Engineering Encyclopedia: Water Treatment and Distribution / Sources, Uses and Quality

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Water Treatment And

Distribution / Sources, Uses And Quality
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Process
File Reference: CHE10701
For additional information on this subject, contact

R. A. Al-Husseini on 874-2792
Process
Water Treatment and
Distribution / Sources, Uses and Quality
CONTENTS
SOURCES OF WATER
USES OF WATER
Once-Through Cooling Water
Recirculating Cooling Water
Boiler Feedwater
Domestic (Sanitary) Water
Firefighting Water (See SAES-B-007A)
Engine Cooling Water
Chemical Mixing Water
Hydrostatic Testing Water
WATER ANALYSES
QUALITY OF WATER
Scale
Corrosion
Solids
Caustic
Organics
Purity Targets for Once-Through Cooling Water
Purity Targets for Open Recirculating Cooling Water
Purity Targets for Boiler Steam Water
Purity Targets for Domestic (Sanitary) Water
Purity Targets for Firefighting Water
CONTENTS
WORK AID 1: COMMON CHARACTERISTICS AND
IMPURITIES IN WATER
WORK AID 2: PURITY TARGETS FOR OPEN
RECIRCULATING COOLING WATER
WORK AID 3: TYPICAL TREATMENT PURITY TARGETS MAXIMUM IMPURITIES IN BOILER MAKEUP WATER
WORK AID 4: TYPICAL TREATMENT PURITY TARGETS MAXIMUM IMPURITIES IN STEAM DRUM WATER
GLOSSARY
REFERENCES
Saudi Aramco Standards
Saudi Aramco Design Practices
Exxon Basic Practices
PAGE
1
1
2
3
3
4
4
5
6
6
7
9
9
10
11
11
11
11
11
12
13
13
PAGE
14
16
17
18
19
21
21
21
Process
Water Treatment and
SOURCES OF WATER
The usual sources of water are:
Purchased or municipal water
Surface fresh water
Subsurface ground water
Sea water
The major concerns with purchased water are the cost, the reliability of supply, and the potential quality
variations. Saudi Aramco does not purchase water.
Surface fresh water can come from rivers, streams, lakes, or ponds. These waters usually contain suspended
matter, organic matter, dissolved solids, dissolved gases, and other man-made and natural pollutants. Surface
fresh water is rare in Saudi Arabia.
Subsurface ground water can originate from springs and shallow or deep wells. These waters are usually
relatively free of suspended matter. They can have wide quality variations. Even normally fresh water wells
can have salt water intrusion or limited availability during dry periods. Wells are a common source of water
throughout Saudi Aramco.
Seawater is often used offshore or in arid regions such as Saudi Arabia. This water has a high dissolved solids
content, frequently over 30,000 ppm. Waste heat or low level heat is used in many cases to evaporate sea water
as a first step in water treatment.
USES OF WATER
Water has many uses both in municipalities and in plants. The five main uses of water in Saudi Arabia are:
Once-through cooling water
recirculating cooling water (cooling tower) makeup water
Boiler feedwater
Domestic (sanitary) water
Firefighting water
Process
Water Treatment and
In addition to these five main uses, water is also used for engine cooling, chemical mixing, hydrostatic testing,
and for other minor uses.
Once-Through Cooling Water

Almost any type of water can be used for once-through cooling water. This includes sea water containing high
dissolved solids. Typical sources of once-through cooling water are rivers, lakes, and the sea.
Storage of this water is usually not required since once-through systems are limited to locations where the
source is essentially unlimited. Discharge rates of the heated water are very high. Care must be taken to
segregate water intake from water discharge to prevent recirculation of impurities and heat that would raise the
temperature of the intake.
Filtering of once-through cooling water is usually required; however, this can be accomplished only by coarse
screening in may cases. At some locations, this filtering or screening is the only treatment required.
There can be environmental restrictions on once-through cooling water discharge. The most frequent concern is
the temperature of the discharge water.
The main problems that can be encountered in once-through cooling water systems are fouling, microbiological
growth, corrosion, and scale.
Screening or filtering and shock treatment by chlorine addition are the most common ways to control fouling
and microbiological growth. In some cases, other chemicals may be substituted for chlorine for
microbiological control. These include sodium pentachlorophenate, acrolein, and some vendor proprietary
compounds of zinc, copper, mercury, tin, silver, and cadmium.
Biodispersants and antifouling materials can help to disperse fouling materials and sludge. They include
polyacrylates, natural organic materials, and other organic polymers. Maintaining water velocities in the
systems, and particularly in heat exchanger tubes, greater than 3 ft/sec will keep the suspended solids moving
through the system. In spite of the best efforts to control fouling and sludge, the heat exchanger usually needs
periodic cleaning.
Calcium carbonate, the most common scale in once-through systems, can be inhibited by applying one or a
combination of deposit-control materials such as polyphosphates, phosphonates, and polyacrylates.
The first step in corrosion control in a once-through system is proper selection of the materials of construction.
Aluminum, brass, cupro-nickel, and titanium are typical corrosion-resistant materials. Fiberglass-reinforced
plastic, and cement-lined and plastic-lined pipe are also used for distribution. Maintaining tube metal
temperatures below 150F will also help to limit corrosion.
Process
Water Treatment and
Recirculating Cooling Water

Water used in recirculating systems can come from any water source. It is normally filtered before use. In a
recirculating system, the hot water is returned to a cooling device such as a cooling tower, heat exchanger, or air
fin. In a cooling tower, water mixes with air. Evaporation cools the water. The exhaust air becomes saturated
with water. Some of the water is drawn off as blowdown to dissolved solids in the water. Some of the water is
drawn off as blowdown to remove concentrated contaminants and is replaced with makeup water. Disposal
rates and makeup rates are much lower than those with once-through systems.
Storage of water is usually required, often in a cooling tower basin or sump. The quantity stored depends upon
the reliability of the water source and whether the services being cooled are critical.
Boiler Feedwater
Boiler feedwater must be treated in nearly all cases. Makeup water is frequently a low percentage of total
feedwater, often less than 10%, because most of the condensate is returned. Water quality required depends on
the use of the water. For example, higher pressure boilers require a better quality of water. Returned
condensate can also require treatment, particularly to remove oil and control pH.
Boiler feedwater treatment will be discussed in detail in the module on Water Treatment Systems.
Storage of the treated boiler feedwater is required if steam is used in critical services. Typically, a supply equal
to 4 to 8 hours of treated water consumption is maintained.
Process
Water Treatment and
Domestic (Sanitary) Water

Typical usages of raw water, potable water (drinking water), and irrigation water are given in SADP-S-040.
Domestic or sanitary water is usually fresh water that is either potable or can be made potable by biocide
injection. However, this is not always the case. In some areas or at some plants, sanitary water and potable
water systems are completely separate.
Potable water systems, in particular, are normally isolated from potentially contaminated water systems by an
atmospheric break or by physical separation with free fall of water to prevent contamination of the potable
water system. At least one standby well is required at Saudi Aramco when domestic water is supplied from
wells. Where pumping is required for domestic water, at least one standby pump is required. For additional
pumping requirements, see SAES-S-040.
Storage of domestic water is essential if the water source is not extremely reliable. Saudi Aramco requires 14
hours of drinking water storage. For a community, storage must provide 50% of peak daily raw water
consumption plus four hours of maximum firewater requirements. For a plant, storage must provide 50% of
plant building average daily consumption plus 100% of processing water daily requirements plus eight hours of
maximum fire water requirements. (See SAES-B-007A and SAES-S-040.)
The mineral content of domestic water is usually low, below 500 ppm; however, Saudi Aramco permits a
maximum of 1,500 ppm. Other Saudi Aramco limits on domestic water impurities are listed in SAES-A-110.
Design water pressures for Saudi Aramco domestic water systems are 40 psig minimum, 65 psig normal
maximum, and 85 psig absolute maximum. The minimum pipeline diameter allowed is 2 inches.
Firefighting Water (See SAES-B-007A)

Reliability of the firewater source is critical. A river, lake, or even seawater are good sources. Generally, the
quality of firewater is not a concern except potential from salt water. If firewater must be taken from a tank,
storage requirements for various facilities are given in SAES-B-007A, paragraph 7.3.
A firewater system must provide the required flow rate to the protected area, assuming only one major fire
occurrence at any one time. System design should include ways to isolate critical components that might fail
for reasons such as loss of power. The system must be able to deliver a minimum of 50% of the required flow
to the protected area at all times.
Process
Water Treatment and
The firewater system should have a minimum of two electrically driven normal pumps with a total capacity able
to supply the maximum design rate. Spare diesel-driven pumps are required to supply at least 50% of the
design rate if there is a total power failure.
The firewater distribution system should be kept under pressure at all times. Within Saudi Aramco, the
minimum pressure allowed at a hydrant is 100 psig in process areas and 80 psig in offsite and other areas. To
keep the system under pressure, a small jockey pump (300 to 500 gpm capacity) can be used. For systems
requiring 500 gpm maximum or less, no jockey pump is required. System pressure can be maintained by
running a regular pump. For systems requiring 500 to 1,000 gpm, one jockey pump is required. For systems
requiring more than 1,000 gpm, two jockey pumps are required.
If a motor-driven firewater pump is used, the motor should be automatically started when firewater system
pressure is low. It should also be provided with remote start capability.
Firewater piping should be installed below ground in areas where the risk of fire is high. The piping should
arranged in loops with adequate valving so that any section of broken pipe can be isolated. Pipes must be large
enough to provide the required pressures at hydrants at 50% of maximum flow to any fire risk area with any
one section of pipe out of service.
The entire system should be tested frequently to make certain it is all in working order. Frequency of testing is
established based upon the experience with a specific system.
Engine Cooling Water

Engine cooling water often has its own self-contained, closed, recirculating system. However, it can also be
part of a larger cooling water system such as a plant cooling tower recirculating water system.
A closed system must be separately treated to control corrosion and scaling. Makeup water to a closed system
should be of very good quality. Condensate is often a good source. Domestic water or boiler feedwater is also
acceptable.
Additional storage of engine cooling water is usually not required.
Process
Water Treatment and
Chemical Mixing Water

The quality of water used for mixing chemicals depends upon the chemical used and the chemical
manufacturer's recommendations. It is usually best to use the highest quality water available. Condensate,
boiler feedwater, or domestic water may be acceptable.
Hydrostatic Testing Water

Fresh water is preferred for hydrostatic testing because it is less corrosive than brackish or salt water. Almost
any source of fresh water is acceptable. Protection from corrosion must be considered.
If chemical additives are used for corrosion protection, disposal of the water must be planned and
environmental requirements considered.
Process
Water Treatment and
WATER ANALYSES
Water analysis must be performed in order to determine if impurities are within acceptable limits for the
required use. Water analyses are conventionally expressed, for both cations and anions, in parts per million by
weight (ppw) except for hardness and alkalinity, which are usually expressed in ppmw of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3). These ppmw values can be converted to a common basis (such as milli-equivalents/liter). This
permits the summation of oppositely charged ions such that total cations will then equal total anions. Cation
and anion concentrations in milli-equivalents/liter can be converted to ppmw CaCO 3.
The calculations for water at a specific gravity of 1:
Molecular Weight
= Equivalent Weight
Valence
Water Analysis
Ion
Equivalent
Weight
ppmw
MW
100.1
40.08
40
Magnesium (Mg+2)
20.4
24.32
24
Sodium (Na+1)
12.0
23.00
23
366.0
61.02
61
Sulfate (SO4-2)
48.1
96.06
96
Chloride (C1-1)
7.1
35.46
35
Calcium (Ca+2)
Bicarbonate (HCO3-1)
Process
Water Treatment and
Parts Per Million by Weight

= Milli Equivalents / Liter
Equivalent Weight
Milli-equivalents/liter x molecular weight of CaCO 3 = ppmw of CaCO3
Cations
Ion
Milli-Equivalents/Liter (Sp Gr = 1.0)
Ca+2
Mg+2
Na+1
100.1/20.04 = 5.00
20.4/12.16 = 1.68
12.0/23 = 0.52
Totals
7.20
ppmw CaCO3
(5.0)(50.05) = 250
(1.68)(50.05) = 84
(0.52)(50.05) = 26
360
Anions
Ion
Milli-Equivalents/Liter (Sp Gr = 1.0)
ppmw CaCO3
HCO3-1
SO4-2
Cl-1
366/61.02 = 6.00
48.1/48.03 = 1.68
7.1/35.46 = 0.20
(6)(50.05) = 300
(1.0)(50.05) = 50
(0.20)(50.05) = 10
Totals
7.20
360
Total hardness is the sum of calcium and magnesium and is therefore equal to 334 ppmw as CaCO3 (250 + 84).
Correspondingly, alkalinity is the sum of CO 3-2, HCO3-1, and OH-1 ions and is equal to 300 ppmw as
CaCO3.
The values obtained by these calculations can be compared with the Purity Target Tables (Work Aids 2, 3, and
4) to determine if additional treatment is required.
Process
Water Treatment and
QUALITY OF WATER
Five types of impurities found in water are a concern in cooling or steam generation applications. For a
summary of water impurities, difficulties and treatment methods, see Work Aid 1. The five impurity types are:
Scale-forming and deposit-forming insoluble solids
Soluble salts and dissolved gases that can enhance or cause corrosion
Dissolved solids, oil, and silica than can carry over into the steam from a boiler
Caustic (sodium hydroxide - NaOH), which can cause embrittlement
Organics, which can foul anion exchangers
Scale
Scale and deposits result when insoluble salts deposit on heat transfer surfaces. This reduces heat transfer and
can cause equipment failure. Scale is caused primarily by the hardness salts, metals, and silica.
Among the significant scale- and deposit-forming impurities are:
Calcium
Magnesium
Silica
Phosphates
Oil
Iron, copper
Other suspended solids and turbidity
Process
Water Treatment and
Corrosion
Corrosion affects distribution piping, feedwater piping, boiler internals, and condensate piping. The main
causes are oxygen, carbon dioxide, chlorine, and excess alkalinity.
Corrosives act in different ways. Oxygen causes pitting or formation of small pits in distribution piping,
feedwater systems, and boilers. It also aggravates corrosion in condensate systems. It can be removed
externally in a deaerator, and it can be scavenged internally by adding sulfite or hydrazine.
Carbon dioxide also causes condensate system corrosion. It can be removed in a deaerator, degasifier or
decarbonator.
Ammonia attacks copper alloys. It is sometimes added for feedwater or condensate pH control. It can also be
formed by hydrazine decomposition. A deaerator will remove ammonia.
Abnormal alkalinity produces caustic embrittlement, film corrosion, and turbine fouling.
Excessive chelates or dispersants can cause corrosion in steam piping and throughout the steam system.
Impurities that enhance corrosion include:
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Ammonia
Alkalinity
Chlorides
Sulfites
Hydrazine
Chelates
Organics
10
Process
Water Treatment and
Solids
Carryover of solids from boiler water into the steam is caused by inadequate separation in a boiler drum, by
volatilizing of silica, and by foaming resulting from oil contamination of boiler water. Solids carryover can
result in superheater failure, steam turbine blade fouling, and process catalyst fouling. The main causes of such
problems are high total dissolved solids (TDS), alkalinity, oil, and silica in the boiler drum.
Caustic
Caustic embrittlement is the cracking of metal along grain boundaries. It can result from too much caustic in
boiler water particularly in poorly controlled caustic-pH programs where caustic is added for pH control.
Organics
Organics in the makeup water can also foul water-treating exchangers.
Organics are complex acids resulting from decaying plants and other forms of pollution. If they exist in
makeup water in large quantities, they can foul anion exchanges, affect the quality of treated water, and
drastically reduce anion exchanger run lengths. They can be detected by a permanganate test or a total organic
carbon (TOC) test.
Organics can be removed by coagulation and filtration, by chlorination and by preceding a strong anion
exchanger by a weak anion exchanger. Exchangers can be regenerated by periodic rinsing with salt water.
Purity Targets for Once-Through Cooling Water

Once-through cooling water may be obtained from any source. As impurities are flushed out of the system
immediately, quality of the water is not a consideration.
Purity Targets for Open Recirculating Cooling Water

Work Aid 2 lists recommendations for the maximum concentration of impurities in open recirculating cooling
water systems.
11
Process
Water Treatment and
Purity Targets for Boiler Steam Water

Boiler water is treated to protect equipment on both the water side and the steam side of a steam generation
system. The steam quality can be affected in several ways.
Steam drums are designed with internals to improve the separation of water droplets from steam. Vendors who
build steam generators in accordance with American Boiler Makers Association (ABMA) standards guarantee
less than 1 ppm of solids carryover into steam with 2,000 ppm of total dissolved solids (TDS) in the drum
water. Non-ABMA vendors have various other standards. Most process steam generators are special designs
and can have widely varying standards.
In addition to solids carryover, silica is volatile at higher temperatures and can carry over as a vapor. Other
solids also have some solubility in superheated steam.
Alkalinity, high TDS, and the presence of oil in drum water can affect foaming, which results in carryover.
Antifoaming agents can be added to drum water to help reduce foaming. Another method of minimizing
foaming is to keep alkalinity and TDS below ABMA maximum limits. Many plants operate at 50% of ABMA
limits or below.
Auxiliary devices also help to improve steam quality. Steam washers are feasible but are seldom used because
they are difficult to control. External dry drum separators are very effective. In-line axial and T-type separators
also help reduce solids that have been carried over.
Another factor that can affect steam quality is the quality of desuperheating or attemperating water which is
injected into steam to reduce and control the steam temperature. Condensate or very high-quality treated boiler
feedwater is recommended for this use to minimize the quantity of solids injected into the steam.
Impure steam can cause superheater tube ruptures, steam turbine blade fouling and corrosion, and catalyst
contamination.
To minimize superheater fouling and tube ruptures, limiting solids carryover to 0.5 ppm instead of the ABMA
limit of 1 ppm will make a significant improvement. This is particularly true for process steam generators.
To minimize turbine blade fouling, silica should be limited to one half of ABMA limits and the caustic to TDS
ratio should be controlled.
12
Process
Water Treatment and
Caustic and sulfur gases must be controlled to reduce steam turbine blade corrosion and stress corrosion
cracking.
To protect catalysts, the following limits should be met for impurities in steam:
Sulfur < 0.1 ppm
Chlorides < 0.05 ppm
Silica < 0.02 ppm
Sodium < 1.0 ppm
Organics < 0.2 ppm
Work Aid 3 lists the maximum quantities of various impurities permitted in boiler makeup water based on the
conditions listed in the notes.
Work Aid 4 lists the maximum quantities of various impurities allowed to accumulate in steam generator drum
water.
If impurity concentrations do not exceed these targets, most of the difficulties associated with impurities in
boiler water and steam can be avoided.
Purity Targets for Domestic (Sanitary) Water

Specifications for domestic water are covered in SAES-A-110.
Purity Targets for Firefighting Water

Firefighting water can be drawn from any source, regardless of quality.
13
Process
Water Treatment and
WORK AID 1: COMMON CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPURITIES IN WATER

Common Characteristics and Impurities in Water
Constituent
Chemical Formula
Difficulties Caused
Means of Treatment
Turbidity
None usually expressed in

Jackson Turbidity Units
Imparts unsightly appearance to water

Coagulation, settling and filtration
deposits in water lines process equip-ment,
boilers, etc.; interferes with most process
uses
Color
None
Decaying organic material and metallic

ions causing color may cause foaming in
boilers; hinders precipitation methods
such as iron removal, hot phosphate
softening; can stain product in process use
Coagulation, filtration, chlorination,

adsorption by activated carbon
Hardness
Calcium, magnesium, barium

and strontium salts expressed as
CaCO3
Chief source of scale in heat exchange

equipment, boilers, pipelines, etc.; forms
curds with soap; interferes with dyeing,
etc.
Softening, distillation, internal boiler

water treatment, surface active agents,
reverse osmosis, electrodialysis
Alkalinity
Bicarbonate (HCO3-1), carbonate (CO3-2), and hydroxyl (OH1), expressed as CaCO

3
Foaming and carryover of solids with

steam embrittlement of boiler steel;
bicarbonate and carbonate produce CO2
in steam; a source of corrosion
Lime and lime-soda softening, acid

treatment, hydrogen zeolite softening,
demineralization, dealkalization by anion
exchange, distillation, degasi-fying
Free Mineral Acid
H2SO4, HCl, etc. expressed as

CaCO3, titrated to methyl
orange end-point
Corrosion
Neutralization with alkalies
Carbon Dioxide
CO2
Corrosion in water lines and particu-larly

steam and condensate lines
Aeration, deaeration, neutralization with

alkalies filming and neutralizing amines
pH
Hydrogen ion concentration

defined as
pH varies according to acidic or alka-line

pH can be increased by alkalies and
solids in water; most natural waters have a decreased by acids
pH of 6.0 - 8.0
pH
Sulfate
(SO4)-2
Adds to solids content of water, but, in

itself is not usually significant; combines
with calcium to form calcium sulfate scale
Demineralization, distillation, reverse

osmosis, electrodialysis
Chloride
Cl-1
Adds to solids content and increases

corrosive character of water

Nitrate
(NO3)-1
Adds to solids content, but is not usu-ally

significant industrially; useful for control
of boiler metal embrittlement

Fluoride
F-1
Not usually significant industrially
Adsorption with magnesium hydro-xide,

calcium phosphate, or bone black; Alum
coagulation; reverse osmosis;
electrodialysis
Silica
SiO2
Scale in boilers and cooling water systems;

insoluble turbine blade deposits due to
silica vaporization
Hot process removal with magnesium

salts; adsorption by highly basic anion
exchange resins, in conjunction with
demineralization, distillation
14
Process
Water Treatment and
WORK AID 1 (Contd)

Common Characteristics and Impurities in Water (Cont'd)
Constituent
Iron
Chemical Formula
Fe+2 (ferrous)
Difficulties Caused
Means of Treatment
Fe+3 (ferric)
Discolors water on precipitation; source of Aeration, coagulation and filtration, lime

deposits in water lines, etc.; inter-feres with softening, cation exchange, contact
dyeing, tanning, paper mfr., etc.
filtration, surface active agents for iron
retention
Manganese
Mn+2
Same as iron
Same as iron
Oil
Expressed as oil or chloroform

extractable matter, ppmw
Scale, sludge and foaming in boilers,

impedes heat exchange, undesirable in
most processes
Baffle separators, strainers, coagula-tion

and filtration, diatomaceous earth
filtration
Oxygen
O2
Corrosion of water lines, heat exchange

equipment, boilers, return lines, etc.
Deaeration, sodium sulfite, corrosion

inhibitors, hydrazine or suitable
substitute
Hydrogen Sulfide
H2S
Cause of "rotten egg odor;" corrosion
Aeration, chlorination, highly basic anion

exchange
Ammonia
NH3
Corrosion of copper and zinc alloys by

formation of complex soluble ion
Cation exchange with hydrogen zeo-lite,

chlorination deaeration, mixed-bed
demineralization
Conductivity
Expressed as micromhos, specific conductance
Conductivity is the result of ionizable solids Any process which decreases dis-solved
in solution; high conductivity can increase solids content will decrease conductivity
the corrosive characteris-tics of a water
examples are deminerali-zation, lime
softening
Dissolved Solids
None
"Dissolved solids" is measure of total

amount of dissolved matter determined by
evaporation; high concentrations of
dissolved solids are objectionable because
of process interference and as a cause of
foaming in boilers
Various softening process such as lime

softening and cation exchange by hydrogen zeolite, will reduce dissolved
solids; demineralization; distillation;
reverse osmosis; electrodialysis
Suspended Solids
None
"Suspended solids" is the measure of

undissolved matter, determined gravimetrically suspended solids plug lines,
cause deposits in heat exchange equipment, boilers, etc.
Subsidence filtration usually preced-ed by

coagulation and settling
Total Solids
None
"Total solids" is the sum of dissolved and

suspended solids, determined
gravimetrically
See Dissolved Solids and Suspended

Solids
Source: GPSA Engineering Data Book
15
Process
Water Treatment and
WORK AID 2: PURITY TARGETS FOR OPEN RECIRCULATING COOLING

WATER
IMPURITY
MAXIMUM CONCENTRATION
Calcium (Ca ++)
800 mg/L as CaCO3
Inhibitor with phosphate
400 mg/L as CaCO3
Sulfate (SO4 - -) AS CaCO3
5 x 105 divided by calcium mg/L
Silica (SiO2)
150 mg/L as SiO2
Magnesium (mg ++) AS CaCO3
3.5 x 104 divided by silica mg/L
*Chlorides (Cl -)
1,000 mg/L as Cl-
Ammonia (NH3)
10 mg/L as Cl-
**Phosphate (PO4 - -)
5 mg/L with Ca++ at 400 mg/L
*Total dissolved salts
3,000 mg/L as is
Suspended solids (< 0.45 microns)
200 mg/L
Oil and grease
10 mg/L
Biological Oxygen Demand
60 mg/L
pH
6.0 to 7.5
*For carbon steel tubes

**Depends on tricalcium phosphate solubility
16
Process
Water Treatment and
WORK AID 3: TYPICAL TREATMENT PURITY TARGETS - MAXIMUM

IMPURITIES IN BOILER MAKEUP WATER
BOILER OPERATING
PRESSURE
TOTAL DISSOLVED
SOLIDS (TDS)
SILICA
TOTAL
HARDNESS
TOTAL
ALKALINITY
TURBIDITY
(ppm)
(ppm)
(ppm)
(ppm)
(ppm)
(psig) (barg)
150
10
220
15
45
300
20
200
11
40
450
30
155
30
600
40
125
25
0.5
750
50
100
20
0.5
900
60
80
0.8
15
0.5
1200
80
0.03
0.1
1500
100
0.01
0.1
2000
140
0.005
0.5
0.1
NOTE:
This table is based on the following criteria:
Makeup water temperature of 10C (40F)
20% dilution from condensed heating steam in the deaerator or hot lime softener
Boiler blowdown rate of 10% for operating pressure up to 60 barg (900 psig)
Silica can be less than 0.1 ppm from a demineralizer
17
Process
Water Treatment and
WORK AID 4: TYPICAL TREATMENT PURITY TARGETS - MAXIMUM

IMPURITIES IN STEAM DRUM WATER
BOILER OPERATING
PRESSURE
HYDRATE
(psig)
(barg)
TOTAL DISSOLVED
SOLIDS
SILICA
(ppm)
(ppm)
ALKALINITY
TOTAL
(ppm)
(ppm)
150
10
1750
125
350
175
300
20
1500
90
300
150
450
30
1250
50
250
125
600
40
1000
35
200
100
750
50
750
20
150
75
900
60
625
125
60
1200
80
500
2.5
100
1500
100
350
1.0
75
2000
140
250
0.5
50
18
Process
Water Treatment and
GLOSSARY
alkalinity
anions
anion exchanger
attemperating
biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD)
biocide
blowdown
calcium and magnesium
hardness
cations
caustic or caustic soda
caustic embrittlement
coagulation
desuperheating
dissolved solids
filtration
hardness
ion
jockey pump
makeup water
nephelometric turbidity unit
(NTU)
organics
pH
potable water
raw water
The total carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide ion concentration in the

water expressed as ppm calcium carbonate equivalent. These ions react
with acid.
Negatively charged ions in the water, for example, sulfates, chlorides,
nitrates, and bicarbonates.
A vessel containing insoluble resin that is capable of exchanging one
anion, usually hydroxide ions, for other undesirable anions in the water,
for example, sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates.
Spraying water on steam coming out of a boiler to lower the temperature
of the steam.
A measure of the oxygen consumed in the oxidation
of organic and oxidizable inorganic materials in wastewater (expressed in
ppm).
A poisonous chemical substance that can kill living organisms.
The removal of a portion of water from a system or boiler drum to control
the concentration of dissolved and suspended impurities in the system or
boiler water.
The concentration of calcium and magnesium ions in the water, expressed
as ppm calcium carbonate equivalent.
Positively charged ions in the water, for example, calcium, magnesium,
and sodium.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
A type of boiler corrosion characterized by cracking of the metal along the
grain boundaries. It may occur when highly stressed metal is exposed to
concentrated boiler water. It is usually associated with high concentration
of sodium hydroxide.
A process whereby suspended and colloidal particles, which cause
turbidity and color in water, are combined by physical means into masses
large enough to settle.
Spraying water on steam in the system to reduce the temperature of the
steam.
See Total Dissolved Solids.
The process of passing water containing suspended matter through a
porous material to remove the suspended matter. The suspended matter is
normally reduced to less than one NTU of turbidity.
Same as calcium and magnesium hardness.
Electrically charged particle formed when a molecule dissociates into
positive and negative particles, for example, salt into positive sodium and
negative chloride ions.
A small pump used to maintain pressure on a firewater system when there
is little or no demand on the system.
Water added to a system to make up for losses or blowdown
A measurement of the turbidity of a sample of water, determined by light
reflection.
Complex acids resulting from decaying plants and other forms of
pollution.
A measurement of the acidity or alkalinity of a system. The reference
temperature for pH is 25C (77F) and the pH scale runs from 0 (highly
acidic) to 14 (highly basic), with pH = 7.0 being neutral.
Drinkable water.
Water that has not yet been processed by a water treating plant.
19
Process
Water Treatment and
suspended solids
total hardness
turbidity
Finely divided insoluble matter present in water. The suspended solids

are normally inorganic material, such as clay, rock, silt, etc.
Calcium plus magnesium hardness.
Lack of clarity due to the presence of suspended or colloidal matter,
expressed in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).
20
Process
Water Treatment and
REFERENCES
Saudi Aramco Standards
SAES-A-103
Marine Wastewater Discharge
SAES-A-104
Water Reuse and Land Disposal
SAES-A-110
Drinking Water Supply
SAES-B-007A
Firewater System Design
SAES-S-040
Saudi Aramco Water Systems
Saudi Aramco Design Practices
SADP-S-040
Saudi Aramco Water Systems
SADP-Section IV
Firefighting Facilities
Exxon Basic Practices
BP11-1-1
Filters for Water Treating Systems
BP11-2-1
Fixed-Bed Ion Exchange Water Treating Units
BP11-4-1
Hot Process Water Treaters
BP11-4-2
Cold Process Water Treaters
BP11-5-1
Water Deaerators and Degasifiers (Decarbonators)
21

Engineering Encyclopedia: Water Treatment and Distribution / Sources, Uses and Quality

Încărcat de

Informații document

Descriere originală:

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Engineering Encyclopedia: Water Treatment and Distribution / Sources, Uses and Quality

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Water Treatment And

For additional information on this subject, contact

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Purchased or municipal water

Surface fresh water

Subsurface ground water

Once-through cooling water

recirculating cooling water (cooling tower) makeup water

Domestic (sanitary) water

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Once-Through Cooling Water

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Recirculating Cooling Water

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Domestic (Sanitary) Water

Firefighting Water (See SAES-B-007A)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Engine Cooling Water

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Chemical Mixing Water

Hydrostatic Testing Water

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Parts Per Million by Weight

Milli-Equivalents/Liter (Sp Gr = 1.0)

Milli-Equivalents/Liter (Sp Gr = 1.0)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Scale-forming and deposit-forming insoluble solids

Caustic (sodium hydroxide - NaOH), which can cause embrittlement

Organics, which can foul anion exchangers

Other suspended solids and turbidity

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Purity Targets for Once-Through Cooling Water

Purity Targets for Open Recirculating Cooling Water

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Purity Targets for Boiler Steam Water

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Sulfur < 0.1 ppm

Chlorides < 0.05 ppm

Silica < 0.02 ppm

Sodium < 1.0 ppm

Organics < 0.2 ppm

Purity Targets for Domestic (Sanitary) Water

Purity Targets for Firefighting Water

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

WORK AID 1: COMMON CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPURITIES IN WATER

None usually expressed in

Imparts unsightly appearance to water

Decaying organic material and metallic

Coagulation, filtration, chlorination,

Calcium, magnesium, barium

Chief source of scale in heat exchange

Softening, distillation, internal boiler

Bicarbonate (HCO3-1), carbonate (CO3-2), and hydroxyl (OH1), expressed as CaCO

Foaming and carryover of solids with

Lime and lime-soda softening, acid

Free Mineral Acid

H2SO4, HCl, etc. expressed as

Neutralization with alkalies