: service@astm.org). 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West
Conshohocken, PA19428-2959 Phone: (610) 832-9585
Fax: (610) 832-9555.

Table 1 - Average Properties for Selected Metals at Room Temperature.

The properties shown in this table are from a variety of sources and are believed to be representative. There are
so many variables which affect these properties, however, that their approximate nature must be recognized.

Material
Steel, 0.2% carbon
hot-rolled
cold-rolled
Steel, 0.8% carbon

hot rolled
302 Stainless, annealed
Aluminum, 2024-T4
Titanium alloy, annealed
70-30 Brass, annealed

Modulus of Elasticity
(1000 ksi) (GPa)

Yield Strength
(ksi) (MPa)

Tensile Strength
(ksi) (MPa)

Percent
Elongation
in 2 in.

Hardness

E646
n

E517
ravg

Strain Rate
Sensitivity
m

29
29

200
200

40
60

275
415

60
80

415
550

35
15

120HB
160HB

0.22
0.08

1.0-1.6
1.2-1.8

0.013
0.007

29
31
11
14
16

200
215
73
97
110

73
37
57
135
16

505
255
395
931
110

120
90
72
155
48

825
622
495
1069
331

10
55
13
13
61

240HB

0.15
0.30
0.16

0.6-1.0

0.003

0.6-0.8
3-5
0.9

0.005

References:
1. S. Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials,
3rd ed. Addison-Wesley, 1997.
2. Forming and Forging, Vol. 14, ASM Handbook, ASM International
1988.

80HRB
37HRC
66HRF

0.5

0.001

3. Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, Vol. 8, ASM Handbook, ASM

International 2000.
4. Metals-Mechanical Testing, Vol. 3.01, ASTM Standards, American
Society of Testing and Materials.
5. G.E. Dieter, Workability Testing Techniques, American Society of
Metals, 1984.

Copyright 2013 ADMET, Inc. 51 Morgan Drive, Norwood, MA 02062

Measuring the Plastic Strain Ratio of Sheet Metals

by
Richard Gedney
ADMET, Inc.
Norwood, MA 02062
Tel: 781-769-0850
www.ADMET.com

Introduction - Sheet metal forming operations consist of

simple bending, to stretching to deep drawing of complex
parts. The mechanical properties of the sheet material
greatly influences its formability. Formability is a measure
of the amount of deformation a material can withstand prior
to fracture or excessive thinning. Determining the extent
to which a material can deform is necessary for designing a
reproducible forming operation. Testing the incoming sheet
material is also essential because material properties may
vary from coil to coil and effect part quality and scrap rate.

r =ew/et

Eq. 1

where true width strain ew = ln(wf/w0),

true longitudinal strain et = ln(tf/t0),
wf = final width,
w0 = original width,
tf = final thickness,
t0 = original thickness.
Equation 1 tells us that the r value is dependent on the ratio
of width and thickness changes as the sample is pulled
in tension. The word plastic in the Plastic Strain Ratio
name implies that the specimen is pulled beyond its elastic
limit and that only the strain that induces plastic flow is
considered in the calculation. Because it is very difficult
to accurately measure changes in thickness, we assume the
volume of the specimen remains constant and express the
longitudinal strain as et = ln(Lowo/Lfwf). After substituting
et into Equation 1 and inverting to eliminate negative values
, the Plastic Strain Ratio, r, is given by

ln(w0/wf)
r =
ln(Lfwf/L0w0)

where, Lf = final length,

L0 = original length.

Equation 2 enables the Plastic Strain Ratio, r, to be calculated either manually or automatically with the use of two
extensometers, one to measure the change in axial gage
length and the other to measure the change in width. If the
manual approach is employed, prior to testing the specimen
width and distance between gage marks is measured with
calipers. The specimen is then pulled to a strain less than
at maximum force (dP=0) and then unloaded. The final
width and gage length are then measured to determine r
value. If the automatic method is employed, the specimen
can be tested to fracture. Enabling Ultimate Strength, Yield
Strength and Elongation to be calculated on the same pull
which saves time and money.

Elastic
Deformation

Figure 1 - A sample of parts/systems that are manufactured through forming (Evans Findings Company, ITW
Drawform, General Motors).

Plastic
Deformation

Offset n=1
Yield
D
n=0
B
dP=0: onset
Region used to
of necking
calculate Strain
Hardening Coef.
A
Fracture X

Engineering Stress, S

The Plastic Strain Ratio, r is considered a direct measure of

sheetmetal drawability and is useful for evaluating materials intended for forming shapes by a deep-drawing process.
The r value is calculated from width and longitudinal strain
as a test specimen is pulled in tension. Its determination is
governed by ASTM E517 Standard Test Method for Plastic
Strain Ratio r for Sheet Metal. The Plastic Strain Ratio
r, is given by

Ultimate
Tensile
Strength

Eq. 2

Engineering Strain, e

Figure 2 - Stress-Strain Curve.

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Copyright 2013 ADMET, Inc. 51 Morgan Drive, Norwood, MA 02062

transverese engineering strain (in/in)

Because rolled sheet metals develop planar anisotropy,

sample orientation can be significant to the measurement
of Plastic Strain Ratio r. Therefore, test specimens are cut
at 0o, 45o and 90o, respectively to the roll direction and the
direction must be reported with each result.
Conclusion
Plastic Strain Ratio r is one of the more difficult formability parameters to measure because of the additional width
strain measurement. R value errors as large as 40-50% can
occur due to errors associated with measuring width strain.
Careful inspection of the specimen after each test to check
for curling and the use of proper knife edges are paramount
to obtain true r values.

-0.02

longitudinal engineering strain (in/in)

Figure 3 - Longitudinal-Transverse Strain Curve.

Sources of Error in R Value

Test Methods and Specifications

If we were to perform an error analysis on Equation 2, one

would find that r value is much more sensitive to errors in
width measurement. The author has seen reported r values
that are more than 40% in error. Furthermore, the reported
values are always greater than the true value. The two
primary source of errors in width strain are: a) the edges of
the specimen curl along the length of the specimen as it is
being pulled; and b) sharp knife edges on the extensometer
used for width strain measurements create high concentrated
stresses that result in increased localized straining at the
point of measurement.

Material properties that have a direct or indirect influence

on formability and product quality are, Ultimate Tensile
Strength, Yield Strength, Youngs Modulus, Ductility,
Strain Hardening Exponent and the Plastic Strain Ratio.
All of these parameters can be determined by cutting a
test specimen from the blank and performing a tensile test.
Below is a list of ASTM test specifications that governs the
determination of these parameters.

Both sources of error result in greater width strains and

higher r values. After each test, the specimen should be
inspected to determine if it remains flat. Errors in the r value
will persist unless one compensates for the curling. Errors
associated with sharp knife edges are more easily eliminated
by installing knife edges with rounded or flat surfaces at the
point of contact (see Figure 4).

ASTM E8/E8M Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing

of Metallic Materials governs the determination of Ultimate
Tensile Strength, Yield Strength plus Elongation and Reduction of Area which are measures of ductility.
ASTM E111 Standard Test Method for Youngs Modulus,
Tangent Modulus, and Chord Modulus is used for determining Youngs Modulus.
ASTM E646 Standard Test Method for Tensile StrainHardening Exponents (n-values) of Metallic Sheet Materials
is used for determining the Strain Hardening Exponent.
ASTM E517 Standard Test Method for Plastic Strain Ratio
r for Sheet Metal governs the determination of r. Of all the
mechanical properties determined by a tensile test, ASTM
E517 is the most difficult and requires a close attention to
detail.

Transverse extensometer knife

edge profiles suitable for measuring width strains.
Do not use pointed knife edge.
Figure 4 - Knife Edge Profiles
Other Points To Consider
For many materials the r value remains constant over the
range of plastic strains up to the maximum force applied
to the specimen. For some sheet materials, however, the r
value varies with the applied axial strain and as such should
be reported with the as tested strain level.

Copies of the ASTM test methods mentioned in this article

may be obtained from ASTM, the American Society for
Testing and Materials. The test methods are available from
the ASTM Web site (www.astm.org) or through Customer
Service (610/832-9585; e-mail: service@astm.org). 100 Barr
Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA19428-2959 Phone:
(610) 832-9585 Fax: (610) 832-9555.

Copyright 2013 ADMET, Inc. 51 Morgan Drive, Norwood, MA 02062

Transverse Extensometers for Measuring

Width Strains
For r value determination an axial extensometer for
length strain measurement is also required (see Figure 7).

Figure 5 - Instron Corporation transverse averaging extensometer with single channel output and large radius
contact points.

Figure 7 - Typical arrangement of axial and averaging

transverse extensometers used for the determination of
Plastic Strain Ratio r (Epsilon Technology, Inc.).

Figure 8 - Tensile specimen pulled to fracture. Depicts

region where necking occurred.

Figure 6 - Epsilon Technology, Inc. transverse nonaveraging extensometer with flat contact points.

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Copyright 2013 ADMET, Inc. 51 Morgan Drive, Norwood, MA 02062