Concrete and construction techenolohy

Cement:
Cement is a finely pulversied material which by itself is not a binder but develpos
the binding property as a result of hydeation. (chemical reaction between cement,
minerals and water)
A cement is called a hydraulic when the hyderation products are stable in an
aqueous environment. (hyderation cement is a portland cement)
The most commonly used hydeaulic cement formaking concrete is portland cement
which consist essentially of a hydeaulic calcium silicates.
Calcium silicate hydrates formed on the hyderation of portland cement are primarily
responciable for its adhesive characteristics and are stable in aqueous environment.
Concrete as a mixture of hydraulic cement, aggregrate and water.
Admixture : materials other than aggrregates cement water which added to the
concrete batch immediately before mixing.
Chemical admixture can modify the setting and hardening characteristics of the
cement paste.
Water reducing admixture can plasticize fresh concrete mixture by reducing the
surface tension of water.
Air entraining admixture can improve the durability of water exposed to cold
weather.
Mineral admixtures such as pozzolans can reduce thermal mash cracking in mass
concrete.

High strength cement

cement having much higher strength than ordinary portland cement.
Cement used in pre-stressed concrete and air field work and used in high
strength concrete.
Concrete based on unit weight it is classified as,
1. Normal weight concrete(stractural purpose -2400 kg/m 3 )
2. Light weight concrete (1800kg/m3)
3. Heavy weight concrete (3200kg/m3)
Concrete base on compressive strength
1. Low sterngth concrete(<20mpa)
2. Moderate strength concrete(20-40mpa)
3. Hight strength concrete(>40mpa)

Highly active puzzling (rice busk ash and condensed silica fumes) are
capable of producing high strength concrete at both early & late stages.
Use of mineral admixtures increases the strength of concrete at both early &
later stages.
Use of flash in concrete can produce compressive strength of about 59mpa
to 56 days.
It is used to structural purpose.

Test for concrete

Fresh concrete or plastic concrete is a freshly mixed material which can be
measured to any shape.
SLUMP TEST
It is the most commonly used method of measuring the consistence of
concrete.
Mould should be placed on a smooth horizontal rigid and non-absorbent
surface.
Mould is filled in four layer (1/4) Th of the high of mould.
Each layer is tamed 25 times by tamping lord.
Mould is removed from the concrete immediately by raising it slowly &
carefully in a vertical direction.
Concrete will subside and subsidence is refueled as slump of concrete.
Difference in level between the high of the mould and that of highest point of
the subsided concrete is measured.
Pattern of slumps shows the characteristics of concrete in addition to the
slump value.
Concrete slumps evenly it is called true slump.
Shear slump indicate concrete is non-cohesive & segregation.
Very low

0-25mm

Low

25-50mm

Medium

50-100mm

High

100-175mm

COMPACTING FACTOR TEST

The degree of compacting called the compacting factor is measured by the
density ratio.
Concrete to be tested is placed in the rapper hopper of the brim.
Trap door is opened so that the concrete falls into the lower hopper.
Trap door of the conical hopper is opened and concrete is allowed to fall into
the cylinder.
Compacting factor = height of partially concrete / weight of fully compacted
concrete.
FLOW TABLE TEST
Flow test which gives an indication of the quality of concrete with respect to
consistency, cohesiveness and the proneness to segregation.
Spreader or flow of the concrete is measured.
Flow is related to workability
Mould is kept of the centre of the table filled in two layers.
Each layer is lidded 25 times with a tapping lord 1.6 cm in and 61 cm long
rounded at lower tamping.
Mould is lifted up vertically concrete stand on its own support.
Then table is raised and dropped 12.5mm 15 times in about 15 sec.
Diameter of the spread is measured in dimensions and average is noted
Flow % =
VEE BEE TEST
It consist of a vibrating table, a cylindrical pan, a slump cone and a glass or
plastic disk attached to the free moving red.
Cone is placed in the pan filled with concrete and removed.
Disc is brought into position on the top of concrete cone.
Vibrating table is set in motion.
Time required removing the concrete from the conical to cylindrical shape
until the disk is completely covered with the concrete.

Measure of consistency is reported as the no of vee bee seconds.

Manufacturing of cement:Lime stone
Raw material
Clay
Dry modern tech
1. Mixing
Wet modern tech
2. Burning
3. Grinding
4. Paving and distribution
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING:
Estimate strength
Durability
Elastic parameters
Hardness
Resistance to penetration
Rebound number
Resonant frequency
Electrical property
VARIOUS TESTS
Rebound test Strength
Pull out techniques strength
Surface hardness method strength
Dynamic and vibration method elastic property
Radioactive and nuclear method
Magnetic& electric method

SURFACE HARDNESS TEST

REBOUND HAMMER
Distance travelled by rebound number.
LIMITATIONS
Smoothness of surface
Size & shape
Age
Surface & internal moist content
Course aggregate
Cement
Mould
Carbonation of conc. Surface
PENETRATION TECHNIQUE
Hammer samba

affected by coarse aggregate arraignment

Spit pins
25 % accuracy
Windsor probe gum herded alloy probes lauded cartridges

28 days
Comp. strength

Exposed probe length

PULL OUT TECHINIQUES

Force pull out the concern
More stronger the concrete

91 days
Comp strength

Pull out strength

DYNAMIC AND VIBRATION METHOD
Resonant frequency maxi amplitude monometer
Pulse velocity
Longitudinal
Mechanical sonic pulse
Transverse / longitudinal
Transverse
Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Surface waves

Relationship between velocities of sound

Through specimen resonant

modules of elasticity

Frequency

Transducers

Receive

Detritions of concrete
Determination of time of removed of formwork
RADIOACTIVE METHOD
Incident gamma rays
Emerging and rays
Density of structural member
NUCLEAR METHOD
Neutron scattering

concrete content

Neutron activation
MAGNETIC METHODS:
Cover meter Reinforcement position
PULSE VELOCITY MEASUREMENT
Direct transmission
Indirect transmission
Surface transmission
Affected by:
Smoothness
Temperature
Reinforcing steel
Moisture content of cone
Uniformity
Strength of cone
Deformation of conc.
Time of removal and form work

ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY METHOD

Pulse velocity is a measurement of transits time of an ultrasonic pulse
between a transmitter and a receiver.
If the distance between the transmitter and the receiver is known the
velocity of the pulse can be determined.
To test concrete, contact between the concrete and the transmitter and
receiver is made with a coupling agent such as a petroleum jelly.
Velocity of sound waves through the concrete is reduced by the presence of
voids or cracks.
Non destructive elevation that been filled with epoxy. - In this case, the
transmitter and receiver are fixed at a given distance apart and assembly is
placed perpendicular to the crack.
Where plus velocity measurements are taken.
Reading of repair crack is compiled to the un cracked section.
A property repaired crack will displaced a transit velocity equal to that of the
un cracked section.
PULL OFF TESTING
It measures a bond between two layers.
There are 3 types of possible tensile failure
Failure in the substructure layer
Separation at the interface between the substrate the surface layer.
Failure in the surface layer.
Testing device can also record the force required to cause failure which
divide by the surface area of the specimen, will result in the tensile strength.
It is the greatly influenced by aggregate size, alignment of the device to the
surface.
REBOUND AND PENETRATION METHODS:
Rebound and penetration method are used to measure the surface hardness
of concrete.

Surface hardness is proportional to concrete compressive strength of

concrete.
Rebound hammer methods utilize a spring loaded plunger that impact the
surface Causing the mechanism to rebound.
Rebound is measured and compared to the initial extension of the spring,
yield a rebound number.
Rebound can be affect by the angle of test, surface smoothness, type of
aggregates, carbonation of concrete and moisture content.
Penetrate methods is similar to rebound methods but use more powerful
energy to device a probe into the concrete surface.
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING:
It provides relevant means for periodic inspections in order to maintain the
quality of constructed facilities.
Non destructive techniques which are less time consuming and relatively
inexpensive can be useful for the following purpose.
Test on actual structures later than on companion samples.
Test at several locations.
Test at various ages.
Quality control of actual structure.
Assessment of uniformity of concrete.
Location and assessment of the extent of cracks, voids and honey
combs.
OBJECTIVES:
To obtain an estimate of properties of materials by measuring certain
qualities which are empirically related to it.
Following test:
Rebound hammer
(1)When the plunger of rebound hammer is pressed against the surface of
concrete.
(2)A spring controlled mass, rebounds and the extent of rebound depends
upon the surface hardness of the concrete.

(3)Rebound distance is measured on a graduated scale and designed as

rebound no.
(4)Distance depends on the value of K.E in the hammer.
(5)Pact of the energy is absorbed by concrete which enables one to use
the rebound number as an indicator of concrete properties.
(6)Energy absorbed by the concrete depends up on the stress and strain
relationship of the concrete.
(7)Low strength, low stiffness concrete will absorb more energy.
(8)High strength, high stiffness concrete will absorb less energy. The
various factors which affect the rebound number are
(a) Type of cement
(b)Type of causes aggregate
(c) Surface and internal moisture condition,
(d)Causing and age of test specimens.
(e) Surface texture
(f) Orientation of instrument
Advantages:
Simple in operation speedy and inexpensive.
Applications:
Determination of concrete uniformity
Strength development monitoring
Assessment testing in precast concrete industry.
Accessing the relative quality structural members.
PULL OFF TEST:
In this method a circular steel disc, glued to the surface of the concrete with
a poly-ester resin adhesives.
Force required to pull this from the surface together with an attached layer of
concrete is measured.
A simple mechanical hand operator loading equipment is used.
A 50mm disc is generally used
It has good relation between the compressive strength & pull off strength.
ADVANTAGE & LIMITATIONS
Directly measures a strength related property.
Requires only one exposed surface

Suitable for small sections

APPLICATIONS
Used in quality control long term moistening and in site strength assessment.
BREAK OFF TEST
The break off test determines directly the flexural tensile strength in plane parallel
to the concrete surface at a specified distance below the surface.
It also crenellates with compressive strength.
Used on both fresh & hardened concrete.
A hand operated pump is used to supply the hydraulic fluid to the gawk which
applied a horizontal force to top of the core.
Reaction to horizontal force is provided by a ring which breaks against the counter
bore.
ADVANTAGE & APPLICATION
It is handy, easy to operates results are little affected by local shrinkage &
temperature forces
Used in quality control of concrete pavement and estimation of in place
compressive strength
Used to evaluate bond strength between concrete & over lay materials.
ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY
Determines the propagation velocity of the pulse of vibration energy through a
concrete member.
Transducer contact with the surface of the concrete is made with Greece or
petroleum jelly to avoid any entrapped air.
Time of travel between the initial onset and reception of the pulse is measured in
different ways electronically.
Spreading a thin layer of jelly on the smooth surface of the two probes and coupling
them with a slight pressure.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE PULSE VELOCITY
Surface condition & moisture content
Temperature of concrete
Micro cracks in concrete
Age of concrete

Presence of steel reinforcement

Aggregate type, content & size.
PULSE ECHO METHOD
It is used with success in detecting very large structural cracks in concrete dams,
piles, caissons, piers.To locate honey combed concrete through metal ducts.
The method is based on the principle that internal defects and boundaries of the
objects will reflect incident stress waves and the reflected waves will travel back to
the surface
At transient stress pull is introduced into a test object by a point impact.
Opposite face get reflected & propagate back in test object.
GRADES OF ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT
The bureau of Indian standards as classified ordinary Portland cement into 3 grades
for producing different grades of concrete to meet the demands of the construction
industry. The classification is made on the basis of compressive strength at 28 days
as
35 grades ordinary P CIS 269:1989
43 grades - ordinary P C IS 8112:1989
53 grade ordinary P C IS 12269:1987
The grade indicates compressive strength of the cement in N/mm 2 at 28 days.
Since, higher grades of concrete necessitate the use of higher strength of cement at
28 days. Use of 33 grade cement has drop during the last decade. Both 43 & 53
grade cement can be used for producing higher grades of concrete.
LOW ALKALI PORTLAND CEMENT
There is no separate standard for low alkali Portland cement but in regions where
the aggregate have reactive silica or carbonates. Alkalis in the cement are restricted
to 0.8% of soda equivalent (Na2o +0.658 K2o); with a view to avoid the occurrence
of alkali aggregate reaction leading to possible cracking and destruction of concrete
in such cases, instead of low alkali Portland cement can be used with added
advantage.
BULKING OF SAND
Sand as delivered sometimes contains moisture which causes an elm of water on
the surface of the particles fluffing their apart. This is called Bulking. This will have
to be taken into account while batching the mix.
CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES
Chemical admixtures are sometimes called the fifth ingredient of concrete other
than cement, coarse, and fine aggregate &water. they are inorganic (or)organic

materials solid (or)liquid which when added to the normal components of mix
(either concrete (or)mortar(or)paste).interact with the cementations system
through chemical, physical(or)physic-chemical means modifying one (or)more
properties of the mix in the fresh, setting ,hardening (or)hardened state. a number
of advantages can be delved the use of admixtures, eg; in the fresh state of
concrete depending on the type of admixture used they can increase the
workability, without increasing the water content reduce (or)prevent settlement
,modify the rate and capacity of bleeding reduce segregation & reduce slump loss
created (or)accelerate the time of initial (or)final setting. Aside from altering the
properties of the fresh mix. They can reduce hat evolution during early hardening
accelerate the rate of strength development at early ages increase the compressive
strength of the concrete .improve durability, control alkali aggregate reactivity,
produce aerated concrete improve bond between old &new concrete, inhibit
corrosion of reinforcement produce colored concrete or mortar etcchemical
admixtures can lie classified according to the type of materials consisting them.
Commonly used admixtures are,

Water reducing or pasteurizing admixtures.

Set controlling admixtures or retarders
Air entraining admixtures
Accelerating admixtures
High range water reducing or super plasticizing admixture.
Besides the above other type of admixtures are also used .they include,
Grouting admixtures
Pumping acids.
Bounding admixtures.
Expansion producing admixtures.
Functional admixtures.
Germicidal admixtures
Insecticidal admixtures etc
Commercially available admixtures may contain materials that separately
belong to one or more groups eg; water reducing admixture &soon.
The effectiveness of an admixture depended upon such factor as type, brand
amount of cement, water, aggregate shape, grading proportion, mixing time,
slump temperature of concrete& air.
The physical requirements for the main type admixtures s given in
IS9103:1999.
Trial mix should be made with the admixture and the job material at yet
temperature & humidity anticipated on the job. In this way the compatibility
of the admixture with other job materials ;as well as the effect of admixture
of the properties of the fresh & hardened concrete ;can be observed .the
amount of admixture recommended by the manufacture or the optimum
amount determined by laboratory test should be used .

Since ,admixtures are generally supplied in bulk it is necessary to carry

out uniformity test .all the lot of admixtures as per the requirements of
IS9103;1999.Despite the verity and combination of admixture used, it should
be borne in mind that no admixture at any time or amount can be considered
as a sub title for good concreting practice.
DURABILITY;
Durable concrete can be defined as i.e. designed constructed and maintained
to perform satisfactoricty in the expected environment for the specified life of
the structure without undue maintained .the materials and mix proportions
chosen should be such as to maintain the integrity of the concrete and to
protect the embedded reinforcement.
IS 456:2000 IDENTIFIES VARIOUS FACTORS INFLUENCING DURABILITY
AS.
1. Environment
2. Cover to the embedded steel-type & quality of constituent
MATERIALS
Cement content & water cement ratio.
Workmanship to obtain full combination and efficient curing
Shape & size of members
CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
Different ingredients of concrete need to lie mixed in appropriate proportions during
the production of concrete. This can be done either by volume or by weight the
latter being more precise & scientific. It is essential that concrete mixes we
designed for a particular set of given ingredients to produce specific properties of
concrete in the most economical way. This is a must for large scale where quantity
is an important yardstick.
Rational proportioning of the ingredients of concrete generally referred as mix
proportioning or mix designing. It is a process by which one can arrive at the right
combination of cement, aggregate, water & admixtures for producing concrete to
satisfy given specifications. The purpose of mix proportioning into obtain a product
that will perform to certain predetermined requirements. The objective of mix
design is to ensure that the concrete.
(1) Compiles with the compressive strength as laid down in the specifications.
(2) Conforms to the specified durability requirements to resist the environment in
which the structure will be serviceable during its design life.
(3) It has adequate workability.
(4) It is capable of being mixed transported laid down & compacted as efficiently as
possible.
(5) As economical as possible to achieve an optimum mix proportion to fulfill the
above parameters it is a challenging risk. The work of mix designing is a trial &
error exercise which needed to be carryout by an experienced person in a

laboratory. The concrete mix needs to be designed to produce the grade of

concrete having characteristics strength not less than the appropriate values.
The mix also needs to be designed for adequate workability. So that it could be
being mixed, transported laid down and compacted as efficiently as possible.
Depending upon, the placing conditions I.S.456 as recommended different
ranges of workability. In addition the concrete has to satisfy the durability
requirements namely the minimum cement content, maximum water content
ratio & minimum grade of concrete as specified by IS 456.It will be noted that
the code has specified the minimum grade of concrete to be not less than M20
for reinforcement concrete constructions to achieve the responsibility.
The responsibility for carrying out the mix design rest with the contractor or
expert agency employed by the contractor. The mix so designed needs to be
approved by the employers or client. The contractor or expert agency can use
any mix design method in designing the mix. It would be appropriate to obtain
the standard deviation based on the test strength of the samples at a project
site. In case such test results are not available, assumed values of std. Deviation
may be used for design of the mix in the first instants as soon as the results of
the sample are available actual calculated standard deviation shall be used &
the mix design properly.