Cohesion and Coherence

Introduction
Every writer wishes to make their points clearly to their readers, with
pieces of writing that are easy to read and have logical links between
the various points made. This coherence, this clarity of expression, is
created by grammar and vocabulary (lexis) through cohesion. This is
the "glue" that joins your ideas together to form a cohesive whole.
In this Lesson we are going to focus on how this is done, in order to
assist you when you come to write your academic assignments and in
your reading. In reading, if you understand how the author makes
connections within the text, you gain a better understanding of his or
her message. As regards your writing, after analyzing the texts in this
Lesson, you should analyze your own writing in the same way. This will
help you to realize which techniques you could use more to benefit your
reader.
How cohesion is created in text
According to the writers Halliday and Hasan (1976), there are six main
ways that cohesion is created in a text. These they called: Reference,
Substitution, Ellipsis, Lexical Chains, Cohesive Nouns and
Conjunction.
Six Ways to Create Cohesion

Examples of Reference, Substitution, Ellipsis, Lexical Chains,

Cohesive Nouns and Conjunction:
1. Lexis (lexical chains)
Example 1
The art gallery was exhibiting all his paintings, but not the
sculpture or his early etchings.
Example 2
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The players gathered on the pitch and kicked the ball around,
before playing in earnest.
Example 3
The students attending the lecture all took notes and asked a lot
of questions.
2. Cohesive Nouns
Example 1
Over a million dollars was spent last year. This investment was
needed and was wisely spent.
Example 2
The two cars collided on the flyover. However, nobody was hurt in the
accident.
Example 3
The children were always fighting, but no one seemed concerned
about the problem.
3. Reference
Example 1
Tom went alone to the party, which was fancy dress, and he made
his costume himself.
Example 2
The disabled climber knew how difficult the climb at 2880 m. would
be. This ascent, at such an altitude, had defeated many others.
Example 3
My room is very dark and hers is similar.
4. Substitution
Example 1
I need to buy some new shoes and those blue ones look lovely!
Example 2
The customer demonstrated outside the store, but he did not want to
do so.
Example 3
The winters can be wet and cold in London. The same is unhappily,
also true for the summers.
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5. Conjunction
Example 1
Firstly, we need to water all the plants because the weather has
been very dry.
Example 2
The dog bit him, therefore he needed medical attention
immediately.
Example 3
In addition, government expenditure needs to be cut in this fiscal
year.
6. Ellipsis (leaving words out)
Example 1
Ann was quite happy to handle the snake, although the others did not
want to. (handle the snake)
Example 2
Here is the deck of cards, now take any four. (cards)
Example 3
I wanted to take another chocolate covered cherry, but I knew I must
not. (take another chocolate covered cherry)

Activity 1:
Colour code this short piece of creative writing to show how the
cohesion is created. Use the colour code below; the first three
have been done for you as examples:

Reference (blue) e.g. this, his, which, whose,

Substitution (pink) e.g. the ones, the same,
Conjunction (green) e.g. because, so, and, finally,
Lexical Chain (red) means words on the same topic
Cohesive Nouns (purple) nouns that summarise what came before or
what is to follow e.g. attitude, success, issue, problem,
Ellipsis (yellow) means missing words out (do not worry about colour
coding these words as they are not present in the text!)

The student (red) sighed as (green) she (blue)

handed in the assignment, at last it was finished. This
was the most difficult piece of writing which she had
been set, but she had completed it. The magnum
opus was 10,000 words long. This project, though not
quite a dissertation, was still the longest piece of
academic writing she had ever written. She had
thought she would never complete it and it had taken
all her strength to do so.
Her achievement made her elated, but had left her
exhausted. When she had read the title of the task,
she knew it was not going to be just another essay,
not an easy one at all. Finally, the completed work lay
on the counter of the reception [and was] beautifully
bound. She would sleep easy at night, [and she would
be] no longer troubled by thoughts of its accusing
blank pages - the nightmare was over!

Activity 2:
In this exercise you are going to see how the 6 ways of creating
cohesion are used in a short text arguing in favor of working in
groups as a way to learn better in class. Before you read the
text, you might like to predict what the arguments might be in
favor of and against classes being organized to work together in
this way.
Fill in all the gaps with the words in the lexical area of education

Activity 3:
Color code this short piece of discursive writing to show how the
cohesion is created. Use the color code at the bottom, the first
three have been done for you as examples:
Note : One example of Ellipsis is shown in the first paragraph,
but do not worry about colour coding it in this activity. It is not
there!
"Working in groups is a bad idea because it encourages weak students to let the
others do the work." Discuss
The idea that (green) working in groups (red) is a bad thing is fundamentally mistaken
because (green), overall, the advantages of this way of configuring the class outweigh the
potential disadvantages [of this way of configuring the class] (ellipsis). In groups there
is the opportunity for peer teaching, which can often be invaluable. In addition, lessons
organised in this way become less teacher-centred. Moreover, in life today, team-working
is a feature of every workplace and one of the roles of university education is to provide a
preparation for students' future careers.
Firstly, peer teaching can contribute to effective learning in most classroom situations.
Many students (especially in large classes) can benefit from this approach. Weaker
students are often less afraid of making mistakes and taking risks in front of their peers,
than in close contact with their teacher or in front of the whole class. Also, with regard to
the stronger students, a perfect way to consolidate their learning is to transmit that
knowledge to others. Furthermore, most pedagogic approaches today concur that a lesson
that is focused on the teacher at all times, is one from which the students are unlikely to
benefit. Certainly, some classroom activities, like project work for example, are best
conducted in small groups. The teacher as the source of all wisdom standing at the front of
the class, the 'jug and mug' model of education, is not only antiquated, but also ineffective.
A further benefit of group-teaching is the preparation it provides for working in teams. In a
great variety of careers today, the employees are asked to, and are judged on their ability
to work in teams. Group working in class represents basically the same concept. The
same skills are being tested and developed - interpersonal skills and emotional
intelligence, to mention just two. In business today, the ability to lead effectively and to
support one's peers is prized almost above all other skills.
In conclusion then, while it may sometimes be true that the weak students may 'take it
easy' sometimes in groups, allowing others to work hard to compensate for their laziness,
if the lesson materials are interesting and the teacher motivating, this is a rare occurrence.
As outlined above, there are so many 'pros' to this method of classroom configuration that
these easily outweigh this somewhat questionable 'con'.

Cohesive Nouns (purple) Conjunction (green)

Reference (blue) Substitution (pink)
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Lexical Chain: Education (orange) Lexical Chain: Work

(red)

Activity 4:
Fill in all the gaps with
the reference words and
those
used
for
substitution
in
the
sentences:

Name:
______________________________________________
________________
Date: ___________________________
Match the element with its respective definition:

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Code:

Exercise:

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