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MARCH-APRIL 2015
ACI
STRUCTURAL
J O U R N A L
CONTENTS
Board of Direction
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William E. Rushing Jr.
Vice Presidents
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Directors
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Dean A. Browning
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Robert J. Frosch
Augusto H. Holmberg
Cary S. Kopczynski
Steven H. Kosmatka
Kevin A. MacDonald
Fred Meyer
Michael M. Sprinkel
David M. Suchorski
157
Energy-Based Hysteresis Model for Reinforced Concrete BeamColumn Connections, by Tae-Sung Eom, Hyeon-Jong Hwang, and
Hong-Gun Park
Staff
179
Behavior and Simplified Modeling of Mechanical Reinforcing Bar
Splices, by Zachary B. Haber, M. Saiid Saiidi, and David H. Sanders
189
Bond-Splitting Strength of Reinforced Strain-Hardening Cement
Composite Elements with Small Bar Spacing, by Toshiyuki Kanakubo
and Hiroshi Hosoya
199 Wide Beam Shear Behavior with Diverse Types of Reinforcement,
by S. E. Mohammadyan-Yasouj, A. K. Marsono, R. Abdullah, and
M.Moghadasi
209 Effect of Axial Compression on Shear Behavior of High-Strength
Reinforced Concrete Columns, by Yu-Chen Ou and Dimas P. Kurniawan
Engineering
Managing Director
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Managing Editor
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233 Discussion
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Editors
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Angela R. Matthews
121
Fire Protection for Beams with Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Flexural Strength-
Contributions to
ACI Structural Journal
Analysis and Prediction of Transfer Length in Pretensioned, Prestressed
Concrete Members. Paper by Byung Hwan Oh, Si N. Lim, Myung K. Lee, and
SungW. Yoo
Flexural Testing of Reinforced Concrete Beams with Recycled Concrete
Aggregates. Paper by Thomas H.-K. Kang, Woosuk Kim, Yoon-Keun Kwak, and
Sung-Gul Hong
241
Reviewers in 2014
MEETINGS
MARCH/APRIL
30-2Concrete Sawing & Drilling
Association Convention and Tech Fair,
St. Petersburg, FL, www.csda.org/events/
event_details.asp?id=444478&group
APRIL
13-15BEST Conference Building
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Kansas City, MO, www.nibs.org/?page=best
26-292015 Post-Tensioning Institute
Convention, Houston, TX, www.posttensioning.org/page/pti-convention
26-3057th Annual IEEE-IAS/
PCA Cement Industry Technical
Conference, Toronto, ON, Canada, www.
cementconference.org
MAY
JUNE
ON COVER: 112-S12, p. 136, Fig. 2Reinforced concrete (left) and prestressed concrete (right) specimens
on the E-Defense shake table.
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122
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TECHNICAL PAPER
Evaluation of Column Load for Generally Uniform GridReinforced Pile Cap Failing in Punching
by Honglei Guo
Currently, the punching shear resistance of pile caps is frequently
evaluated empirically, and although the strut-and-tie model (STM)
may be used to calculate the issue, the two weaknesses of STM
conservative nature and difficult configurationhinder its rational
solution. To attempt to solve these issues, this paper presents a
generalized method of spatial STMs to evaluate punching shear
resistance of general pile caps with uniform grid reinforcement
(TPM). Based on results of the spatial strut-and-tie bearing mechanism of pile cap punching failure, three-dimensional (3-D) rather
than two-dimensional (2-D) strut strength is derived. During this
process, nonlinear finite element analysis in conjunction with the
derivation of a gradual least-square method for multiple variables
is adopted. TPM is verified by 98 specimens in the literature, whose
parameters (reinforcement ratio of tension tie, punching-span ratio,
concrete strength, pile number, and pile arrangement) vary, respectively; the comparisons with the other four methods are made. It
is indicated that TPM is extensively applicable to the evaluation
of the punching shear resistance of general pile caps with uniform
grid reinforcement.
Keywords: building code; pile cap; punching shear resistance; strut-and-tie
model (STM).
INTRODUCTION
A pile cap is the load-transfer story between the superstructure and pile, while the evaluation of its punching shear
resistance is an important basis for determining its thickness
and arrangement of reinforcement.
Generally speaking, the evaluation of punching shear
resistance of a pile cap can be classified into two types
according to the theory of plasticity:
Type 1The collapse mechanism is assumed so that
the upper-bound solution to punching shear resistance is
obtained using the theory of plasticity, called the upperbound method for short. This method is adopted in the
critical section stress method of the ACI 318-08 code (ACI
CSM)1 and the Chinese JGJ94-94 code.2 (Although an
empirical method in appearance, ACI CSM is theoretically
an upper-bound method in essence).
Of the aforementioned, as shown in the Appendix* of the
paper, ACI CSM,1 (also, the details of JGJ94-94, ACI STM,
CRSI,3 and TPM at the back being given in the Appendix
of the paper) similar to the calculating method used for
punching shear resistance of slab in the ACI 318-08 code, is
divided into two steps:
1. For simplicity of evaluation, the critical sections
perpendicular to the plane of the pile cap are used instead
The Appendix is available at www.concrete.org/publications in PDF format,
appended to the online version of the published paper. It is also available in hard copy
from ACI headquarters for a fee equal to the cost of reproduction plus handling at the
time of the request.
of the oblique sections of the punching cone, and the perimeter of the critical sections is kept minimum but no closer to
the column edge than d/2 (the definition of d being given in
Eq.(1) and Fig. 4); and
2. Take the minimum of the three kinds of punching shear
resistance in these sections as the ultimate.
Whereas the method in JGJ94-94 code2 is divided into
three steps: 1) take the link line between the column side and
the nearest pile side to form the punching cone; 2) modify
the inclination of the punching cone to ensure it to vary from
45 to 78.7 degrees; and 3) in the end, use a punching coefficient containing the punching-span ratio to correct the
punching shear resistance (the definition of being given
in Eq. (1)).
Type 2The rational stress field is assumed according
to the load-transfer route so that the lower-bound solution
to punching shear resistance is obtained, called the lowerbound method for short. As far as the practical evaluation
of the reinforced concrete is concerned, it has often been the
best choice for this method to have the structure likened to
a certain kind of structure or a combination of certain structures whose bearing mechanism is well known.
In technical codes, the text and Appendix A of
ACI318-08,1 the CRSI handbook,3 CAN/CSA A23.3-04,4
BSEN 1992-1-1:2004,5 and AS 3600-20016 either adopt or
contain thismethod.
Of the aforementioned, when the center of any one pile is
at or within twice the distance between the top of the pile cap
and the top of the pile, Section 15.5 in ACI 318-081 states that
punching of the pile cap can be likened to an idealized truss,
and Appendix A of ACI 318-081 gives the basic components
of the truss: strut, tie, and nodal zone, and there is a series
of systematic provisions for the strength and dimensions
of these components. In fact, a general strut-and-tie design
procedure for all discontinuity (D)-regions wasintroduced.
As a supplement to the ACI 318-08 code, the CRSI handbook3 recommends another calculating method, separated
by three steps: 1) the applicable condition is the horizontal
distance between the column side and the nearest axis of the
pile is no larger than d/2; 2) the critical section is taken at the
perimeter of the column face; and 3) the additional contribution of concrete to the punching strength resulting from
the small punching span is considered. This shows that the
CRSI handbook method effectively likens the evaluation of
ACI Structural Journal, V. 112, No. 2, March-April 2015.
MS No. S-2010-415.R3, doi: 10.14359/51687420, received July 29, 2014, and
reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright 2015, American Concrete
Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is
obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including authors
closure, if any, will be published ten months from this journals date if the discussion
is received within four months of the papers print publication.
123
bottom; Zone II, the splitting zone in the midpart of the strut;
and Zone I, the shear-compression zone intersecting the pile
top. The forming process of the punching cone is as follows:
when the principal tensile stress in Zone II reaches the
splitting strength, the first crack is generated and, with the
column load increased, the oblique crack develops toward
the two ends of the strut. Soon after, the strut is split into
two (Struts A and B) connected at its two ends (Zones I and
III), the column load being jointly borne by Struts A and B.
Part of the column load is transferred to the longitudinal
reinforcement and the uncracked concrete of Zone I by
StrutA, and the other part is transferred to the pile by StrutB.
When punching failure occurs, Strut A is punched out relative to Strut B to have the punching cone formed. It can be
considered that the column load at this moment is jointly
borne by Zones I and III, together with the dowel action of
the bottom longitudinal reinforcement. The two parts are
correlated, and the loss of the punching shear resistance is a
result of the damages in the aforementioned parts occurring
one after another so that, with no additional external load, the
oblique section suddenly collapses. Therefore, the punching
failure of pile caps is either the strut failure, which begins
with the splitting in the midpart of the strut (Zone II) and
ends with shear-compression failure at the two ends of the
strut (Zones I and III) or the yield failure of the tension tie
resulting from insufficient tension tie reinforcement amount.
But the tension tie failure is also accompanied by the strut
failure, so the strut failure is an indication of the loss of the
pile cap punching shear resistance.12
The two basic factors influencing the strut strength are the
punching-span ratio and concrete strength.12 The strengths at
the two ends of the strut are not appreciably different; their
average can be taken as the strut strength.12
= w/d (1)
0.95
= 2.89255 0.31042fc*
= 1.059
1.0
= 2.89255 0.31042fc
= 1.056
1.2
= 2.8618 0.30712fc
= 1.04775
1.4
= 2.8782 0.30888fc
= 1.05225
1.6
= 2.8659 0.30756fc
= 1.04775
1.8
= 2.8618 0.30712fc
= 1.04925
2.0
= 2.88025 0.3091fc
= 1.0545
0.75
0.95
0.35
0.75
0.15
0.35
As
(2)
2Dp d
where, as shown in Fig. 6, As is the sum of the crosssectional areas of the longitudinal reinforcements within the
effective range of the tension tie; and Dp is the pile diameter.
As pointed out earlier, the strut failure is an indication
of the loss of the pile cap punching shear resistance. So
the evaluation of punching shear resistance of pile caps is
exactly an evaluation of the strut bearing load, while strut
bearing load F is the cross-sectional area at the strut end S
strut strength fce. It is known from the earlier statement that S
is 0.6 times the cross-sectional area of the pile, and fce is the
average of the strengths at the two ends of the strut. So F can
be expressed as follows
F = S f ce = 0.6R 2
f ce1 + f ce 2
(3)
2
where R is the radius of the pile; fce1 is the strength at one end
of the strut; and fce2 is that at the other end.
Thus, if only the specific expression of fce is found, F
will be obtained. Then, depending on static equilibrium at
the upper node of the SSTM, the column load of pile caps
failing in punching will be readily solved.
DERIVATION FOR fce
Define = fce/fc, where fc is the cylinder compressive
strength of the strut concrete.
126
= 2.05f1() 0.22f2()fc
(4)
= 0.75f3()
(5)
( ) =
f1 ( ) + f 2 ( ) + f 3 ( )
3
= (fc) ()
2) () = 2.35 , for 0.75 0.95
(6b)
3) () = 1.975 0.5, for 0.35 0.75
f ce = f c = ( f c)( ) f c (7)
where (fc) and () are found in Eq. (6a) and (6c), respectively. As shown in Eq. (7), fce is a constantly increasing
function of fc, whatever the range fc is in; for 0.15
0.95, fce is a decreasing function of , while for 0.95, fce
is a constant function of .
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 3 lists the published test data of 98 specimens on
the punching failure of the pile caps with uniform grid reinforcement in literature, whose pile number, pile arrangement, punching-span ratio, concrete strength, and reinforcement ratio of tension tie vary, respectively, while Table 4
gives the Pe/Pp (experimental column load/predicted column
load) of five theoretical methods, as compared with: 1)
the method proposed in this paper (TPM); 2) the critical
section stress method of the ACI 318-08 code (ACI CSM)1;
3) the strut-and-tie model method in Appendix A of the
ACI 318-08 code1 (ACI STM); 4) the American CRSI handbook method3 (CRSI); and 5) the method of the Chinese
JGJ94-94 code2 (JGJ94-94). For illustrating the calculating
process of the five aforementioned methods, as an example,
in the Appendix of the paper, give the detailed calculations
of specimen TDS3-1 in Table 3.
It is necessary to point out that: 1) in Table 4, the punching
shear resistance is represented by the column load of pile cap
failing in punching; 2) the bending failure and the failure of
one-way shear are not included in Tables 3 and 4 because
their failure types are not consistent with the failure of the
two-way shear studied in this paper; and 3) as the bottom
reinforcement layout concentrated in the vicinity of the pile
top and the diagonal on the plane of the pile caps have a
larger punching shear resistance than the uniform grid reinforcement,9,11,12,16 they will be studied elsewhere.
Table 5 summarizes the statistical appraisal of the Pe/Pp
obtained by all the theoretical methods in Table 4.
Accuracy
It is known from Table 5 that, when all the calculable
specimens are taken, or after the asterisked specimens (the
asterisk implies that the specimens may fail in bending;
more details will be given later) in Table 4 are removed,
although TPM has the largest number of specimens, it has
the highest accuracy. As for evaluations with the remaining
four methods, despite their fewer specimens, they agree well
only for certain of them.
It is known from Table 4 after further analysis that, as far
as individual Pe/Pp calculated by TPM is concerned, except
for the two asterisked specimens, PC454 and T441, which
have rather large calculating deviation (Pe/Pp of T441* is
the minimum in all 98 specimens, while Pe/Pp of PC454*
is the maximum in all 98 specimens), the accuracy of the
remaining specimens is basically good, whereas for PC454,
127
Column size, mm
(diameter or side length)
d, mm
fc, MPa
Reinforcement layout,
No. of bar bar diameter, mm
Sabnis and Gogate14 (No. of pile: 4; pile arrangement: determinant; pile diameter, 76.2 mm)
SS01
111.44
31.3
499.4
250.4
SS02
111.62
31.3
:886.0; :410.1
244.6
SS03
110.87
31.3
886
248.0
111.62
31.3
:499.4; :410.1
225.7
108.59
41.0
:499.4; :480.2
263.5
SS04
SS05
76.2 round
SS06
108.59
41.0
499.4
280.2
SG02
117.48
17.9
251.2
173.5
SG03
117.48
17.9
251.2
176.8
Jimenez-Perez et al. (No. of pile: 4; pile arrangement: determinant; pile diameter, 76.2 mm)
15
MS01
114.30
28.7
275.5
MS02
114.30
28.7
275.5
MS03
114.30
28.7
306.6
MS04
120.65
28.7
291.1
MS05
120.65
31.5
231.1
MS06
107.95
28.7
261.1
MS07
107.95
28.7
287.7
MS15
117.48
31.5
300.0
117.50
31.5
MS17
114.30
31.5
310.0
MS19
114.30
31.5
320.0
MS20
107.95
31.5
310.0
MS23
107.95
31.5
313.3
MS24
107.95
31.5
331.1
MS28
101.60
28.7
318.9
MS29
101.60
28.7
293.3
MS30
101.60
31.5
313.3
MS16
76.2 round
288.9
Taylor and Clarke (No. of pile: 4; pile arrangement: determinant; pile diameter, 200 mm)
16
A001
A009
200 square
400
20.9
10 10 each way
410
1110
26.8
10 10 each way
410
1450
479
1781
Adebar et al. (No. of pile: 4; pile arrangement: diamond; pile diameter, 200 mm)
9
300 square
445
24.8
T415
96
16.3
233
73.5
T417
79
16.3
233
67.6
T420
104
8.4
285.5
51.0
T421
102
8.4
285.5
52.5
T422
95
10.7
249.9
50.7
92
8.4
249.9
57.1
T424
93
8.4
249.9
55.9
T425
100
8.4
249.9
61.3
T426
100
10.7
276.9
59.3
T427
95
10.7
276.9
60.5
T423
60 square
Notes: is no reinforcement data provided in the literature; 1 mm = 0.0394 in; 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi; 1 kN = 0.225 kip.
128
fc, MPa
Reinforcement layout,
No. of bar bar diameter, mm
T428
103
10.7
276.9
66.6
T429
97
10.8
276.9
78.9
T430
97
10.8
276.9
69.1
T432
95
12.5
249.9
65.2
96
12.5
276.9
78.6
93
9.8
249.9
55.9
T436
98
9.8
276.9
52.9
T439
105
9.8
285.5
50.0
T441*
104
10.7
249.9
41.2
T442
92
12.5
276.9
72.8
276.5
364.6
Specimen
T433
T435
Column size, mm
(diameter or side length)
60 square
Shen (No. of pile: 4; pile arrangement: determinant; pile diameter, 100 mm)
17
T452
150 square
225
9.4
11 8 each way
Shen (No. of pile: 6; pile arrangement: determinant; pile diameter, 100 mm)
17
T601
T602
150 square
225
13.5
:272.0;:276.3
460.6
225
9.4
, :276.5
441.0
Zhuang18 (No. of pile: 4; pile arrangement: determinant; pile diameter, 100 mm)
PC453
PC454*
150 square
215
12.2
7 12 each way
280.2
370
185
17.2
6 12 each way
283.5
500
Guo et al.11 (No. of pile: 6; pile arrangement: determinant; pile diameter, 180 mm)
S1
220 square
259
15.4
20 12 one way;
18 12 other way
318.6
1250
Wu et al.19 (No. of pile: 3; pile arrangement: equilateral triangle; pile diameter, 110 mm)
PC1-1
200 square
400.0
25.4
3 10 each way
304.8
910
PC1-2
150 square
399.2
25.5
3 10 each way
304.8
790
PC1-3
150 square
399.2
26.9
3 8 each way
285.6
790
PC1-4
150 square
400.0
32.8
3 10 each way
304.8
880
PC2-1
200 square
330.9
30.1
3 10 each way
304.8
780
PC2-2
150 square
329.9
25.0
3 10 each way
304.8
720
PC2-3
150 square
329.9
28.7
3 8 each way
285.6
680
PC2-4
150 square
331.3
25.5
3 10 each way
304.8
650
PC3-1
180 square
260.0
27.1
3 10 each way
304.8
670
PC3-2
150 square
260.4
26.4
3 10 each way
304.8
620
PC3-3
150 square
260.4
29.1
3 8 each way
285.6
550
PC3-4
150 square
261.5
26.9
3 10 each way
304.8
630
PC4-1
180 square
179.9
24.1
3 10 each way
304.8
530
PC4-2
150 square
180.0
24.0
3 10 each way
304.8
490
PC4-3
150 square
180.0
25.0
3 8 each way
285.6
426
PC4-4
150 square
180.8
25.4
3 10 each way
304.8
610
Wu and Fang20 (No. of pile: 4; pile arrangement: determinant; pile side length, 100 mm)
C2-1
150 square
C2-2
150 square
520
7.54
5 8 each way
289.3
559
320
13.4
7 8 each way
289.3
630
Yang (No. of pile: 3; pile arrangement: equilateral triangle; pile diameter, 100 mm)
21
YZ1
100 square
210
13.2
3 12 each way
310
441
Notes: is no reinforcement data provided in the literature; 1 mm = 0.0394 in; 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi; 1 kN = 0.225 kip.
129
Column size, mm
(diameter or side length)
d, mm
fc, MPa
Reinforcement layout,
No. of bar bar diameter, mm
Ma22 (No. of pile: 3; pile arrangement: isosceles triangle; pile diameter, 90 mm)
P5
P6
100(one side)
140(other side) rectangle
180
20.1
4 6 each way
340
222.5
226.4
Suzuki et al. (No. of pile: 4; pile arrangement: determinant; pile diameter, 150 mm)
23
TDS3-1
TDM3-1
250 square
300
250
28.0
356
1299
27.0
370
1245
Suzuki et al. (No. of pile: 4; pile arrangement: determinant; pile diameter, 150 mm)
24
BDA-3020-70-2
200 square
BDA-4025-70-1
250 square
250
24.6
549
358
350
25.9
1019
Suzuki and Otsuki25 (No. of pile: 4; pile arrangement: determinant; pile diameter, 150 mm)
BPB-3520-1
200 square
290
20.4
353
755
Chan et al.26 (No. of pile: 4; pile arrangement: determinant; pile side length, 150 mm)
C(Chan)
200 square
200
30.74
12 10 each way
480.7
870
Ahmad et al. (No. of pile: 4; pile arrangement: determinant; pile diameter, 150 mm)
27
A(Saeed)
F(Saeed)
150 round
230
20.68
150 round
230
27.6
, :413
480
560
Blvot and Frmy28 (No. of pile: 4; pile arrangement: determinant; pile side length, mm: except that 9A3 is 140, others are 350)
4N1
500 square
670
37.3
8 32 + 7 16 each way
:276.2; :279.3
7000
4N1b
500 square
680
40.8
8 25 + 7 12 each way
:440.3; :516.7
6700
4N3
500 square
920
34.15
4 32 + 4 25 + 8 12 each way
:250.6; :281.2;
:293.1
6500
4N3b
500 square
920
49.3
4 25 + 4 20 + 8 10 each way
:484.5; :446;
:429.5
9000
9A3
150 square
470
34.4
16 12
450.25
1700
Blvot and Frmy (No. of pile: 3; pile arrangement: equilateral triangle; pile side length, 350 mm)
28
3N2
450 square
462.5
37.7
3 32 each way
255
3800
3N2b
450 square
480
43.7
4 25 each way
442
4500
3NH
450 square
715
32.65
3 32 + 1 25 each way
:261; :333
5200
3NHb
450 square
730
42.45
4 25
439
7200
Miguel et al. (No. of pile: 3; pile arrangement: equilateral triangle; pile diameter, mm: except that B30A4 is 300, others are 200)
29
B20A1/1
350 square
500
27.4
591
1512
B20A1/2
350 square
500
33.0
591
1648
B20A3
350 square
500
37.9
591
1945
B20A4
350 square
500
35.6
591
2375
B30A4
350 square
500
24.6
591
2283
Chao and Bo (No. of pile: 9; pile arrangement: determinant; pile diameter, 150 mm)
30
CTA
300 square
314
24.88
6 16 + 5 14 each way
:374; :369
1900
Notes: is no reinforcement data provided in the literature; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.; 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi; 1 kN = 0.225 kip.
TPM
ACI CSM
ACI STM
CRSI
JGJ94-94
Specimen
TPM
ACI CSM
ACI STM
CRSI
JGJ94-94
SS01
1.1205
2.0694
3.1300
1.5493
T439
0.6900
0.2450
2.3697
0.5952
0.8139
SS02
1.0934
2.0049
2.4757
1.5087
T441
0.5349
0.2013
1.5907
0.4791
0.6873
SS03
1.1094
2.0667
2.5101
1.5471
T442
0.9434
0.5352
2.3560
1.0866
1.5390
SS04
1.0093
1.8500
2.2844
1.3916
T452
1.3847
0.4005
2.7189
0.9421
0.7880
SS05
0.9955
1.9812
2.0332
1.4482
T601
1.0280
0.9343
3.3474
0.9948
0.6984
SS06
1.0580
2.1068
2.1620
1.5431
T602
1.2746
1.0730
2.6018
1.1395
0.8579
SG02
1.0580
1.7350
3.0654
1.2674
PC453
1.2084
0.4344
1.8974
0.9439
1.1550
SG03
1.0580
1.7680
3.1237
1.2929
PC454*
1.5010
0.8463
2.0610
1.3163
MS01
1.1140
2.2769
1.7386
S1
0.9789
1.8629
2.8090
1.6480
MS02
1.1140
2.2769
1.7386
PC1-1
1.2248
2.6157
0.2124
0.9141
MS03
1.2400
2.5339
1.9347
PC1-2
1.0957
2.2526
0.2458
0.7544
MS04
1.1120
2.2053
1.6814
PC1-3
1.0719
2.2443
0.2393
0.7279
MS05
0.8593
1.6746
1.2528
PC1-4
1.0602
1.9336
0.2412
0.7533
MS06
1.1080
2.3736
1.8099
PC2-1
1.0414
1.9593
0.2395
0.8462
MS07
1.2220
2.6155
1.9948
PC2-2
1.0651
2.1635
0.3734
0.8422
MS15
1.1470
2.2727
1.6986
PC2-3
0.9564
1.9501
0.3296
0.7267
MS16
1.1042
2.1722
1.6357
PC2-4
0.8808
1.8705
0.2436
0.7949
MS17
1.2199
2.4409
1.8354
PC3-1
1.0276
1.9911
0.4880
0.9706
MS19
1.2590
2.5197
1.8952
PC3-2
0.9888
0.1786
1.8937
0.5871
0.8863
MS20
1.2807
2.6724
2.0164
PC3-3
0.8475
0.1510
1.9978
0.4964
0.7370
MS23
1.2940
2.7009
2.0385
PC3-4
0.8936
1.7954
0.4062
0.9418
MS24
1.3680
2.8543
2.1543
PC4-1
1.0474
0.5268
2.1388
1.0454
1.2011
MS28
1.4070
3.1890
2.4443
PC4-2
1.0145
0.7891
1.9862
1.2694
1.2316
MS29
1.2940
2.9330
2.2487
PC4-3
0.8659
0.6709
2.2386
1.0785
1.0406
MS30
1.3450
2.9838
2.2544
PC4-4
1.0357
0.4404
2.1085
1.0535
1.3710
A001
0.6257
0.3833
2.5850
0.7613
0.7056
C2-1
1.1768
0.4381
3.8819
0.2455
0.8534
A009
0.7302
0.4421
3.3768
0.8783
0.7809
C2-2
0.9722
0.8005
2.3684
0.3652
1.0096
1.0730
0.7713
5.9605
YZ1
1.2250
0.4244
3.9305
1.0023
1.3823
T415
0.7691
0.4047
2.3786
0.8547
0.8762
P5
1.0183
0.7986
2.0488
1.1502
T417
0.8524
0.7042
3.3137
1.099
P6
1.0362
0.8130
2.0847
1.1705
T420
0.7971
0.2818
3.0539
0.6711
0.9508
TDS3-1
1.0384
0.1860
3.5395
0.7466
0.8620
T421
0.8346
0.3165
2.7202
0.7292
1.0100
TDM3-1
1.4596
0.7188
2.5305
1.4426
1.0854
T422
0.7110
0.3587
2.0199
0.7456
0.9741
BDA-30-20-70-2
0.6175
0.3690
1.7825
0.7409
0.6046
T423
0.9918
0.5134
2.9133
1.0382
1.2900
BDA-40-25-70-1
0.7998
2.3643
0.4101
0.6105
T424
0.9612
0.4834
2.8376
0.9982
1.2410
BPB-35-20-1
0.9107
0.4704
2.4754
0.8224
T425
0.9894
0.4012
3.0049
0.9015
1.2140
C(Chan)
1.1545
1.4711
2.5285
1.3894
T426
0.7955
0.3433
2.2548
0.7701
1.052
A(Saeed)
0.9878
2.5236
1.2171
2.8267
T427
0.8484
0.4283
2.2000
0.8897
1.1630
F(Saeed)
1.0145
2.7488
1.6577
2.9343
T428
0.8721
0.3401
2.4667
0.7929
1.1300
4N1
0.9685
0.5856
1.9958
0.7903
T429
1.0787
0.5135
2.8901
1.0958
1.4250
4N1b
0.8333
0.5122
2.2440
0.6955
T430
0.9447
0.4497
2.5311
0.9597
1.2480
4N3
0.7217
0.1617
1.1856
0.4876
0.4911
T432
0.8167
0.4245
2.4791
0.8932
1.3100
4N3b
0.7054
0.1864
1.4860
0.5619
0.5324
T433
0.9760
0.4944
2.4952
1.0480
1.5540
9A3
0.9433
1.1479
0.4301
0.7856
T435
0.8548
0.4477
2.4735
0.9164
1.0990
3N2
0.9521
1.1006
2.3088
Notes: Pe/Pp is experimental column load/predicted column load; is infinite bearing load because piles are totally within critical section; is evaluation cannot be conducted because no
reinforcement data provided; is calculating condition not applicable; is not easy to evaluate; and \ is evaluation cannot be conducted because no free end dimensions of pile cap provided.
131
TPM
ACI CSM
ACI STM
CRSI
JGJ94-94
Specimen
TPM
ACI CSM
ACI STM
CRSI
JGJ94-94
T436
0.7733
0.3483
2.1331
0.7557
0.9592
3N2b
0.9436
1.1437
1.8692
3NH
0.9345
0.6902
1.5854
B20A3
1.1254
0.4720
2.1248
3NHb
1.0314
0.2116
1.9773
B20A4
1.4631
0.5947
2.5946
B20A1/1
1.0100
0.4315
1.9508
B30A4
0.6881
0.1063
2.4941
B20A1/2
1.0448
0.4286
1.8004
CTA
1.0270
1.3172
1.7544
0.9895
Notes: Pe/Pp is experimental column load/predicted column load; is infinite bearing load because piles are totally within critical section; is evaluation cannot be conducted because
no reinforcement data provided; is calculating condition not applicable; is not easy to evaluate; and \ is evaluation cannot be conducted because no free end dimensions of pile
cap provided.
ACI
CSM
ACI
STM
CRSI
JGJ
94-94
Maximum
98
1.0179
0.1940
0.1906
Asterisked specimens in
Table 3 removed
96
1.0179
0.1832
0.1800
0.6175
1.4631
86
1.1177
0.9079
0.8123
0.1063
3.1890
Asterisked specimens in
Table 3 removed
84
1.1318
0.9126
0.8063
0.1063
3.1890
81
2.3789
0.6796
0.2857
1.1479
5.9605
Asterisked specimens in
Table 3 removed
79
2.3929
0.6813
0.2847
1.1479
5.9605
51
0.7228
0.3126
0.4325
0.2124
1.4426
Asterisked specimens in
Table 3 removed
50
0.7277
0.3138
0.4313
0.2124
1.4426
88
1.2526
0.5066
0.4044
0.4911
2.9343
Asterisked specimens in
Table 3 removed
86
1.2585
0.5087
0.4042
0.4911
2.9343
Minimum
Applicability
TPM is capable of evaluating all the specimens in Table3,
so its calculating mode is comparatively unified and not
restricted by the number of piles and the form of pile arrangement. ACI CSM is incapable of evaluation when all the
piles are within the critical section, while ACI STM can not
perform evaluation unless it meets certain restrictions on the
punching span and all the specimen parameters, including
reinforcement, have to be provided at the same time. Likewise, CRSI is not applicable unless it is confined to a certain
small punching-span condition. Constrained by the form of
pile arrangement, such as the diamond pile arrangement, as
shown in Table 4, it is not easy to perform evaluation using
JGJ94-94; furthermore, regarding triangle pile arrangement,
JGJ94-94 cannot carry out evaluation unless the free-end
dimensions of the pile cap are provided. Thus, the applicability of TPM is recommendable.
Further analysis is as follows:
1. As mentioned earlier, it has been anticipated during
computerization that the of pile caps with uniform grid
reinforcement has little influence on its punching shear resistance, which is confirmed by test verification in Tables 3
through 5. It should be noted that none of most of the codes
in the world has considered the impact of the longitudinal
reinforcement ratio on the punching shear resistance of
pile caps with uniform grid reinforcement. For instance, it
is not considered in ACI CSM,1 JGJ94-94,2 CRSI3 and the
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
REFERENCES
133
22. Ma, X. Q., Analysis of Ultimate Strength of Pile Cap with Three
Piles, MASc thesis, Tong Ji University, Shanghai, China, 1989, pp. 55-59.
(in Chinese)
23. Suzuki, K.; Otsuki, K.; and Tsubata, T., Experimental Study on
Four-Pile Caps with Taper, Transactions of the Japan Concrete Institute,
V. 21, 1999, pp. 327-334.
24. Suzuki, K.; Otsuki, K.; and Tsuhiya, T., Influence of Edge Distance
on Failure Mechanism of Pile Caps, Transactions of the Japan Concrete
Institute, V. 22, 2000, pp. 361-368.
25. Suzuki, K., and Otsuki, K., Experimental Study on Corner Shear
Failure of Pile Caps, Transactions of the Japan Concrete Institute, V. 23, 2002.
26. Chan, T. K., and Poh, C. K., Behaviour of Precast Reinforced
Concrete Pile Caps, Construction and Building Materials, V. 14, No. 2,
2000, pp. 73-78. doi: 10.1016/S0950-0618(00)00006-4
27. Ahmad, S.; Shah, A.; and Zaman, S., Evaluation of the Shear
Strength of Four Pile Cap Using Strut and Tie Model (STM), Journal of
the Chinese Institute of Engineers, V. 32, No. 2, 2009, pp. 243-249. doi:
10.1080/02533839.2009.9671501
134
28. Blvot, J. L., and Frmy, R., Semelles sur Pieux, Institute Technique
du Btiment et des Travaux Publics, V. 20, No. 230, 1967, pp. 223-295.
29. Miguel, M. G.; Takeya, T.; and Giongo, J. S., Structural Behaviour of
Three-Pile Caps Subjected to Axial Compressive Loading, Materials and
Structures, V. 41, No. 1, 2007, pp. 85-98. doi: 10.1617/s11527-007-9221-5
30. Guo, C., and Lu, B., Experimental Study on the Load-Carrying
Properties of Nine-Pile Thick Caps under a Column, China Civil Engineering Journal, V. 43, No. 1, 2010, pp. 95-102. (in Chinese)
31. Zhou, K. R., Study of the Whole Process, Mechanism and Bearing
Capacity of Punching, PhD thesis, Tong Ji University, Shanghai, China,
1990, 74 pp. (in Chinese)
32. Tragwerke aus Beton, Stahlbeton und Spannbeton Teil 1:
Bemessung und Konstruktion, Normenausschuss Bauwesen (NABau) im
DIN Deutsches Institut fr Normung e. V., Berlin, Germany, 2001.
33. Japan Road Association, Specifications for Highway Bridges IV;
Substructures, Tokyo, Japan, 2002.
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
Code requirements for reinforced concrete have evolved
significantly around the world in the past decades. In the
United States, the 1971 San Fernando, CA, earthquake was
a watershed event leading to the introduction of requirements for ductile reinforced concrete buildings, which
have evolved incrementally since that time based on field
and laboratory experiences. In Japan, following a history of
several damaging earthquakes and many laboratory tests, the
Japanese seismic design code was substantially revised in
1981. In the 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu earthquake, many reinforced concrete buildings designed before 1981 experienced
major failures, especially in the first-story columns and walls.
Although newer reinforced concrete buildings designed in
accordance with the revised 1981 code showed improved
resistance against collapse, several sustained severe damage
due to their large deformations. Such damage made it difficult to continue using them after the earthquake and resulted
in high repair costs. This experience demonstrates that
further improvements in seismic design of concrete buildings might be desirable for the future.
It was in light of the aforementioned experiences that a
large-scale shake-table testing program was conducted in
2010. Within the program, a full-scale, four-story, reinforced concrete building designed in accordance with the
present Japanese seismic design code was tested by using
the E-Defense shake table. The main objectives of the study
related to the concrete building were: 1) to verify methods
for assessing performance such as strength, deformation
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
capacity, and failure mode; 2) to identify suitable computational methods to reproduce the seismic responses of the
building; and 3) to develop a practical method for assessing
damage states regarding reparability.
Design and instrumentation of the test structure were
performed with input from U.S. co-authors. Wherever
possible, minor adjustments to the designs were made to
bring the final structure closer to U.S. practice and thereby
benefit a broader audience. The resulting details of the test
building reflected the most current U.S. seismic design
provisions (Nagae et al. 2011b).
Summaries of the global behavior of the test building
and key local damage and deformation observations are
presented. A comparison between the details of the test
structure and U.S. seismic design practices is also provided.
Implications of test results for the seismic design provisions of ASCE 7-10 (ASCE/SEI Committee 7 2010) and
ACI 318-11 (ACI Committee 318 2011) are discussed. In a
related publication (Nagae et al. 2011a), the seismic design
provisions of the Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ 1999)
were evaluated in light of test results.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
Current Japanese and U.S. seismic design provisions are
based on pseudo-dynamic component tests, sub-assembly
tests, and limited dynamic tests of partial structural systems.
The test presented is a first-of-its-kind, multi-directional,
dynamic test of a complete, full-scale reinforced concrete
building system to near collapse damage states. The test
provides unique data on component and system performance
that are used to evaluate current seismic design provisions
and highlight potential code changes.
SPECIMEN DETAILS
Figure 1 shows the plans and framing elevations of the
reinforced concrete test building. Figure 2 shows a photograph of the test building on the E-Defense shake table. The
height of each story is 3 m (118.1 in.). The building footprint
measures 14.4 m (47 ft 3 in.) in the longer (X) direction, and
7.2 m (23 ft 7.5 in.) in the shorter (Y) direction. A two-bay
moment frame system was adopted in the longer (X) plan
direction and a pair of multi-story walls were incorporated
ACI Structural Journal, V. 112, No. 2, March-April 2015.
MS No. S-2013-022.R2, doi: 10.14359/51687421, received May 21, 2014, and
reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright 2015, American Concrete
Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is
obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including authors
closure, if any, will be published ten months from this journals date if the discussion
is received within four months of the papers print publication.
135
Fig. 1Framing and reinforcing details. (Note: Dimensions are in mm; 1 mm = 0.039 in.)
RC
Roof
Fourth
floor
Third
floor
Second
floor
B,
N/mm2
Ec,
N/mm2
Column
53
106
106
106
27
41.0
30.5
Beam
240
240
240
240
27
30.2
30.3
Wall
40
79
79
79
27
39.2
32.8
Slab
484
428
424
420
27
39.6
32.9
Sum
816
853
849
845
Roof
Fourth
floor
Third
floor
Second
floor
Measurement frame
17
17
Equipment
112
Sum
118
14
23
23
934
867
872
867
Fourth
story
Third
story
Second
story
First
story
Wi, kN
934
1801
2673
3541
Ci = 0.2 Ai
0.29
0.25
0.22
0.20
Qi, kN
273
450
593
708
(B) Non-structural
elements, kN
Steel
Fc,
N/mm2
Notes: Wi is weight of floor i; Ai is shape factor for vertical distribution of lateral forces
for floor i; Ci is lateral force at floor i as a fraction of Wi; and Qi is shear at story i; 1
kN = 0.225 kip.
in this section. The building specimen was designed to withstand the seismic lateral forces presented in Table 1 (MLIT
2007) without members exceeding their elastic limits. These
forces, which sum to 20% of the weight of the structure, are
higher than those that would be specified by ASCE 7-10
(Section 12.8.1.3), which caps seismic lateral forces for
a low-rise building to 1/R times the structure weight for a
design basis earthquake, where R is the response modification coefficient (8 for special reinforced concrete moment
frames and 6 for special reinforced concrete shear walls).
The vertical distribution of the design forces, given by the
parameter Ai in Table 1, is similar to the ASCE 7-10 specification (approximate inverted triangular distribution).
Results of material tests are given in Tables 2 and 3. In
subsequent evaluations, the moment and shear strengths
of each member were calculated adopting the compressive
strength of concrete and the yield strength of steel reinforcement obtained by averaging material test results.
To aid in the design of the test specimen, pushover
(nonlinear static) analyses were conducted on line-element
models of the structure. Figure 3 presents pushover results
for the final test specimen details. The analytical model used
for pushover analyses was built following work by Kabeyasawa et al. (1984). The effective flange width of a top slab
was adopted in accordance with the recommendations of
the 2007 MLIT Standard. A vertical distribution defined by
the parameter Ai (Table 1) was adopted for the lateral force
distribution. In the analytical model, inelastic deformations
of beam elements were represented by rotational springs
at the ends of elements. The first and second break points
corresponding to member cracking strength and flexural
strength were assigned in the tri-linear moment-rotation
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
Notes: Fc is specified concrete compressive strength; B is measured concrete compressive strength; and Ec is measured secant modulus of concrete; 1 N/mm2 = 0.145 ksi.
Grade
Anominal, mm2
y, N/mm2
t, N/mm2
Es, kN/mm2
SD345
387
370
555
209
D19
SD345
287
380
563
195
D13
SD295
127
372
522
199
D10
SD295
71
388
513
191
D10
SD295
71
448
545
188
D10
KSS785
71
952
1055
203
relationship. The secant stiffness corresponding to the flexural strength was calculated in accordance with provisions
of the MLIT standard (2007). Beyond flexural yielding, the
stiffness was reduced to 0.01 times the initial effective stiffness. The pushover analysis indicates that the ultimate baseshear strength of the building specimen is approximately
0.42W (1500 kN [337 kip]) in the frame direction and 0.51W
(1800 kN [405kip]) in the wall direction.
Figure 4 shows the column-beam moment strength ratios.
Reinforcement of the top slab was reflected in the moment
strength of beams in negative bending (top in tension). Effective flange widths of beams were adopted in accordance
with the recommendations of the 2007 MLIT Standard or
ACI318-11, which produced roughly similar flange widths.
Variations of column axial forces due to lateral forces were
estimated from pushover analysis in the Japanese calculations. In the U.S. calculations, a plastic mechanism was
assumed in which hinging of the columns occurs at the foundation and just below the roof, and beam hinging occurs at
column faces at intermediate floors in the frame direction. In
the wall direction, the assumed plastic mechanism considered
hinging of the columns and walls at the foundation, and beam
hinging at column and wall faces. Discrepancies in columnbeam moment strength ratios evaluated using ACI and MLIT
procedures (Fig. 4) can mostly be attributed to differences in
the estimates of axial forces on columns. From the second to
fourth floors, the column-beam moment strength ratios were
slightly below 1.0 for interior columns, while those of exterior columns ranged from approximately 1.0 to 1.87.
Assessment of specimen design in accordance
with U.S. seismic design practice
The structure was assessed in both the x- and y-directions using ACI 318-11 and ASCE 7-10 provisions. The
137
Input wave
x-direction, m/s
y-direction, m/s
x-direction, mm
y-direction, mm
x-direction, mm
y-direction, mm
JMA-Kobe 25%
3.12
6.37
16.9
24.2
0.5
0.4
JMA-Kobe 50%
7.03
11.01
122.4
106.9
1.1
5.4
JMA-Kobe 100%
9.65
14.01
242.7
323.9
6.2
22.5
JR-Takatori 40%
6.46
8.13
240.4
240.8
1.3
7.9
JR-Takatori 60%
8.09
9.99
278.1
414.0
8.0
11.6
Maximum roof drifts do not include residual drifts accrued from previous tests.
140
LOADING PROGRAM
Ground motions designated as JMA-Kobe and JR-Takatori, recorded in the 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu earthquake,
were adopted as the input base motions. The North-Southdirection wave, East-West-direction wave, and verticaldirection wave were input to the y-direction, x-direction, and
vertical direction of the specimen, respectively. The intensity of input motions was gradually increased to observe
damage progression. The adopted amplitude scaling factors
for JMA-Kobe were 10, 25, 50, and 100%. Following the
JMA-Kobe motions, the JR-Takatori motion scaled to
40and 60% was applied to impart large cyclic deformations.
Figure 5 presents the acceleration response spectra for the
input motions. JMA-Kobe 100% has a strong intensity in the
short-period range corresponding to the natural period of the
specimen, as can be seen in Fig. 5. The JR-Takatori 60% has
a strong intensity in the longer-period ranges corresponding
to estimated damaged specimen periods.
TEST RESULTS
Maximum recorded story drift and global behavior
White-noise inputs were applied prior to each main test.
From these, the initial natural periods of the test building
were found to be 0.43 seconds in the frame direction and
0.31 seconds in the wall direction, which compare favorably with periods estimated using ASCE 7-10 Eq. 12.8-7
(0.44seconds in the frame direction and 0.31 seconds in the
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
ficients estimated using the ASCE 7-10 equivalent lateral-force procedures are also shown in the figure. It is useful
to note that the distribution of the story shear coefficients
corresponds to a similar distribution of applied floor inertia
forces; for example, an inverted triangular distribution of
story shear force coefficients implies an inverted triangular
distribution of floor inertia forces. Figure 11 indicates that
floor inertia forces at peak base shear had a relatively uniform
distribution over the height of the building, as opposed to
an inverted triangular distribution often assumed in design,
especially in the JMA-Kobe 100% and the JR-Takatori 60%
tests. Such uniform vertical seismic force distributions have
been observed in previous shake-table tests (for example,
Kabeyasawa et al. 1984). Higher mode contributions and
localization of damage may have influenced the observed
vertical distribution of lateral forces. Such observation
143
Fig. 12Hysteretic behavior based on overturning moment. (Note: 1 kN-m = 0.737 k-ft.)
Although confinement was not required by the ACI 318
provisions, the wall boundaries nonetheless contained
confinement reinforcement satisfying the ACI 318 special
boundary element requirements at Axis A and nearly satisfying them at Axis C. The observed concrete spalling and
longitudinal reinforcement buckling exceeded expectations
of some of the authors, and may suggest a need for improved
detailing requirements.
The nominal shear-friction strength at the wall-foundation
interface, calculated in accordance with ACI 318-11, was
2140 kN (482 kip) for both walls combined. Shear demands
on the first story were estimated to be 1400 kN (315 kip)
based on the JMA-Kobe 100% ground motion being the
design motion, 1800 kN (405 kip) based on pushover analysis, and 3000 kN (675 kip) based on recorded data. Measured
base shear demands were 40% larger than the calculated
shear-friction capacity of the wall-foundation interface. Test
data therefore indicate that improvements on methods for
estimating peak shear demands on wall systems should be
sought. Notably, the effects of higher modes and localized
damage on the vertical distribution of lateral loads should be
considered when estimating peak story-sheardemands.
The interior beam-column joints sustained significant
damage during the earthquake simulation tests. Implications for ACI 318 are not readily extracted, however,
because the beam-column joint designs did not satisfy the
ACI318 requirements. Deficiencies included deficient ratios
of column-beam flexural strength ratios and deficient volumetric ratio of joint transverse reinforcement.
146
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge the generous support of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science & Technology (MEXT) and of the National
Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention of Japan for
carrying out the tests presented in this paper. Participation by the U.S.
co-authors was supported by the Pacific Earthquake Engineering Center
and by the Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation of the National
Science Foundation under award CMMI-1000268. Additional instrumentation of the test structure using NEES@UCLA sensors was provided under
Award CMMI-1110860, while analysis of the data was partly funded by
the National Science Foundation under Award No. 1201168. Any opinions,
findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are
those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the sponsors.
REFERENCES
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
Inverted-T bent caps are often used in construction to
reduce the overall elevation of bridges and/or to improve
available clearance beneath the beams, as shown in Fig.1.
The bent caps are beams that support bridge girders on
ledges near the bottom of the beam, effectively loading the
cap along its tension chord. Within a given cross section
(transverse direction), the loads are transferred from the
ledges to the bottom of the web and then hung vertically
to the compression chord, generating tension fields in the
web at the loading points. The loads are then transferred
in the longitudinal direction to the supports, as in a typical
compression-chord-loaded beam. This three-dimensional
flow of forces, in addition to the deep beam loading conditions commonly encountered in bent caps, generate regions
of stress discontinuities that are traditionally designed using
empirical equations and rules of thumb.
Significant web shear cracking of recently built inverted-T
straddle bent caps has been reported in Texas, according to
the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT), triggering concerns about the current design procedures. Most
inverted-T bent caps in Texas are designed using sectional
provisions for the web and a series of checks for the ledges
that closely follow the procedures found in the AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.1 Due to the load and
geometric discontinuities in inverted-T beams, this beam
theory is not valid; thus, sectional design provisions cannot
be used to properly design such structures.
147
148
Fn Fu (1)
Birrcher et al. conducted a thorough investigation of rectangular deep beam behavior to improve upon the current
STM provisions and recommend modifications to both
the ACI 318-116 and AASHTO LRFD1 codes. Potentially,
the most significant modifications that affect the design
of inverted T-beams focused on the node strength. This
procedure simplifies the design of struts by considering
the strut-node interfaces, which implicitly accounts for the
strut capacity and eliminates redundant stress checks at the
same location.
In Birrcher et al.,4 the design strength of the node, Fn, is determined by the limiting compressive stress at the faces of the node
by the concrete efficiency factor in the following equation.
4
Fs = 0.85fcAcn (4)
Strut, fce =
0.85sfc
Node, fce =
0.85nfc
Prismatic
1.00
CCC
1.00
Bottle-shaped*
0.75
CCT
0.80
Tension flange
0.40
CTT
0.60
Birrcher et al.
Node, fcu =
mfc
Bearing face,
CCC
0.85
CCT
0.70
Back face,
Strut-node
interface,
0.45 0.85
f c
0.65
20
web shear failure modes, stirrup tie yielding for a/d of 2.50
and diagonal strut crushing for a/d of 1.85. The a/d of 2.50
was chosen to evaluate the limit of deep beam behavior and
compare with the Birrcher et al.4 studies. For this longer a/d,
the intermediate (stirrup) tie was designed to govern, thus
the capacity was determined by the quantity of stirrups in
the tie region. For specimens tested at an a/d of 1.85, the
strut-node interfaces of the diagonal strut were designed
to govern. Thus the capacity of the specimens tested at the
shorter a/d were determined by the size of the node (Fig. 3)
and the compressive strength of the concrete.
Resistance and load factors are required for STM design
but were taken as 1.0 for the purpose of this investigation as
nominal strengths were computed and compared with experimental strengths. In general, no serviceability checks were
made before testing the specimens. Rather, the cracking
data obtained from loading the beams were used to validate
current serviceability provisions and/or make recommendations for application to inverted-T beams.7 For step-bystep STM design examples for inverted-T bent caps, refer to
Williams et al.9
DATABASE OF EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED ON
INVERTED-T BEAMS
A thorough literature review was conducted prior to
establishing the experimental investigation. A total of 97
tension chord-loaded specimens reported within 13 unique
sources10-22 were ultimately compiled in a collection database.7 Two sets of filters were used to develop the final
inverted-T database to meet the purposes of this project.
The first filter focused on data required to develop STMs.
Specimens not loaded to failure10,11; with complicated
support conditions, geometry, or reinforcement details12-21;
and with lack of information essential for the construction of
STMs12-18 were eliminated.
The majority of the specimens found in the literature
were unrepresentative of the bent caps in service in Texas,
10-12,16,19,21,22
requiring additional filters. A scaled comparison
of the cross sections of the specimens from the literature, the
inverted-T beams tested in the current project, and distressed
in-service bent caps within Texas is presented in Fig. 6.
The specimens are identified by their reference number.
A notable difference in size exists between the in-service
bent caps (hatched) and the majority of specimens found in
the literature (solid). A complete discussion of the filtering
process is provided in Larson et al.7
In summary, all of the 97 specimens from the 13 sources
were filtered out due to the reasons stated above, reinforcing
the need for a large number of specimens to evaluate the
behavior of inverted-T beams and investigate the applicability of STM design provisions.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
Experimental variables
The five variables investigated are as follows: the length
of the ledge beyond the bearing of the exterior stringer, the
depth of the ledge, the amount of web reinforcement (transverse and longitudinal), the number of point loads (girders)
on the ledge, and the height of the member, as shown in
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
Fig. 6Scaled cross sections of literature specimens with corresponding reference number, current specimens, and in-service
bent caps. (Note: Dimensions in inches; 1 in. = 25.4 mm.)
Fig. 8Typical reinforcement layout and dimensions. (Note: Dimensions in inches; 1 in. = 25.4 mm.)
where the first term refers to the ledge depth, either deep (D)
or shallow (S). The second term refers to the ledge length
cut-off (C), short (S), or long (L). The third term refers to
the number of point loads, either one (1) or three (3). The
next number is the web depth in terms of inches, 42 or 75
(1067or 1905 mm, respectively). Next is the a/d, either 1.85
or 2.5. The final term is the web reinforcement ratio, either
0.3% (03) or 0.6% (06).
The specimens were constructed using conventional materials and methods. Steel formwork was used to expedite the
fabrication process and to ensure dimensional accuracy.
Beams were tested approximately 28 days after concrete
placement. Domestic Grade 60 deformed bars satisfying the
requirements of ASTM A61523 were used for all steel reinforcement. Cross-sectional dimensions of the bars complied
with the nominal sizes given in ASTM A615.23 The tensile
strength of the coupons was measured in accordance with
ASTM A370.24 Material properties, including reinforcement
and concrete strength, are provided in Table 2.
Testing procedure
The specimens were tested at the University of Texas at
Austins Phil M. Ferguson Structural Engineering Laboratory. The upside-down simply supported beam test setup
used for testing is shown in Fig. 9. The load was applied
via a 5 million pound (22,200 kN) capacity, double-acting
hydraulic ram for single point load tests, and three 2 million
pound (9000 kN) capacity rams for multiple point load specimens. U-shaped frames applied load evenly to the ledges of
the test specimens. At each support, six 3 in. (76 mm) diameter threaded rods reacted against a 7000 lb (31 kN) transfer
girder to resist the applied load. 500 kip (2200 kN) capacity
load cells were placed between the transfer beam and the
reaction nut at each of the 12 rods to measure the applied
shear at each throughout the loading history.
Test specimens were monotonically loaded in 50 kip
(222kN) increments to the appearance of the first diagonal
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
Specimen
Support plate,
in.
Load
plate, in.
No. 11
No. 6
No. 5
No. 4
fc, ksi
DS1-42-1.85-03
16 x 20
26 x 9
69.24
63.38
64.69
63.14
5.27
463
712
1.54
DS1-42-2.50-03
16 x 20
26 x 9
69.24
63.38
64.69
63.14
5.39
202
406
2.01
DS1-42-1.85-06
16 x 20
26 x 9
64.13
63.38
60.68
N/A
5.02
479
621
1.30
DS1-42-2.50-06
16 x 20
26 x 9
64.13
63.38
60.68
N/A
5.09
339
503
1.49
DL1-42-1.85-06
16 x 20
26 x 9
67.90
63.38
64.69
N/A
4.83
464
741
1.60
DL1-42-2.50-06
16 x 20
26 x 9
67.90
63.38
64.69
N/A
4.99
353
622
1.76
SS3-42-1.85-03
16 x 20
18 x 9
68.60
64.68
62.75
67.25
5.89
456
523
1.15
SS3-42-2.50-03
16 x 20
18 x 9
68.60
64.68
62.75
67.25
5.89
215
447
2.08
SS3-42-2.50-06
16 x 20
18 x 9
69.50
61.83
60.90
N/A
6.26
415
516
1.24
SC3-42-2.50-03
16 x 20
18 x 9
66.20
63.50
60.25
64.27
5.87
257
329
1.28
SC3-42-1.85-03
16 x 20
18 x 9
66.20
63.50
60.25
64.27
5.87
427
483
1.13
DS3-42-2.50-03
16 x 20
18 x 9
63.60
62.63
60.22
64.58
5.69
236
430
1.82
DL1-42-1.85-03
16 x 20
26 x 9
71.01
61.90
64.29
64.43
4.93
468
626
1.34
DL1-42-2.50-03
16 x 20
26 x 9
71.01
61.90
64.29
64.43
4.93
235
510
2.17
SL3-42-1.85-03
16 x 20
18 x 9
75.18
60.62
63.58
65.57
5.04
409
571
1.39
SL3-42-1.85-06
16 x 20
18 x 9
70.38
63.26
64.80
62.62
5.25
424
744
1.76
DC1-42-1.85-06
30 x 20
30 x 10
73.30
63.98
60.81
N/A
3.73
428
519
1.21
SS1-75-1.85-03
16 x 20
30 x 10
66.10
61.97
64.69
65.08
3.13
389
745
1.92
DC3-42-1.85-03
16 x 20
18 x 9
63.63
66.00
63.09
63.16
4.57
370
395
1.07
DS3-42-1.85-03
16 x 20
18 x 9
63.63
66.00
63.09
63.16
4.57
370
454
1.23
SS1-42-2.50-03
16 x 20
26 x 9
65.44
69.57
77.76
66.58
5.70
205
398
1.94
SS1-42-1.85-03
16 x 20
26 x 9
65.44
69.57
77.76
66.58
5.72
501
583
1.16
DC1-42-2.50-03
16 x 20
18 x 9
70.06
64.13
69.77
62.44
4.04
259
365
1.46
DL3-42-1.85-03
16 x 20
18 x 9
70.06
64.13
69.77
62.44
4.20
359
629
1.75
SL1-42-2.50-03
16 x 20
26 x 9
68.70
71.41
N/A
64.47
4.28
261
498
1.91
SC1-42-2.50-03
16 x 20
26 x 9
68.70
71.41
N/A
64.47
4.28
259
319
1.24
DS1-42-1.85-06/03
16 x 20
26 x 9
65.80
70.92
64.94
65.18
4.17
416
739
1.78
DS1-42-2.50-06/03
16 x 20
26 x 9
65.80
70.92
64.94
65.18
4.17
362
539
1.49
SC1-42-1.85-03
30 x 20
26 x 9
66.36
64.04
N/A
67.28
4.33
443
451
1.05
DC1-42-1.85-03
30 x 20
26 x 9
66.36
64.04
N/A
67.28
4.30
474
517
1.09
SC1-42-1.85-03
30 x 20
30 x 10
70.47
63.12
N/A
68.56
3.01
362
456
1.26
DC1-42-1.85-03*
30 x 20
30 x 10
70.47
63.12
N/A
68.56
3.00
362
424
1.17
SS1-75-2.50-03
16 x 20
26 x 9
65.22
63.85
63.62
63.76
5.16
357
649
1.82
Vtest/Vcalc
Notes: Shaded values indicate failure modes other than web shear; 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ksi = 6.89 MPa; N/A is not available.
Vtest/Vcalc
Birrcher
etal.4
ACI 3186
Birrcher
etal.4
ACI 3186
Minimum
1.05
1.04
0.73
0.87
Maximum
2.17
2.17
4.14
9.80
Mean
1.50
1.57
1.54
1.80
Unconservative
0.0%
0.0%
0.6%
1.7%
Coefficient of
variation*
0.22
0.20
0.28
0.58
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
1. AASHTO LRFD, Bridge Design Specifications, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 2012,
1960 pp.
2. Joint ACI-ASCE Committee 445, Recent Approaches to Shear
Design of Structural Concrete (ACI 445R-99), American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1999, 56 pp.
3. Schlaich, J.; Schfer, K.; and Jennewein, M., Toward a Consistent Design of Structural Concrete, PCI Journal, V. 32, No. 3, 1987,
pp. 74-150. doi: 10.15554/pcij.05011987.74.150
156
4. Birrcher, D.; Tuchscherer, R.; Huizinga, M.; Bayrak, O.; Wood, S.;
and Jirsa, J., Strength and Serviceability Design of Reinforced Concrete
Deep Beams, Report No. 0-5253-1, Center for Transportation Research,
the University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 2009, 400 pp.
5. Tuchscherer, R.; Birrcher, D.; and Bayrak, O., Experimental Examination of ACI 318 Strut and Tie Modeling Provisions, Symposium
Honoring James O. Jirsas Contributions in Structural Concrete: A Time to
Reflect, SP-296, J. A. Pincheira and S. M. Alcocer, eds., American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2014, 20 pp.
6. ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete (ACI 318-11) and Commentary, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 2011, 503 pp.
7. Larson, N.; Fernndez-Gmez, E.; Garber, D.; Bayrak, O.; and Ghannoum, W., Strength and Serviceability Design of Reinforced Concrete
Inverted T-Beams, Report No. 0-6416, Center for Transportation Research,
University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 2012, 234 pp.
8. Wight, J. K., and Parra-Montesinos, G., Use of Strut-and-Tie Model
for Deep Beam Design as per ACI 318 Code, Concrete International,
V. 25, No. 5, May 2003, pp. 63-70.
9. Williams, C.; Deschenes, D.; and Bayrak, O., Strut-and-Tie Model
Design Examples for Bridges, Report No. 5-5253-01-1, Center for Transportation Research, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 2012, 276
pp.
10. Furlong, R. W.; Ferguson, P. M.; and Ma, J. S., Shear and Anchorage
Study of Reinforcement in Inverted T-Beam Bent Cap Girders, Report No.
113-4, Center for Highway Research, University of Texas at Austin, Austin,
TX, 1971, 81 pp.
11. Cussens, A. R., and Besser, I. I., Shear Strength of Reinforced
Concrete Wall-Beams under Combined Top and Bottom Loads, The Structural Engineer, V. 63, No. 15, Sept. 1985, pp. 50-56.
12. Graf, O.; Brenner, E.; and Bay, H., Versuche mit einem wandartigen
Trager aus Stahlbeton, Deutscher Ausschuss fur Stahlbeton, V. 99, 1943,
pp. 41-54.
13. Ferguson, P. M., Some Implications of Recent Diagonal Tension
Tests, ACI Journal Proceedings, V. 53, No. 8, Aug. 1956, pp. 157-172.
14. Schtt, H., ber das Tragvermgen wandartiger Stahlbetontrger,
Beton und Stahlbetonbau, V. 10, Oct. 1956, pp. 220-224.
15. Taylor, R., Some Shear Tests on Reinforced Concrete Beams
without Shear Reinforcement, Magazine of Concrete Research, V. 12, No.
36, 1960, pp. 145-154. doi: 10.1680/macr.1960.12.36.145
16. Furlong, R. W., and Mirza, S. A., Strength and Serviceability of
Inverted T-Beam Bent Caps Subject to Combined Flexure, Shear, and
Torsion, Report No. 153-1F, Center for Highway Research, University of
Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 1974, 156 pp.
17. Smith, K. N., and Fereig, S. M., Effect of Loading and Supporting
Condidtions on the Shear Strength of Deep Beams, Shear in Reinforced
Concrete, SP-42, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1974,
pp. 441-460.
18. Fereig, S. M., and Smith, K. N., Indirect Loading on Beams with
Short Shear Spans, ACI Journal Proceedings, V. 74, No. 5, May 1977,
pp. 220-222.
19. Leonhardt, F., and Walther, R., Wandartige Trger, Deutscher
Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton, V. 178, 1966.
20. Galal, K., and Sekar, M., Rehabilitation of RC Inverted-T Girders
Using Anchored CFRP Sheets, Composites. Part B, Engineering, V. 39,
No. 4, 2008, pp. 604-617. doi: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2007.09.001
21. Zhu, R. R.-H.; Dhonde, H.; and Hsu, T. T., Crack Control for Ledges
in Inverted T Bent Caps, TxDOT Project 0-1854, University of Houston,
Houston, TX, 2003, 4 pp.
22. Tan, K. H.; Kong, F. K.; and Weng, L. W., High Strength Concrete
Deep Beams Subjected to Combined Top- and Bottom-Loading, The
Structural Engineer, V. 75, No. 11, 1997, pp. 191-197.
23. ASTM A615/A615M-08, Standard Specification for Deformed and
Plain Carbon-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2008, 5 pp.
24. ASTM A370-08a, Standard Test Methods for Mechanical Testing of
Steel Products, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2008, 47 pp.
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
In reinforced concrete moment-resisting frames subjected
to cyclic loading, the response, including stiffness degradation, strength degradation, and energy dissipation, is significantly affected by the behavior of beam-column joints as well
as individual members.1-4 Figure 1 shows the cyclic response
(Fig. 1(a)) and joint load-transfer mechanism (Fig.1(b) and
(c)) of beam-column connections that are affected by bar
bond slip and diagonal shear cracking. Under cyclic loading,
X-shaped diagonal cracks increase the shear deformation in
the joint. Furthermore, due to the plastic strains of the beam
flexural bars, the bond resistance of the joint is significantly
degraded. In the case of interior connections, the bar bond
demand is increased by the compressive force, as well as
the tensile forces (bar bond demand = T1 + C2 or T2 + C1
in Fig. 1(b)). Thus, the beam-column joints are susceptible
to bar bond slip. Once the bond slip of beam bars and the
shear deformation occur in the joint, the unloading/reloading
stiffness and energy dissipation are significantly degraded,
which appears as pinching in the cyclic response of Fig. 1(a).
To mitigate bond and shear strength degradations in the
joint, current earthquake design codes specify the minimum
requirement of column depth-bar diameter ratio (hc/db):
ACI 318-115 and ACI 352R-026 require hc/db > 20 and
hc/db> 20fy/420, respectively. However, previous test results
have shown that even when the minimum requirement
was satisfied, significant bond slip and shear deformation
occurred at the beam-column joints.3,7-9 Thus, to secure
the structural performance of beam-column joints, greater
development lengths are required for the beam flexural bars
as specified in NZS 3101:200610 and Eurocode 8.11
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
157
Fig. 1Cyclic response and joint load-transfer mechanism of beam-column connections affected by bar bond-slip and diagonal shear cracking.
results. However, it is very difficult to accurately define the
unloading/reloading stiffness considering the complicated
joint behavior, such as the bar bond slip and diagonal shear
cracking. More importantly, in actual design of new structures without test results, it may not be feasible to accurately
define the model parameters.
As an alternative, energy-based models for beams and
columns were studied by Eom et al.,31 Eom and Park,32
Sucuolu and Acun,33 Sucuolu and Erberik,34 and Kwak
and Kim.35 Ibarra et al.36 proposed the energy-based model
for beam-column connection. Particularly, in the energybased model proposed by Eom et al.31 and Eom and Park,32
the load-displacement relationship and the stiffness were
defined such that the area enclosed by the cyclic curve is the
same as the predicted energy dissipation. Thus, if the energy
dissipation is accurately predicted considering the bar bond
slip and diagonal shear cracking, the load-displacement
relationship with pinching can be reversely created from the
energy dissipation.
In the present study, the concept of the energy-based
model was applied to beam-column connections to define
the load-displacement relationship under cyclic loading. For
this purpose, first, the energy dissipation of beam-column
connections was estimated from existing test results, considering the design parameters. Then, the energy-based hysteresis model was defined using the predicted energy dissipation; the unloading/reloading stiffness under cyclic loading
was determined to satisfy the predicted energy dissipation.
In the proposed model, the existing backbone curve of
ASCE/SEI 41-0637 was used, and the Pinching 4 model of
OpenSees38 was modified to implement the predicted energy
dissipation. For verification, the proposed model was applied
to existing test specimens, and the results were compared
with the test results. Limitations on the application of the
proposed method were also discussed.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
The present study focused on developing a beam-column
connection model which can be conveniently used for practical design/analysis of reinforced concrete moment frames.
A design equation was developed to accurately predict the
energy dissipation capacity using bar bond-slip parameters,
which are used in current design codes. Using the constraint
condition of energy dissipation, the proposed hysteresis
model can directly and accurately define the cyclic load158
3.3 f d f c
fy
for ACI 318-11
5.4 f c
ldh f y
(2)
for ACI 352R-02
db 6.2 f c
0.24 f
1 2 y
f c
V jn V ju (3)
Fig. 3Variation of energy dissipation ratio according to bond parameters: interior connections.9,A1-A19
Fig. 4Variation of energy dissipation ratio according to bond parameters: exterior connections.A20-A28
160
= 0.80
f c
hc f c
h
+ 0.053 0.16 c
0.60 (4a)
db f y
db f y
= 1.56
f c
ldh f c
l
0.058 0.13 dh
0.35 (4b)
db f y
db f y
In Eq. (4a) and (4b), the upper and lower limits on the bond
parameters (hc/db)(fc/fy) and (ldh/db)(fc/fy) were specified as the minimum and maximum values presented in
TablesA1 and A2, which represents the range of the design
parameter of the existing tests.
M y M ny (5a)
M u = u M n and M r = r M n (5b)
u = y + bu + ju (6)
c1 = mp and c 3 = mn (9)
M c1 = M M mp and M c 3 = M M mn (10)
Fig. 7Predicted cyclic responses versus test results for interior connections.9,A3,A4,A11,A19
development) is caused by the bond deterioration of beam
flexural bars, and the concrete crushing at the joint interface.
Modifying the Pinching 4 model of OpenSees,38 the cyclic
strength degradation was addressed as follows. As shown
in Fig. 6(d), the cyclic curves after the first load cycle are
defined with the modified peak points CP and CN corresponding to mp and mn, respectively. Because the plastic
deformation angles at CP and CN are greater than those at
CP and CN, the moments corresponding to mp and mn of the
second and third load cycles are less than those of the first
load cycle. Herein, the plastic rotation angles mp and mn at
the modified peak points CP and CN are defined as follows
(refer to Fig. 6(d)).
mp
= (1 + s ) mp and mn
= (1 + s ) mn (13)
Fig. 8Predicted cyclic responses versus test results for exterior connections.A22-A24,A26,A28
Table 1Modeling parameters for existing test specimens
Bond resistance
parameter
ldj
Specimens
f c
Modeling parameter
db f y
lq
lM
qy, rad
qbu, rad
qju, rad
qu, rad
Interior
Hwang S3A19
Durrani S3A4
Brooke 4B9
Xian U5A11
Xian U3A11
Dai U1A3
0.162
0.292
0.324
0.356
0.415
0.588
0.182 (0.174)
0.287 (0.303)
0.312 (0.333)
0.338 (0.358)
0.385 (0.391)
0.524 (0.500)
0.327
0.227
0.204
0.179
0.134
0.002
0.153
0.311
0.348
0.387
0.458
0.666
0.0079
0.0052
0.0063
0.0048
0.0054
0.0034
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.015
0.015
0.015
0.015
0.015
0.015
0.0479
0.0452
0.0463
0.0448
0.0454
0.0434
Exterior
Tsonos S2A26
Shiohara L06A28
Ehsani 4A22
Kaku 2A23
Ehsani 2A22
Chutarat SAA24
0.141
0.170
0.215
0.251
0.291
0.341
0.161 (0.184)
0.207 (0.212)
0.277 (0.281)
0.333 (0.342)
0.397 (0.391)
0.474 (0.510)
0.347
0.303
0.237
0.184
0.123
0.050
0.122
0.191
0.296
0.380
0.476
0.591
0.0040
0.0035
0.0041
0.0040
0.0038
0.0035
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.010
0.010
0.010
0.010
0.010
0.010
0.0390
0.0385
0.0391
0.0390
0.0388
0.0385
Values are predictions estimated from Eq. (4a) and (4b) and values inside brackets are test results.
AUTHOR BIOS
Tae-Sung Eom is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Architectural Engineering at Dankook University, Gyeonggi-do, South Korea. He
received his BE, MS, and PhD in architectural engineering from Seoul
National University, Seoul, South Korea. His research interests include the
analysis and design of reinforced concrete structures.
Hyeon-Jong Hwang is an Assistant Professor in the College of Civil Engineering at Hunan University, Hunan, China. He received his BE, MS, and
PhD in architectural engineering from Seoul National University.
ACI member Hong-Gun Park is a Professor in the Department of Architecture & Architectural Engineering at Seoul National University. He received
his BE and MS in architectural engineering from Seoul National University,
and his PhD in civil engineering from the University of Texas at Austin,
Austin, TX. His research interests include the analysis and design of reinforced concrete structures.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
165
166
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
During past devastating earthquakes, it has been noted
that beam-column connections act as one of the weakest
links in moment-resisting reinforced concrete (RC) framed
structures. Behavior of reinforced concrete frame structures
during earthquakes throughout the world has highlighted
the consequences of poor performance of beam-column
connections and it has been observed that exterior connections suffer more in comparison to interior ones. For some
years, the Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati has
been involved in a major research project to investigate
seismic effects on exterior reinforced concrete beam-column
connections because large parts of India lie in highly active
seismic zones, making issues related to the failure of these
connections of particular relevance.1,2 Some of the important
studies on beam-column connections are reviewed in this
section. Paulay et al.3 examined the behavior of beamcolumn joints under seismic actions. The existence of two
shear-resisting mechanismsone involving joint shear
reinforcement and the other a linear concrete strutwere
postulated and the effects of reversed cyclic loading on these
mechanisms, in both elastic and inelastic range of response,
were discussed. Durrani and Wight4 reported results of an
experimental investigation on the performance of an interior
beam-column joint under earthquake-type loading. AbdelFattah and Wight5 studied the relocation of plastic hinging
zones for earthquake-resistant design of reinforced concrete
(RC) buildings. Chutarat and Aboutaha6 investigated a solution for relocating potential beam plastic hinge zones by the
use of headed bars in the exterior RC joints. Joshi et al.7
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
167
Diameter, in.
(mm)
Shape
Density, lb/ft3
(kg/m3)
Polyester (PE)
0.47 to 0.71
(12 to 18)
0.0012 to 0.0014
(0.03 to 0.035)
Straight
85.625 (1370)
400 to 500
Micro
57.92 to 72.4
(400 to 500)
Polypropylene (PP)
0.47 (12)
0.0012 to 0.0014
(0.03 to 0.035)
Straight
56.875 (910)
400 to 500
Micro
57.92 to 72.4
(400 to 500)
Steel (SF1)
2.36 (60)
0.0296 (0.75)
490.625
(7850)
80
Macro
177.37 (1225)
Steel (SF2)
1.38 (35)
0.0216 (0.55)
490.625
(7850)
64
Macro
159.27 (1100)
Types of fibers
Hooked
Aspect ratio
Tensile strength,
(length/diameter) Classification
ksi (MPa)
SF1
SF2
PP
PE
Average toughness,
kip-in. (kN-mm)
1 (plain concrete)
0.221 (24.949)
0.5
0.5
1.00
2.213 (250.039)
0.4
0.4
0.15
0.95
3.197 (361.291)
0.4
0.4
0.2
1.00
2.486 (280.991)
0.5
0.5
0.15
1.15
3.445 (389.317)
0.5
0.5
0.2
1.20
2.849 (321.982)
0.6
0.6
0.15
1.35
3.225 (364.467)
0.4
0.4
0.15
0.95
2.713 (306.551)
0.4
0.4
0.2
1.00
2.720 (307.375)
10
0.5
0.5
0.15
1.15
2.638 (298.071)
11
0.5
0.5
0.2
1.20
2.706 (305.843)
12
0.6
0.6
0.15
1.35
2.657 (300.253)
Fig. 2Strain gauge layout in gauged bar. (Note: Dimensions in mm; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
Specimen
Fiber types
Compressive cube
strength, ksi (MPa)
Indirect tensile
strength, ksi (MPa)
None
4.67 (32.22)
0.585 (4.04)
SF1/SF2/PP
4.50 (31.11)
0.847 (5.85)
SF1/SF2/PE
4.89 (33.77)
0.715 (4.94)
SF1/SF2
4.95 (34.21)
0.607 (4.19)
Pull
Push
Maximum
displacement, in. (mm)
Drift, %
8.75 (38.935)
7.73 (34.402)
1.84 (46.67)
5.18
236.55 (26,711)
8.69 (38.645)
9.64 (42.819)
2.76 (70.0)
7.77
688.029 (77,691)
7.24 (32.212)
6.863 (30.533)
2.76 (70.0)
7.77
593.66 (67,035)
6.64 (29.537)
7.47 (33.273)
2.43 (61.67)
6.85
410.855 (46,393)
Displacement ductility
Displacement ductility, which is the ratio of ultimate
displacement to yield displacement, was calculated for all
specimens from the respective envelope curves according
to the procedure proposed by Shannag and Alhassan.34
Figure12 shows (using the results for Specimen 1) the necessary construction for estimating beam tip displacements
under yield and ultimate conditions. As shown in this figure,
the yield displacement is calculated as the point of inter174
y, in. (mm)
u, in. (mm)
u/y
0.172 (4.375)
1.044 (26.5)
6.057
0.125 (3.165)
1.826 (46.335)
14.640
0.156 (3.950)
1.793 (45.5)
11.519
0.210 (5.330)
1.834 (46.58)
8.739
connection zone until the entirety of the U-bar in the connection zone was in tension for both the push and pull loading
directions. Finally, the reinforcement yielded, leading to the
development of large residual strains. This behavior, which
was observed in all four specimens, was consistent with results
from beam-column connection tests performed by Scott.35
Specimen 1 showed the appearance of the first crack
at the beam-column face at a displacement of 0.131 in.
(3.33mm). The cracks in the other three specimens also
started approximately at the same location and displacement level. The strain distributions in all three specimens
are shown in Fig. 13. The maximum value of strain in
Specimen1 was marginally higher than those in the other
three specimens. Specimen 1 was tested up to a maximum
displacement of 1.837 in. (46.67 mm) and the development
of deep crack along the beam-column interface could be
observed; the beam was observed to rotate about this plane
during the final stages of the experiment. Distributions of
strain for displacement of 1.837 in. (46.67 mm) are shown
for all the specimens in Fig. 14, where the magnitudes of
peak strains indicate improved performance of specimens
with fiber compared to the control specimen. At displacements of 1.837 in. (46.67 mm)the largest displacement
sustained by all four specimenspeak strains were approximately (as there was considerable creep) 21,420, 6110,
9900, and 13,300 microstrain for Specimens 1 to 4, respectively. Increasing displacements led to increased strains in
Specimens 2 to 4. The data indicated that the addition of
fibers to the concrete mixture reduced the strain level in reinforcing bars required to achieve a given displacement, with
hybrid Specimens 2 and 3 proving more effective than Specimen 4, which had steel fibers only. Specimens 2 and 3 were
tested up to 2.76 in. (70 mm), while Specimen 4 could be
tested up to 2.43 in. (61.67 mm). The distributions of strain
for the displacement of 2.43 in. (61.67 mm) are shown for
Specimens 2 to 4 in Fig. 15. Thus, it is again observed that
fibers are very effective in arresting microcracks as well
as macrocracks and led to the growth of relatively lower
order of strain. The strain values were observed to gradually
increase near the connection zone, indicating the development of plastic hinges. The magnitude of maximum strains
for Specimen 2 is again observed to be the least (Fig. 15)
and, hence, a HyFRC Specimen 2 is likely to be more efficient under seismic loading.
Overall, adding fibers gave increased displacement
ductility coupled with reduced reinforcement strains. It
may further be noted that polypropylene has better ultimate elongation as compared to polyester fibers. Thus, it is
observed that the performance of Specimen 2 (with polypropylene) was relatively better than Specimen 3 (with
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
Fig. 14U-bar strains at 1.837 in. (46.67 mm) displacement. (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
at arresting microcracking, thus leading to overall enhancement in toughness. The performance of Specimen 4 (with
steel fibers only) was thus relatively inferior compared with
Specimens 2 and 3. The addition of polymer fibers proved to
176
CONCLUSIONS
The improvement in displacement ductility of concrete
through the use of different fibers and their combination is
fairly well-known. However, specific applications of HyFRC
in beam-column connections with detailed measurements of
strain development were carried out to further understand
how steel strain is reduced while displacement ductility is
improved. Four tests were performed on exterior beamcolumn connections subjected to seismic loading, each of
which contained a strain-gauged U-bar as part of the main
beam reinforcement. Specimen 1 was cast without the addition of any fiber in concrete and was considered as the control
specimen for comparison, whereas Specimens2 and3 were
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
hybrids, containing both steel and polymer fibers, and Specimen 4 contained steel fibers only. Based on the results of
this study, the following conclusions are made:
1. All three specimens with fibers showed marked
improvements in displacement ductility compared with the
control specimen. Hybrid Specimen 2 (steel and polypropylene fibers) performed best while hybrid Specimen 3 (steel
and polyester fibers) performed relatively more poorly. The
use of fibers with better ultimate elongation is attributed to
the relative improvement in performance. Specimens with
hybrid fibers performed better compared to specimens with
only steel fibers, as both macrocracks and microcracks are
better controlled by hybrid fibers. Thus, it is also observed
that Specimens 2 and 3 performed better than Specimen 4
(steel fibers only).
2. The extent of damage of the connection zone in all the
three specimens with fibers is significantly less than in the
control specimen.
3. The results from the strain-gauged bars indicated that
the improved displacement ductility in specimens with
fibers was accompanied by reduced strains in the reinforcement under ultimate displacement conditions. Large residual
strains were developed in all four specimens once the
reinforcement had yielded.
4. The high confinement steel requirement in and around
the connection zone of beam-column connections in seismic
areas may be reduced by the use of HyFRC, while still maintaining a very high displacement ductility level.
AUTHOR BIOS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
1. Choudhury, A. M.; Deb, S. K.; and Dutta, A., Study on Size Effect of
Fibre Reinforced Polymer Retrofitted Reinforced Concrete Beam-Column
Connections under Cyclic Loading, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, V. 40, No. 4, 2013, pp. 353-360. doi: 10.1139/cjce-2012-0041
2. Marthong, C.; Dutta, A.; and Deb, S. K., Seismic Rehabilitation of
RC Exterior Beam-Column Connections Using Epoxy Resin Injection,
Journal of Earthquake Engineering, V. 17, No. 3, 2013, pp. 378-398. doi:
10.1080/13632469.2012.738284
3. Paulay, T.; Park, R.; and Priestly, M. J. N., Reinforced Concrete
Beam-Column Joints under Seismic Actions, ACI Journal Proceedings,
V. 75, No. 6, June 1978, pp. 585-593.
4. Durrani, A. J., and Wight, J. K., Behavior of Interior Beam-to-Column
Connections under Earthquake-Type Loading, ACI Journal Proceedings,
V. 82, No. 3, May-June 1985, pp. 343-349.
5. Abdel-Fattah, B., and Wight, J. K., Study of Moving Beam Plastic
Hinging Zones for Earthquake-Resistant Design of Reinforced Concrete
Buildings, ACI Structural Journal, V. 84, No. 1, Jan.-Feb. 1987, pp. 31-39.
6. Chutarat, N., and Aboutaha, R. S., Cyclic Response of Exterior
Reinforced Concrete Beam-Column Joints Reinforced with Beaded
BarsExperimental Investigation, ACI Structural Journal, V. 100, No. 2,
Mar.-Apr. 2003, pp. 259-264.
7. Joshi, M. K.; Murty, C. V. R.; and Jaisingh, M. P., Cyclic Behaviour
of Precast RC Connections, Indian Concrete Journal, V. 79, No. 11, 2005,
pp. 43-50.
8. Nie, J.; Bai, Y.; and Cai, C. S., New Connection System for Confined
Concrete Columns and Beams. I: Experimental Study, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, V. 134, No. 12, 2008, pp. 1787-1799. doi:
10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2008)134:12(1787)
9. Park, S., and Mosalam, K. M., Experimental and Analytical Studies on
Reinforced Concrete Buildings with Seismically Vulnerable Beam-Column
Joints, Report No. PEER 2012/03, Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research
Center, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 2012.
10. Banthia, N., and Trottier, J. F., Test Methods for Flexural Toughness
Characterization of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete: Some Concerns and a Proposition, ACI Materials Journal, V. 92, No. 1, Jan.-Feb. 1995, pp. 48-57.
11. ACI Committee 544, Design Considerations for Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete (ACI 544.4R), ACI Structural Journal, V. 85, No. 5,
Sept.-Oct. 1988, pp. 563-580.
12. Banthia, N., and Soleimani, S. M., Flexural Response of Hybrid
Fiber-Reinforced Cementitious Composites, ACI Materials Journal,
V. 102, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 2005, pp. 382-389.
13. Qian, C., and Stroeven, P., Fracture Properties of Concrete Reinforced
with Steel-Polypropylene Hybrid Fibres, Cement and Concrete Composites, V. 22, No. 5, 2000, pp. 343-351. doi: 10.1016/S0958-9465(00)00033-0
14. Banthia, N., and Nandakumar, N., Crack Growth Resistance of Hybrid
Fibre Reinforced Cement Composites, Cement and Concrete Composites,
V. 25, No. 1, 2003, pp. 3-9. doi: 10.1016/S0958-9465(01)00043-9
15. Mohankumar, G., and Bangaruchandran, L., Structural Behavior of
Hybrid Fibre Reinforced Concrete Beams, Indian Concrete Journal, V. 83,
No. 10, 2009, pp. 14-20.
16. Blunt, J., and Ostertag, C. P., Performance-Based Approach for
the Design of a Deflection Hardened Hybrid Fibre-Reinforced Concrete,
Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, V. 135, No. 9, 2009, pp.
978-986. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9399(2009)135:9(978)
17. Parra-Montesinos, G. J., High-Performance Fiber-Reinforced
Cement Composites: An Alternative for Seismic Design of Structures, ACI
Structural Journal, V. 102, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 2005, pp. 668-675.
18. Zohrevand, P., and Mirmiran, A., Cyclic Behavior of Fibre Reinforced Polymer-Encased Engineered Cementitious Composite for Bridge
Columns, Structures Congress 2010, 2010, pp. 1828-1839.
19. Kumar, P.; Jen, G.; Trono, W.; Panagiotou, M.; and Osterberg, C.,
Self Compacting Fiber R.C. Composites for Bridge Columns, Report No.
PEER 2011/106, Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 2011.
20. Bedirhanoglu, I.; Ilki, A.; and Kumbasar, N., Precast Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composites for Seismic Retrofit of Deficient RC
JointsA Pilot Study, Engineering Structures, V. 52, 2013, pp. 192-206.
doi: 10.1016/j.engstruct.2013.02.020
21. Govindbhai, K. D.; Deb, S. K.; and Dutta, A., Studies on Toughness
of Hybrid Fibre-Reinforced Cementitious Composite Beam, Proceedings
of International Conference on Structural Engineering Construction and
Management, Kandy, Sri Lanka, Dec. 2011.
22. ASTM C1609/C1609M-12, Standard Test Method for Flexural
Performance of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (Using Beam with Third-Point
Loading), ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2012, 9 pp.
23. ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete (ACI 318-02) and Commentary, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 2002, 443 pp.
24. IS 13920:1993, Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structures
Subjected to Seismic Forces Code of Practice, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India, 1993.
177
178
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
Mechanical reinforcement splices have been used in castin-place concrete construction when long, continuous bars
or reinforcement cages are required. Unlike lap splices,
which can require lengths greater than 30 bar diameters (db),
mechanical splices can be used to join bars at discrete locations.
Some of the mechanical reinforcing bar splices commercially
available in the United States1 are shown in Fig.1. Bridge
and building design codes use acceptance criteria such
as International Code Council (ICC) AC1332 and ASTM
A1034/A1034M3 to quantify the ability of a splice to transfer
load, withstand load reversals, and resist slip. Furthermore,
some state departments of transportation (DOTs) have
developed their own acceptance criteria.4 After evaluation,
mechanical splices are given a performance classification
compatible with the corresponding code provision of interest,
which is used to restrict placement in a structural member
or limit stress/strain demands on spliced bars. In the United
States, there is one significant difference between bridge
and building code requirements for mechanical splices.
ACI 318-025 allows Type 2 mechanical splices, which must
be able to develop the full tensile strength of the spliced bars
to be placed at any location within a member regardless of
local inelastic demands. On the other hand, bridge design
codes such as the AASHTO Bridge Design Specifications6
and Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria (SDC)7 prohibit
all mechanical splices from being placed in plastic hinge
regions, which are subjected to high inelastic demands. Such
provisions have prevented the use of mechanical splices in
plastic hinges of bridge columns and have been a barrier to
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
179
Fig. 1Mechanical reinforcing bar splice commercially available in the United States.
180
Strain at rupture, %
Bar
ID
Coupler region
Standard deviation
Average
Standard deviation
HC control bar
67.9
3.61
95.1
1.61
18.2
3.08
HC-S
67.2
1.09
95.2
2.71
16.4
2.09
7.70
0.37
HC-D
71.9
0.42
98.1
0.31
15.5
1.09
8.46
0.27
HC-C1
68.5
93.3
16.9
7.80
HC-C2
67.7
94.6
12.6
8.48
GC control bar
66.8
3.69
111.3
1.61
15.8
0.44
GC-S
66.3
0.66
108.6
1.08
15.9
1.19
5.61
0.35
GC-D
70.4
110.8
1.00
16.2
3.61
5.53
0.28
GC-C1
66.1
98.7
5.59
2.69
GC-D
Stress range
Average
Standard
deviation
Average
Standard
deviation
0 to yield
0.0175
0.0121
0.0781
0.0073
Yield to ultimate
0.0908
0.0178
0.0924
0.0041
Ultimate to failure
0.0633
0.0200
0.1060
0.0770
Fig. 6Cyclic test results: HC results (a) through (c); GC results (d) through (f).
which are expected due to differences in clamping forces at
the grips. Previous studies have shown that dynamic loading
does not have a significant effect on the elastic modulus of
mild steel reinforcing bars.19
In HC-D tests, the average yield and ultimate stresses
increased 6% and 3%, respectively, compared with HC-S test
results. In GC-D tests, the average yield and ultimate stresses
increased 6% and 2%, respectively, compared with GC-S
test results. Similar to the static tests, both HC-D and GC-D
specimens exhibited reduced elongation over the coupler
region compared with measurements from the spliced
reinforcing bars. The average elongation at failure over the
coupler region was 45% and 66% lower in HC-D and GC-D
specimens, respectively. All HC-D and GC-D specimens
failed due to ductile reinforcing bar fracture away from and
without damage to the splices. This indicates that increased
yield and ultimate stresses caused by dynamic loading were
sustained by both splice types without an adverse effect on
the failure mode. Similar the GC-S tests, GC-D specimens
were inspected after testing and evidence of strain penetration
into the grouted sleeves was found in all specimens. Lastly,
dynamic loading did not affect the stress-strain curves in the
coupler regions of HC-D and GC-Dspecimens.
Slip tests
The maximum slip recorded for HC-SCS and GC-SCS
samples were 0.007 and 0.0175 in. (0.178 and 0.044 mm),
respectively. The multi-cycle slip tests for each splice
type did not indicate cumulative slippage with application
of three or more cycles. Both HC and GC splices passed
single- and multi-cycles slip tests according to both Caltrans
and AASHTO maximum slip criteria, which are 0.028 and
0.01in. (0.71 and 0.25 mm), respectively.
Fig. 8Behavior of RC members with mechanical splices: (a) general column details; (b) moment-rotation relationships for
HCNP; (c) moment-rotation relations for GCNP; and (d) force-drift behavior.
the moment-rotation behavior of the GC column section
differs significantly from that of CIP. The maximum rotation
in the GC section is approximately one-third the maximum
rotation of CIP, and very little plastic rotation is achieved.
This is consistent with observations from uniaxial tests,
which indicated that the deformation capacity of the GC
splice could be as little as 25% of the reinforcing bar.
Although individual characteristics of the mechanical
splices can be observed locally within each column,
the global force-displacement relationships are not as
significantly affected in this case. However, the influence
of the mechanical splices could become more apparent
in the global force-deformation response with different
column geometries and/or reinforcement details. As shown
in Fig.8(d), the hysteresis loops for three columns are
comparable. GCNP had slightly higher peak loads after
2% drift due presence of GC splices. HCNP also exhibited
slightly higher peak load, but was a result of cementitious
grout present within the hinge zone that was approximately
twice as strong as the concrete for CIP. Furthermore,
the slight pinch observed at the local level can be seen in
global response, but is not significant. It should be noted
that although force-displacement relationships were similar
among the three columns, the presence of the GC splices in
GCNP ultimately shifted plastic hinging to the footing and
above the couplers. This shifted hinge mechanism eventually
caused longitudinal bars to rupture in the footing at 6% drift
due to strain concentrations and numerous load reversals. As
a result, the drift capacity of GCNP was significantly less
than the drift at failure in CIP and HCNP, which was 10%.
Typically, designers do not account for the presence
of mechanical splices in design calculations for ductile
reinforced concrete members. This is primarily because
splices are not typically placed in locations expected to
undergo significant nonlinear deformations. Other reasons
may include that designers assume splice behavior is
approximately the same as the spliced reinforcing bar or that
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
ey
Es
= SRE
Es*
(1)
SRE e sh
(2)
(3)
188
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
Strain-hardening cement composites (SHCCs), which is
grouped into similar composites such as high-performance
fiber-reinforced cement composites (HPFRCCs) and engineered cementitious composites (ECCs), show excellent
mechanical behavior characterized by tensile strain hardening and multiple fine cracks.1 Examples of practical
applications of SHCC have been reported in the literature.2
SHCC (ECC) is applied in the coupling beams of center core
systems used in high-rise reinforced concrete (RC) buildings.
The coupling beams are designed in compliance with the
following two requirements: 1) no substantial load degradation at a translational angle as high as 4%; and 2) no cracks
influencing durability with a width greater than 0.3 mm
(0.012 in.) after an earthquake. It is difficult for conventional RC beams to keep the crack opening under 0.3mm
(0.012in.) after the elements have deformed at an angle
of 4%. The finely distributed cracking behavior of SHCC
has also been exploited to use SHCC for surface repair of
concrete dams, water channels, and retaining walls.3
The advantages of using SHCC lie in the appropriate
use of its tensile property. The flexural performance of
structural elements can directly be improved by the strainhardening and multiple-cracking behavior of SHCC. In the
case of shear elements such as coupling beams and shear
walls, the bridging effect of the fiber in SHCC can transmit
shear stress through multiple cracks. This paper focuses
on improvement of the bond behavior, especially for the
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
189
Type
Length,
mm (in.)
Diameter,
mm (in.)
PVA
12.0 (0.472)
0.04
(1.6 103)
Tensile
strength,
N/mm2 (ksi)
Elastic
modulus,
kN/mm2 (ksi)
Fiber volume
fraction, %
w/b
Sandbinder
ratio
1690 (245)
40.6 (5890)
2.0
0.50
0.77
240
(405)
Sand
619
(1044)
types of uniaxial tension tests with several types of cementitious composites. The values of characteristics obtained
from each test show differences in spite of using the same
HPFRCC. It is assumed that the size effect due to fiber orientation and distribution causes the difference of bridging effect
of fiber in HPFRCC. Furthermore, tensile behavior is very
sensitive to the boundary conditions of loading, such as the
existence of a secondary moment caused by non-uniformity
of fiber distribution.
On the other hand, not many values of characteristics are
required for structural design. As one example, the perfect
elastic-plastic model is proposed for the tensile stress-strain
curve of HPFRCC in the Japan Society of Civil Engineers
Recommendations.9 The Japan Concrete Institute has a
standard test method to determine the tensile characteristics
of HPFRCC on the basis of the bending test.10 The tensile
strength and ultimate tensile strain can be obtained by simple
reverse calculation from the bending test results given in the
standard. The calculation method for tensile strength and
ultimate tensile strain is introduced based on the assumptions
for stress distribution under the maximum bending moment,
as shown in Fig. 1, which are: 1) the stress distribution on the
compression side is triangular; and 2) the stress distribution
on the tension side is uniform. These assumptions represent
a state in which the strain on the tension edge has reached
the ultimate strain but the stress on the compression edge has
not reached the compressive strength under the maximum
bending moment.10 In this study, this method is applied for
the material test of SHCC.
The material test results of SHCC are listed in Table 3.
A 100 x 200 mm (3.94 x 7.87 in.) test cylinder was used
for the compression test. The compressive strength was
approximately 45 N/mm2 (6.5 ksi). Figures 2 and 3 show the
bending test setup and measured moment-curvature curves,
respectively. Deflection-hardening and multiple-crack
behaviors are observed. The tensile strength varied from
4.2 to 4.6 N/mm2 (0.62 to 0.67 ksi). The ultimate strains
were 2.86 and 1.25%. According to previous experimental
results,8 the scattering of tensile characteristics of test pieces
is greater than that of the compressive strength. It was
reported that the coefficient of variation is over 30% for
ultimate strain. Furthermore, one of the test pieces for beam
test specimen ruptured at the out of the region of the linear
variable displacement transducers (LVDTs). This test piece
showed small ultimate strain.
A deformed bar (D13) with a specific diameter of 13 mm
(0.51 in.) was used for main bars (Fig. 4). The rib height
and spacing are 1.0 mm (0.039 in.) and 8.9 mm (0.35 in.),
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
Test series
Ultimate strain, %
44.5 (6.45)
15.3 (2220)
4.61 (0.669)
2.86
46.1 (6.69)
17.5 (2540)
4.24 (0.615)
1.25
JCI-S-003-2007. Method of test for bending moment-curvature curve of fiber-reinforced cementitious composites.
Test series
Pullout
369 (53.5)
543 (78.8)
193 (28,000)
762 (110.5)
952 (138.1)
192 (27,800)
D6 (6 mm)
Beam (stirrup)
364 (52.8)
514 (74.5)
185 (26,800)
1.0
1.5
ID
P05-1
7.68 (1.11)
0.499 (0.0196)
P05-2
6.85 (0.99)
0.589 (0.0232)
P05-3
8.57 (1.24)
0.533 (0.0210)
P10-1
8.37 (1.21)
0.455 (0.0179)
P10-2
11.19 (1.62)
0.577 (0.0227)
P10-3
9.70 (1.41)
0.389 (0.0153)
P15-1
12.01 (1.74)
0.303 (0.0119)
P15-2
12.98 (1.88)
0.333 (0.0131)
P15-3
14.73 (2.14)
0.179 (0.0070)
7.70 (1.12)
0.540 (0.0213)
9.75 (1.41)
0.474 (0.0186)
13.24 (1.92)
0.272 (0.0107)
Tepfers11 suggested the cylinder models of stress distributions of concrete around a pulled deformed bar as dividing
into three stages: 1) elastic stage; 2) partly-cracked elastic
stage; 3) and plastic stage. Figure 8 shows the relationships
between the cover thickness and bond strength for the three
stages of the Tepfers models. In the calculation of the bond
strength by these models, the tensile strength of SHCC listed
in Table 3 is adopted as that of the matrix, and the angle
between the bearing principal stress and axial direction is
assumed to be 45 degrees, which is similar to that assumed
in the Tepfers study. As shown in Fig. 8, the obtained bond
strengths of SHCC are equal or higher than those predicted
by the plastic stage assumption. The higher bond strength
was obtained by the specimens with C/db = 0.5. The cover
thickness of these specimens was about half of fiber length.
It is assumed that fiber orientation shows the tendency to
have the similar direction to the perpendicular between the
reinforcement and slits. This may cause the advancement of
a fiber-bridging effect to the splitting crack.
BEAM BOND TEST
Outline of experiment
A bond test for beam specimens with small bar spacing
was conducted to investigate the bond behavior and bond
strength of SHCC. An example of the beam specimens is
shown in Fig. 9. The specimens were designed for observing
the bond behavior in tension-side (bottom-side) reinforcement. Each beam had two test regions (L and R). After the
left-side test region was subjected to three-point bending
using the loading and support positions indicated by void
triangles in the figure, the right-side test region underwent
identical loading. An unbonded zone covered by steel pipes
was arranged at the supported area. The slits along the
perpendicular direction at the loaded and free ends were
set to avoid continuous cracks from the untested zone. The
length between two slits was 208 mm (8.19 in.). SHCC
was cast from the side of the beam, as shown in the figure,
because the SHCC elements could be used as the precast
members. Though the fiber orientation around main bars
could not be observed, it was assumed that the fiber oriented
both in longitudinal and circumferential directions.
Stirrup
Arrangement
pw, %
Embedded
length
None
0.0
16db
2-D6 at 80
0.4
16db
None
0.0
8db
No.2-R
2-D6 at 40
0.8
16db
No.3-L
None
0.0
16db
2-D6 at 80
0.4
16db
ID
Arrangement
pt, %
No.1-L
No.1-R
No.2-L
No.3-R
No.4-L
5-D13
(C/db = 1.0)
6-D13
(C/db = 0.8)
0.91
1.09
None
0.0
8db
No.4-R
2-D6 at 40
0.8
16db
No.5-L
None
0.0
16db
2-D6 at 80
0.4
16db
No.5-R
No.6-L
7-D13
(C/db = 0.6)
1.27
No.6-R
None
0.0
8db
2-D6 at 40
0.8
16db
s db b = t 2C s (1)
bc = s cot
bc = t
(2)
2C s
cot (3)
db b
Main bar
No.1-L
pw, %
Embedded length
0.0
16db
5.81 (0.843)
5.94 (0.862)
5.89 (0.854)
0.4
16db
8.98 (1.302)
7.06 (1.024)
7.83 (1.136)
0.0
8db
10.03 (1.455)
11.32 (1.642)
10.81 (1.568)
No.2-R
0.8
16db
10.48 (1.520)
7.91 (1.147)
8.94 (1.297)
No.3-L
0.0
16db
5.04 (0.731)
4.76 (0.690)
4.85 (0.703)
0.4
16db
7.91 (1.147)
6.32 (0.917)
6.85 (0.994)
No.1-R
No.2-L
No.3-R
5-D13
6-D13
0.0
8db
9.45 (1.371)
9.43 (1.368)
9.44 (1.369)
No.4-R
0.8
16db
9.75 (1.414)
6.51 (0.944)
7.59 (1.101)
No.5-L
0.0
16db
4.87 (0.706)
4.48 (0.650)
4.59 (0.666)
0.4
16db
7.78 (1.128)
5.62 (0.815)
6.24 (0.905)
No.4-L
No.5-R
No.6-L
7-D13
No.6-R
0.0
8db
7.65 (1.110)
8.15 (1.182)
8.01 (1.162)
0.8
16db
8.37 (1.214)
5.97 (0.866)
6.66 (0.966)
bs = 0.018
b pw hr
where bs is the bond strength provided by lateral reinforcement confinement; b is the width of beam; pw is the stirrup
ratio; Nt is the number of main bars; db is the diameter of
main bar; hr is rib height; dw is diameter of stirrup; Est is the
elastic modulus of stirrup; B is the compressive strength of
SHCC; and is the angle between principal bearing stress
and axial direction (= 56 degrees).
Consequently, bond strength b is predicted by Eq. (5)
b = bc + bs (5)
196
Main
bar
No.1-L
No.1-R
Experimental bond
strength, N/mm2 (ksi)
bc
bs
bc + bs
Experiment/prediction
5.89 (0.854)
6.32 (0.917)
0 (0)
6.32 (0.917)
0.93
7.83 (1.136)
6.32 (0.917)
1.59 (0.230)
7.91 (1.148)
0.99
10.80 (1.566)
12.65 (1.835)
0 (0)
12.65 (1.835)
0.85
No.2-R
8.94 (1.297)
6.32 (0.917)
2.25 (0.326)
8.57 (1.243)
1.04
No.3-L
4.85 (0.703)
5.06 (0.734)
0 (0)
5.06 (0.734)
0.96
6.85 (0.994)
5.06 (0.734)
1.21 (0.175)
6.27 (0.909)
1.09
No.2-L
No.3-R
No.4-L
5-D13
6-D13
9.44 (1.369)
10.12 (1.468)
0 (0)
10.12 (1.468)
0.93
No.4-R
7.59 (1.101)
5.06 (0.734)
1.71 (0.248)
6.77 (0.982)
1.12
No.5-L
4.59 (0.666)
3.79 (0.550)
0 (0)
3.79 (0.550)
1.21
6.24 (0.905)
3.79 (0.550)
0.96 (0.139)
4.75 (0.689)
1.31
8.01 (1.162)
7.59 (1.101)
0 (0)
7.59 (1.101)
1.06
6.66 (0.966)
3.79 (0.550)
1.36 (0.197)
5.15 (0.747)
1.29
No.5-R
No.6-L
No.6-R
7-D13
of the beam bond test also show that the bond strength of
SHCC has a higher value. A prediction methodology is
proposed as the summation of the bond strength provided
by SHCC and the confinement of lateral reinforcement. The
predicted bond strength shows good agreement with the
experimental results.
AUTHOR BIOS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to express their gratitude and sincere appreciation to the
Techno Material Co., Ltd. for providing SHCC materials.
REFERENCES
1. RILEM TC 208-HFC, Strain Hardening Cement Composites: Structural Design and Performance, State-of-the-Art Report of the RILEM Technical Committee 208-HFC, SC3, 2013.
2. Kanda, T.; Tomoe, S.; Nagai, S.; Maruta, M.; Kanakubo, T.; and
Shimizu, K., Full Scale Processing Investigation for ECC Pre-cast Structural Element, Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering,
V. 5, No. 2, 2006, pp. 333-340. doi: 10.3130/jaabe.5.333
3. Kunieda, M., and Rokugo, K., Recent Progress on HPFRCC in Japan;
Required Performance and Applications, Journal of Advanced Concrete
Technology, V. 4, No. 1, 2006, pp. 19-33. doi: 10.3151/jact.4.19
4. Tepfers, R., A Theory of Bond Applied to Overlapped Tensile
Reinforcement Splices for Deformed Bars, Publication 73:2, Division
of Concrete Structures, Chalmers University of Technology, Gteborg,
Sweden, 1973, 328 pp.
5. Hota, S., and Naaman, A. E., Bond Stress-Slip Response of
Reinforcing Bars Embedded in FRC Matrices under Monotonic and
Cyclic Loading, ACI Structural Journal, V. 94, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 1997,
pp. 525-537.
6. Chao, S. H.; Naaman, A. E.; and Parra-Montesinos, G. J., Local
Bond Stress-Slip Models for Reinforcing Bars and Prestressing Strands
in High-Performance Fiber-Reinforced Cement Composites, Antoine E.
197
APPENDIX
The Morita and Fujii12 calculation formula (notation is
altered from the original) is
198
(A1)
st = 24.9 k
Ast
B (A3)
s Nt db
b = co + st (A4)
3C 50db
co = 1.2 + s +
B (A5)
db
b
st =
Ast wy
500 s db
B (A6)
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
Reinforced concrete materials are widely accepted due to
their strength, durability, reduced costs, quality, and ease of
forming into various shapes and sizes to construct structural
members such as beams, slabs, columns, and shear walls.
The use of reinforced concrete wide beams is advantageous
for many reasons. In buildings such as warehouses, commercial buildings, parking garages, and office buildings, reinforced concrete wide beams with a width-depth ratio of at
least 2 are used to reduce floor height and facilitate the run
of services under the floor.
There have been many studies on wide beam behavior,
mostly on their support width and transversal spacing of
stirrup legs.1-10 Regarding the particular feature and behavior
of connections in wide beams that the column is narrower
than the beam, some researchers conducted different tests
to investigate the behavior of wide beams under different
load conditions, statically and dynamically. Based on the
results of the research, the use of wide beams for different
regions and conditions is limited. The seismic performance
of wide beams was investigated,1,2,10 with some recommendations to use these members in seismic regions. In
a different loading for shear,3 tests on impact behavior of
reinforced concrete beams for the effect of shear mechanisms revealed that specimens with higher shear capacity
are able to sustain more impacts and absorb higher values
of energy. Abbas et al.4 investigated the structural response
of wide beams and the results indicated that, under high-rate
loading, the beam is capable of withstanding higher values
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
199
WB4, about two-thirds of the longitudinal flexural reinforcement was arranged in a band of width equal to and centered
on the column width to compare its effect with the evenly
bw/d, mm
(in.)
Height h,
mm (in.)
Shear span a,
mm (in.)
Stirrups
a/d
Horizontal bars
Avh, mm (in. )
WB1*
3.6 (3.5)
250 (9.8)
550 (21.6)
2.6
1.4
WB2
3.6 (3.5)
250 (9.8)
550 (21.6)
2.6
1.4
157 (0.2)
150 (5.9)
WB3
3.6 (3.5)
250 (9.8)
550 (21.6)
2.6
1.4
804 (1.3)
WB4
3.6 (3.5)
250 (9.8)
550 (21.6)
2.6
1.4
WB5
3.6 (3.5)
250 (9.8)
550 (21.6)
2.6
1.4
170 (0.3)
150 (5.9)
WB6
3.6 (3.5)
250 (9.8)
550 (21.6)
2.6
1.4
170 (0.3)
300 (11.8)
157 (0.2)
150 (5.9)
No shear reinforcement; however, they were different in longitudinal flexural reinforcement distribution.
Notes: bw/d is beam width-depth ratio; a/d is shear span-depth ratio; and Avh is the area of middepth horizontal shear bars.
Vn = Vc + Vs (1)
202
Diameter,
mm (in.)
D-6
5.39 (0.21)
637.7 (92.49)
1.2 103
727.5 (105.5)
D-10
9.69 (0.38)
601.5 (87.24)
1.3 103
700.4 (101.6)
D-12
1.8 10
726.4 (105.4)
D-16
1.1 10
547.1 (79.35)
3
3
Ultimate strength
fu, MPa (ksi)
V d
Vc = 0.166 f c + 17w u bw d (MPa) (3a)
Mu
V d
Vc = 2.0 f c + 2500w u bw d (psi) (3b)
Mu
Vsv =
Av f ys d
sv
(4)
where Av is the area of shear reinforcement; sv is center-tocenter spacing of shear reinforcement measured in direction
parallel to longitudinal tensile reinforcement; and fys is yield
strength of stirrup.
Research6,7 has shown that, with a decrease in the transverse spacing of stirrup legs across the section in wide beams
with substantial flexural reinforcement, the shear behavior is
improved. Other research14 has indicated that the transverse
spacing of web reinforcement shown in ACI318-08 limited
to the lesser of: a) the effective depth d; or b) 600 mm [24
in.] is adequate when the nominal shear stress does not
Vsb =
(5)
where Vsv and Vsb are nominal shear strengths of vertical shear
reinforcement and independent bent-up bars, respectively.
In comparison to ACI 318-08,11 the method of shear
design used by Eurocode 212 is the variable strut inclination
method, and the shear capacity of the concrete VRd,c is given
by (EC2, Clause (6.2.2))
VRd , s =
Av
df ys cot (9)
sv
Pu,ACI, kN (kip)
Pu,EC2, kN (kip)
Pu,experiment, kN (kip)
Pu,experiment/Pu,ACI
Pu,experiment/Pu,EC2
WB1
360 (81)
379 (85)
401 (90)
1.11
1.10
WB2
736 (165)
307 (69)
604 (136)
0.82
1.97
WB3
387 (87)
429 (96)
507 (114)
1.30
1.18
WB4
360 (81)
379 (85)
480 (108)
1.34
1.27
WB5
664 (149)
727 (163)
581 (131)
0.87
0.80
WB6
889 (200)
686 (154)
635 (143)
0.71
0.93
Notes: Pu,ACI is total capacity of each specimen by ACI 318 from design stage; Pu,EC2 represents total capacity of each specimen by Eurocode 2 from design stage; Pu,experiment is
ultimate load that caused failure to each specimen.
Pu,experiment, kN (kip)
u,experiment, mm (in.)
WB1
401 (90)
216 (49)
392 (88)
9 (2)
2.6 (0.102)
WB2
604 (136)
195 (44)
420 (94)
184 (41)
6.9 (0.272)
WB3
507 (114)
195 (44)
400 (90)
107 (24)
3.1 (0.122)
WB4
480 (108)
210 (47)
430 (97)
50(11)
3.5 (0.138)
WB5
581 (131)
200 (45)
440 (99)
141 (32)
5.9 (0.232)
WB6
635 (143)
180 (41)
480 (108)
155 (35)
5.8 (0.228)
Notes: Pflexural crack is load under which first flexural crack was observed; Pshear crack is load under which first shear crack was observed; and u,experiment is final deflection of the wide
beam midspan at Pu,experiment.
FURTHER RESEARCH
Testing wide beam specimens with a larger number and
smaller size of independent bent-up bars in combination
with stirrups is recommended. It is also recommended to
test specimens using independent bent-up bars for punching
shear, if acceptable. The use of independent bent-up bars as
shear reinforcement is faster and easier than other types of
shear reinforcement. In both cases, the results will contribute
new practical guidelines to improve shear capacity of wide
beams and slabs using independent bent-up bars.
CONCLUSIONS
The behavior of reinforced concrete wide beams with
diverse types of reinforcement was investigated under this
experimental study. The results revealed that using independent bent-up bars significantly improved the shear capacity
of wide beams. The combination of independent bent-up bars
with stirrups led to higher shear capacity and gradual failure
of the specimen. Independent horizontal bars increased the
shear capacity to some extent, but the beam was less ductile
through failure. The results also indicated that the beam with
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
ACI member Seyed Esmaeil Mohammadyan-Yasouj is a PhD Candidate of civil engineeringstructure at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Johor Bahru, Malaysia, where he received his MS. His research interests
include analysis and design of reinforced concrete structures, industrialized
building systems, and research to practical guidelines on the construction
of concrete structures.
Abdul Kadir Marsono is an Associate Professor of civil engineering at
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. He received his MPhil from Heriot-Watt
University, Edinburgh, UK, and his PhD from University of Dundee,
Dundee, UK. His research interests include industrialized building
systems, nonlinear analysis, and reinforced concrete shear walls of tall
buildingstructures.
Ramli Abdullah is a Senior Lecturer and an Associate Professor of civil
engineering at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. He received his MS from the
University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK, and his PhD from Heriot-Watt
University. His research interests include reinforced concrete structures.
ACI member Mostafa Moghadasi is an Assistant Professor of civil engineering at Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran. He received his MSc and
PhD in structural engineering from Amirkabir University of Technology
(Tehran Polytechnic), Tehran, Iran, and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
respectively. His research interests include nonlinear behavior of reinforced and precast concrete structures, industrialized building systems, and
tallbuildings.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the support from the faculty of
civil engineering at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
REFERENCES
1. Stehle, J. S.; Abdouka, K.; Goldsworthy, H.; and Mendis, P., The
Seismic Performance of Reinforced Concrete Frames with Wide Band
Beams, Second International Symposium on Earthquake Resistant Engineering Structures, WIT Press, Catania, Italy, 1999, pp. 113-122.
2. Benavent-Climent, A., Shaking Table Tests of Reinforced Concrete
Wide Beam-Column Connections, Earthquake Engineering & Structural
Dynamics, V. 34, No. 15, 2005, pp. 1833-1839. doi: 10.1002/eqe.507
3. Saatci, S., and Vecchio, F. J., Effects of Shear Mechanisms on Impact
Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Beams, ACI Structural Journal, V. 106,
No. 1, Jan.-Feb. 2009, pp. 78-86.
4. Abbas, A. A.; Pullen, A. D.; and Cotsovos, D. M., Structural
Response of RC Wide Beams Under Low-Rate and Impact Loading,
Magazine of Concrete Research, V. 62, No. 10, 2010, pp. 723-740. doi:
10.1680/macr.2010.62.10.723
5. Hsiung, W. W., and Frantz, G. C., An Exploratory Study of the Shear
Strength of Wide Reinforced Concrete Beams with Web Reinforcement,
Research Report CE 83-151, Department of Civil Engineering, University
of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 1983.
6. Anderson, N. S., and Ramirez, J. A., Detailing of Stirrup Reinforcement, ACI Structural Journal, V. 86, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 1989, pp. 507-515.
7. Leonhardt, F., and Walther, R., The Stuttgart Shear Tests 1961, Translation No. 111, Cement and Concrete Association, London, UK, 1964, 134 pp.
8. Lubell, A. S.; Bentz, E. C.; and Collins, M. P., One-Way Shear in
Wide Concrete Beams with Narrow Supports, ASCE Structural Congress,
Crossing Borders, Reston, VA, 2008.
9. Shuraim, A. B., Transverse Stirrup Configurations in RC Wide
Shallow Beams Supported on Narrow Columns, Journal of Structural
208
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
The advantages of high-strength concrete combined
with high-strength steel have been demonstrated in practical use. They are commonly used in high-rise buildings
to reduce the dimensions of columns in lower stories to
increase available floor area and to relive reinforcement
congestion. Advanced technology has enabled the development of high-strength materials in Taiwan. High-strength
concrete with specified compressive strength up to 100 MPa
(14,500 psi) and high-strength deformed reinforcement with
specified yield strength of 685 and 785 MPa (100,000 and
114,000psi) for main and transverse reinforcement,1 respectively, are now commercially available. However, in shear
design for columns, the current ACI Building Code2 limits
concrete compressive strength fc to 70 MPa (10,000 psi)
(ACI 318-11, Section 11.1.2) due to the lack of test data and
practical experience with fc 70 MPa (10,000 psi). Moreover, the yield strength of shear reinforcement (fyt) is limited
to 420 MPa (60,900 psi) (ACI 318-11, Section 11.4.2) to
control diagonal crack width and to ensure yielding of shear
reinforcement before shear failure.3
The equations for shear strength provided by concrete
(Vc) of the ACI Code2 for nonprestressed members subject
to axial compression were developed based on the results
of studies4-7 of 67 specimens under axial compressive stress
ranging from 0.02fc to 0.81fc, which were reported by Joint
ACI-ASCE Committee 326.8 However, only four specimens
had axial compressive stress higher than 0.15fc, and the fc
values ranged from 14 to 41 MPa (2000 to 6000 psi). For
further assessment of the applicability of the ACI Code equaACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
209
450
30
260
C-4
D-1
D-2
D-3
450
40
D-4
260
Concrete compressive strength Longitudinal reinforcing bar D32 (No. 10) Shear reinforcing bar D13 (No. 4)
fcs, MPa
fc, MPa
70
104.1
100
138.8
70
104.6
100
130.0
70
101.0
100
125.5
70
106.4
100
127.8
fyls, MPa
fyl, MPa
l, %
w, %
fyts, MPa
fyt, MPa
t, %
0.16
0.28
685
735
3.52
1.37
785
862
0.16
0.28
Fig. 1Specimen design: (a) Specimens C-1, C-2, D-1, and D-2; (b) Specimens C-3, C-4, D-3, and D-4; and (c) cross section.
(Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
Columns in the lower stories of high-rise buildings typically carry large axial compression. By using high-strength
concrete and steel, designers can control the column dimensions and increase the available floor area. However, current
ACI Code equations for shear-strength limit concrete
compressive strength to 70 MPa (10,000 psi) and limit the
yield strength of shear reinforcement to 420 MPa (60,900psi).
This study tested high-strength concrete columns under high
axial compression and compared test results with those of
high-strength columns reported in the literature to develop
shear-strength equations for designing columns with material strengths that exceed the ACI limitations.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Specimen design and test setup
Eight large-scale columns were tested. Table 1 lists the
design parameters of the columns. The columns were tested
approximately 1 year after fabrication. Figure 1 illustrates
210
w/b, %
FS
FA
CA
HRWRA
SL, cm
70
29
285
200
25
143
789
936
8.16
70 5
100
23
350
300
50
150
654
866
14
70 5
Notes: W is water; B is binder; C is cement; S is slag; FS is fly ash; FA is fine aggregate; CA is coarse aggregate; HRWRA is high-range water-reducing admixture; and SL is slump;
1 MPa = 145 psi; 1 kgf = 2.2046 lbf; 1 m = 39.37 in.; 1 cm = 0.394 in.
Fig. 4Hysteretic behavior of specimens with 30% axial compression: Specimens (a) C-1; (b) C-2; (c) C-3; and (d) C-4.
respectively. Due to high axial compression, web-shear
cracks in Series C and D columns were major cracks with
little or no flexural or flexure-shear cracks. The diagonal
crack angle at diagonal cracking condition was the same as
that at peak applied load. For Series C columns, the diagonal
crack angle was 17 degrees (ranging from 14 to 19 degrees)
at both diagonal cracking and peak applied load. For Series
D columns, the angle was 15 degrees (ranging from 12 to
16 degrees). Figure 8 shows the damage distribution of each
column at test end.
Shear contribution of steel and concrete
Figure 9 shows the relationship between the column drift
and the maximum stress of shear reinforcement for each
column. The shear reinforcement stress increased slowly in
the early drift and increased rapidly after diagonal cracks
formed. As axial compression increased, the formation of
diagonal cracks tended to be delayed, but after diagonal
cracking, shear reinforcement stress increased more rapidly.
The third and fourth columns in Table 3 list the drift at diagonal
cracking condition and corresponding shear reinforcement
stress, respectively. The eighth and ninth columns in Table3
list the drift at ultimate condition and corresponding shear
reinforcement stress, respectively. Except for ColumnC-3,
all the Series C and D columns reached the ultimate condition due to sudden, explosive failure of compression zone at
the same drift as diagonal cracking. Redistribution of internal
forces after diagonal cracking was not successful. Shear rein212
Fig. 5Hysteretic behavior of specimens with 40% axial compression: Specimens (a) D-1; (b) D-2; (c) D-3; and (d) D-4.
Fig. 6Crack pattern at peak applied load for Specimens: (a) C-1; (b) C-2; (c) C-3; (d) C-4; (e) D-1; (f) D-2; (g) D-3; and
(h) D-4.
equations of the ACI Code. For columns that had the ultimate condition at a larger drift than the diagonal cracking
condition (SeriesA and B columns and Column C-3), no
columns showed yielding of shear reinforcement at the ultimate condition. This observation is consistent with the literature,13-15 as mentioned previously. Note that test results also
showed that a higher amount of shear reinforcement delayed
213
Ultimate condition
Column
fc, MPa
Drift ratio, %
st, MPa
Vtest, kN
Vs_test, kN
Vc_test, kN
Drift ratio,%
st, MPa
Vtest, kN
Vs_test, kN
Vc_test, kN
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
A-1
92.5
0.35
19
1264
1255
0.57
243
1578
150
1428
A-2
99.9
0.33
1286
1283
0.53
235
1638
150
1488
A-3
96.9
0.32
16
1279
13
1266
0.75
359
1772
413
1359
A-4
107.1
0.33
14
1298
10
1288
0.79
418
1781
447
1334
B-1
108.3
0.45
18
1862
10
1852
0.59
223
2078
165
1913
B-2
125.0
0.41
20
2007
11
1996
0.50
183
2298
195
2103
B-3
112.9
0.40
16
2098
17
2081
0.54
214
2418
411
2007
B-4
121.0
0.42
18
2103
14
2089
0.64
380
2528
522
2006
C-1
104.1
0.42
28
2036
45
1991
0.42
28
2036
45
1991
C-2
138.8
0.60
28
2958
39
2919
0.60
28
2958
39
2919
C-3
104.6
0.38
28
2153
56
2097
0.70
602
2210
1140
1070
C-4
130.0
0.62
32
3018
68
2950
0.62
32
3018
68
2950
D-1
101.0
0.37
30
2239
46
2193
0.37
30
2239
46
2193
D-2
125.5
0.46
24
2486
36
2450
0.46
24
2486
36
2450
D-3
106.4
0.45
32
2355
77
2278
0.45
32
2355
77
2278
D-4
127.8
0.44
28
2547
92
2455
0.44
28
2547
92
2455
Vs _ test =
It can be seen from Table 3 that the amount of shear reinforcement did not substantially affect the Vc_test value at
diagonal cracking. On the other hand, axial compression has
a positive effect on Vc_test at diagonal cracking but the effect
appeared to reach an upper limit under high axial compression. As axial compression increased from 0.1fcAg to 0.2fcAg,
from 0.2fcAg to 0.3fcAg, and from 0.3fcAg to 0.4fcAg, the
Vc_test increased in average by 57%, 24%, and 4%, respectively. Moreover, the difference in Vc_test between the diagonal cracking condition and ultimate condition decreased
with increasing axial compression.
EXAMINATION OF ACI 318 SHEAR EQUATIONS
According to the ACI Code, nominal shear strength Vn can
be obtained from two components: shear strength provided
by concrete, Vc, and shear strength provided by steel reinforcement, Vs. In the Code, Eq. (3) to (6) are used to calculate
Vc of reinforced concrete members under axial compression.
Equation (3) is the simplified equation. Equations (4) and
(5) are used for detailed calculation for Vc but should not be
greater than Eq. (6). The Vs can be calculated using Eq. (7).
214
Nu
Vc = 0.17 1 +
13.8 Ag
Nu
Vc = 2 1 +
2000 Ag
f cbw d (MPa)
(3)
f cbw d (psi)
V d
Vc = 0.16 f c + 17w u bw d (MPa)
Mm
(4)
V d
Vc = 1.9 f c + 2500w u bw d (psi)
Mm
Fig. 8Damage distribution at end of test: Specimens (a) C-1; (b) C-2; (c) C-3; (d) C-4; (e) D-1; (f) D-2; (g) D-3; and (h) D-4.
M m = M u Nu
Vc = 0.29 f cbw d 1 +
Vc = 3.5 f cbw d 1 +
( 4h d ) (5)
8
0.29 N u
(MPa)
Ag
(6)
Nu
(psi)
500 Ag
Vs =
Av f yt d
s
(7)
Vc =
ft
Nu
bw d 1 +
(8)
F2
f t bw d
215
Table 4Ratio of test results to shear-strength prediction using ACI 318-11 without strength limitation
Diagonal cracking shear strength
Vc _ test
Vc _ test
Vc _ test
Vc _ test
Vs _ test
Column
VEq ( 3)
VEq ( 6 )
VEq ( 3)
VEq ( 6 )
VEq ( 7 )
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
A-1
1.61
0.81
1.83
0.93
0.43
A-2
1.49
0.76
1.72
0.88
0.43
A-3
1.55
0.79
1.67
0.85
0.68
A-4
1.44
0.74
1.49
0.76
0.74
B-1
1.69
0.89
1.75
0.92
0.47
B-2
1.39
0.77
1.46
0.82
0.56
B-3
1.53
0.85
1.48
0.82
0.68
B-4
1.42
0.80
1.36
0.77
0.86
C-1
1.23
0.74
1.23
0.74
C-2
1.27
0.82
1.27
0.82
C-3
1.30
0.77
0.66
0.39
1.89
C-4
1.39
0.88
1.39
0.88
D-1
1.15
0.73
1.15
0.73
D-2
0.97
0.66
0.97
0.66
D-3
1.12
0.72
1.12
0.72
D-4
0.95
0.65
0.95
0.65
Vc = 0.29 f cbw d 1 +
Vc = 3.5 f cbw d 1 +
1.6 N u
f cbw d
0.133N u
f cbw d
(MPa)
(9)
(psi)
216
of Vc_test to Vc predicted by Eq. (3), (6), and (9), respectively. Whereas Eq. (3) yields conservative predictions for
most columns, Eq. (6) yields nonconservative predictions
for 48columns. The number of nonconservative results is
greatly reduced to 17 if Eq. (9) is used.
Figure 10 shows the relationship between Vc at diagonal
cracking and axial compression for each of the 77 columns.
The figure also shows the Vc predicted by various models.
Note that each model generates different relationships for
different fc in Fig. 10. Only two relationships corresponding
to fc of 100 and 130 MPa (14,500 and 18,800 psi), respectively, which cover most data, are shown for each model.
Figure 10 also shows that, although Eq. (3) is conservative
for most columns, the linear correlation with axial compression described by Eq. (3) significantly differs from behavior
revealed by the test data. The test data indicate that Vc
increases with axial compression, but the rate of increase
tends to decrease. At high axial compression, Vc appears
to reach an upper limit. For instance, Vc test data from this
study show an upper limit at axial compression of 0.3fcAg to
0.4fcAg. The Sakaguchi13 data show an upper limit of 0.4fcAg
to 0.5fcAg. The Maruta15 data show that the increase in Vc
substantially slows when axial compression is increased
from 0.3fcAg to 0.6fcAg. Equations (6) and (9) are better for
capturing the increasing trend of test data but cannot reflect
the upper-limit phenomenon at high axial compression.
To address the aforementioned Vc behavior under varying
axial compression, Eq. (8) was modified to include the
reduction in principal tensile strength, ft, caused by the
presence of compressive stress acting in the other principal
direction.24-28 The principal compressive stress increases
with increasing axial compression of the column.
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
t = ft
(10)
Fig. 11Tensile strength degradation of high-strength
concrete.
Figure 11 shows test data for concrete under biaxial loading
for high-strength concrete26,28 (69 to 100 MPa [10,000 to
14,500 psi]). The decrease in principal tensile strength due
to compressive stress in the other principal direction can be
described by the following equation.
N V
N
c = u + u + c (12)
2 Ag
2 Ag bw d
Vc = 0.29 f cbw d 1 +
Vc = 3.5 f cbw d 1 +
2 Nu
f cbw d
0.17 N u
f cbw d
(MPa)
(13)
(psi)
217
Nu
Nu
0.6 (14)
= 1 0.85
for 0
f cAg
f cAg
For simplicity in design, Eq. (13) combined with Eq. (14) can
be conservatively approximated by Eq. (15). Equation(15)
is Eq. (9) with the coefficient 0.29fc (MPa) or 3.5fc (psi)
replaced by 0.25fc (MPa) or 3.0fc (psi) and with an upper
limit of 0.2fcAg on Nu. The 16th column in TableA1 shows
the predictions obtained by Eq. (15); conservative results
are obtained for all columns except for Column A-4, in
which the ratio of measured to predicted strength is 0.99.
Figure 10 shows that Eq. (15) reaches an upper limit at an
axial compression of 0.2fcAg and remains constant with
increasing axial compression. This study proposes to replace
the ACI Code Eq. (6) with Eq. (13) combined with Eq. (14)
or with Eq. (15).
Vc = 0.25 f cbw d 1 +
Vc = 3.0 f cbw d 1 +
1.6 N u
f cbw d
0.133 N u
f cbw d
(MPa)
(15)
(psi)
Yu-Chen Ou is an Associate Professor of civil and construction engineering at the National Taiwan University of Science and Technology,
Taipei, Taiwan. He received his PhD from the University of Buffalo, the
State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY. He is the Vice President of the Taiwan ChapterACI. His research interests include reinforced
concrete structures and earthquake engineering.
ACI member Dimas P. Kurniawan is a Research Assistant of civil and
construction engineering at the National Taiwan University of Science
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Ag
Av
a
bw
d
F2
=
=
=
=
=
=
fc'
fcs'
ft'
fy
fyl
fyls
fyt
fyts
h
M m
Mu
Nu
s
Vc
Vc_test
Vn
Vs
Vs_test
Vtest
Vu
a
q
rl
rt
rw
sc
sst
st
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
NOTATION
REFERENCES
10. Mphonde, A. G., and Frantz, G. C., Shear Tests of High- and
Low-Strength Concrete Beams without Stirrups, ACI Journal Proceedings, V. 81, No. 4, July-Aug. 1984, pp. 350-357.
11. Elzanaty, A. H.; Nilson, A. H.; and Slate, F. O., Shear Capacity of
Reinforced Concrete Beams Using High-Strength Concrete, ACI Journal
Proceedings, V. 83, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 1986, pp. 290-296.
12. Gupta, P. R., and Collins, M. P., Evaluation of Shear Design Procedures for Reinforced Concrete Members under Axial Compression, ACI
Structural Journal, V. 98, No. 4, July-Aug. 2001, pp. 537-547.
13. Sakaguchi, N.; Yamanobe, K.; Kitada, Y.; Kawachi, T.; and Koda,
S., Shear Strength of High-Strength Concrete Members, Second International Symposium on High-Strength Concrete, SP-121, W. T. Hester, ed.,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1990, pp. 155-178.
14. Watanabe, F., and Kabeyasawa, T., Shear Strength of RC Members
with High-Strength Concrete, High-Strength Concrete in Seismic Regions,
SP-176, C. W. French and M. E. Kreger, eds., American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 1998, pp. 379-396.
15. Maruta, M., Shear Capacity of Reinforced Concrete Column Using
High Strength Concrete, Invited Lecture in the 8th International Symposium on Utilization of High-Strength and High-Performance Concrete,
Tokyo, Japan, Oct. 27-29, 2008, pp. 403-408.
16. Kurniawan, D. P., Shear Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Columns
with High Strength Steel and Concrete under Low Axial Load, MS thesis,
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan,
2011, 341 pp.
17. Takami, S., and Yoshioka, K., Shear Strength of RC Columns
Using High-Strength Concrete, Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual
Meeting, Structures IV, Architectural Institute of Japan, Tokyo, Japan,
1997, pp. 25-26. (in Japanese)
18. Takaine, Y.; Nagai, S.; Maruta, M.; and Suzuki, N., Shear Performance of RC Column Using 200 N/mm2 Concrete, Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting, Structures IV, Architectural Institute of
Japan, Tokyo, Japan, 2010, pp. 295-296. (in Japanese)
19. Kuramoto, H., and Minami, K., Experiments on the Shear Strength
of Ultra-High Strength Reinforced Concrete Columns, Proceedings of the
Tenth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Madrid, Spain, July
1992, pp. 3001-3006.
20. Aoyama, H., Design of Modern Highrise Reinforced Concrete Structures, Imperial College Press, London, UK, 2001, 442 pp.
21. Shinohara, Y.; Kubota, T.; and Hayashi, S., Shear Crack Behaviors
of Ultra-High-Strength Concrete Columns (Part 1 and Part 2), Summaries
of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting, Structures IV, Architectural Institute of Japan, Tokyo, Japan, 2008, pp. 605-608. (in Japanese)
22. Akihiko, N.; Kuramoto, H.; and Koichi, M., Shear Strength and
Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Columns Using High-Strength Concrete
of B = 1200 kgf/cm2 (Part 1 and Part 2), Proceedings of Architectural
Institute of Japan, 1990, pp. 53-60. (in Japanese)
23. Sibata, M.; Kanasugi, H.; Uwada, M.; Ooyama, H.; and Yamashita,
Y., Experimental Study on Shear Behavior of Reinforced Concrete
Columns Using High-Strength Shear Reinforcement of 8000 kgf/cm2 Grade
(Part 4), Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting, Structures IV,
Architectural Institute of Japan, 1997, pp. 7-8. (in Japanese)
24. McHenry, D., and Karni, J., Strength of Concrete under Combined
Tensile and Compressive Stress, ACI Journal Proceedings, V. 54, No. 4,
Apr. 1958, pp. 829-839.
25. Kupfer, H.; Hilsdorf, H. K.; and Rusch, H., Behavior of Concrete
under Biaxial Stresses, ACI Journal Proceedings, V. 66, No. 8, Aug. 1969,
pp. 656-666.
26. Hussein, A., Behavior of High-Strength Concrete under Biaxial
Loading Conditions, PhD thesis, Memorial University of Newfoundland,
St. Johns, NL, Canada, Apr. 1998, 245 pp.
27. Hussein, A., and Marzouk, H., Behavior of High-Strength Concrete
under Biaxial Stresses, ACI Materials Journal, V. 97, No. 1, Jan.-Feb.
2000, pp. 27-36.
28. Hampel, T.; Speck, K.; Scheerer, S.; Ritter, R.; and Curbach, M.,
High-Performance Concrete under Biaxial and Triaxial Loads, Journal of
Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, V. 135, No. 11, 2009, pp. 1274-1280. doi:
10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9399(2009)135:11(1274)
29. Paulay, T., and Priestley, M. J. N., Seismic Design of Reinforced Concrete
and Masonry Buildings, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1992, 768 pp.
30. Zheng, W.; Kwan, A. K. H.; and Lee, P. K. K., Direct Tension Test of
Concrete, ACI Materials Journal, V. 98, No. 1, Jan.-Feb. 2001, pp. 63-71.
31. Tureyen, A. K., and Frosch, R. J., Concrete Shear Strength: Another
Perspective, ACI Structural Journal, V. 100, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 1996,
pp.609-615.
32. Sezen, H., and Moehle, J. P., Shear Strength Model for
Lightly Reinforced Concrete Columns, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, V. 130, No. 11, 2004, pp. 1692-1703. doi: 10.1061/
(ASCE)0733-9445(2004)130:11(1692)
219
NOTES:
220
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
The majority of existing buildings have monofunctional
properties, characterized by inflexible floor layouts that
complicate changes in use (for example, from residential
to office building or vice versa) or they are incompatible to
current architectural requirements or new technical innovations. This often leads to demolishing or substantially
restructuring such buildings long before they reach their
economic lifetime. To exploit the buildings full economic
lifetime, adaptive structural systems with a high degree
of flexibility should be developed. Wide-spanning floor
slab systems with integrated building services can make a
compromising contribution.1-5
These integrated floor slabs provide wide spans for high
flexibility and adaptability to allow for conversions of use
without significant modification of the building structure.
Beside static aspects, the choice of the floor slab structure has
an impact on numerous building properties. Floor slabs not
only fulfill load-bearing and bracing functions, they create
the separation between adjoining functional units and, thus,
influence the planimetry, building services, physical properties of the building, and economic and ecological impact
of the structure. Hence, the profile of requirements6 for integrated floor slabs includes issues from the fields of structural
engineering, architecture, manufacturing, fire protection,
building physics, dismantling, and recycling.
A general approach to design-integrated slab systems
is to break up the conventional additive ceiling assembly
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
221
Fig. 2(a) Global internal forces at opening; and (b) free-body diagram with local internal forces.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
While significant research on reinforced concrete beams
with large web openings has been carried out in the past,
there are few test data on prestressed concrete beams
available. For that reason, experimental investigations on
prestressed beams with filigree cross sections and a wide
bottom flange made of high-strength concrete are presented
in this paper. Furthermore, the applicability of different theoretical approaches on the tested beams is demonstrated and
conclusions for a safe design of prestressed concrete beams
with large web openings are derived.
THEORETICAL BASICS
Load-bearing behavior of prestressed concrete
beams with large web opening
Concrete chords in prestressed concrete beam webs weakened by large openings need to carry increased shear forces.
This leads to the formation of a local load-carrying mechanism in the web opening, which has a significant impact
on the global behavior of these slender beams in terms of
their ultimate strengths and deformations. The structural
behavior of the bottom and top concrete chords in the area of
a web opening is characterized by combined moment-shear
stresses. In the literature,8 different mechanical models are
given, which usually suggest a simple Vierendeel truss as
a static system of the opening area. Commonly, the chords
are assumed to be restrained to the adjacent, homogeneous
beam sections. Figure 2 shows the opening with its global
internal forces as well as the simplified static system with
the local internal forces. To calculate the local stresses of the
concrete chords and provide adequate construction design, a
mechanical relationship between global internal forces and
local shear forces in the concrete chords needs to be derived.
Besides these local shear forces in the chords, the root of the
secondary bending moment needs to be determined with its
position in the longitudinal direction (point of contraflexure).
Although in some investigations9,10 significant variations
regarding this point of contraflexure have been detected, for
usual loading states, its position generally can be assumed to
lie in the center of the web opening, as presented in Fig. 2.
222
Vt / b =
At / b
V (1)
At + Ab
where Vt/b is the shear force acting in the top and bottom
chord; and At/b is the cross-sectional area of the top and
bottom chord.
Hottmann and Schfer10 recommend calculating the distribution of shear force according to the ratio of bending stiffnesses, It/b, of top and bottom chords. Hereafter, the proportion of shear force in the chords results from a linear-elastic
calculation of a framework system, neglecting shear deformation of the beams (Eq. (2)).
Vt / b =
It /b
V (2)
It + Ib
Vt =
I i ,t
I i ,t + I i ,b ( cr )
Vb =
I i ,b
I i ,t + I i ,b
V (5)
V (6)
VOm , cr =
ft
N P ,b
Ab
lOm
Vb lO 1
z A + V 2 W
G b
b
(7)
V (4)
Vb =
Ab I b
Ab I b + At I t
nb / t =
Nb / t
(10)
Ab / t f c
where l,t/b (l,t/b) are the flexural tensile (compression) reinforcement ratios of top and bottom chord, respectively. In
addition to the aforementioned methods, an approach for the
effective stiffness of the chord at failure was developed taking
into account the effects of normal forces on the bending stiffness. Beside these complex calculations, simple assumptions
for the distribution of the shear force may be taken. Leonhardt18 suggests the following distribution at failure
223
Fig. 3Dimensions of cross section and web opening between load introduction and support. (Note: Dimensions in mm (in.).)
the bottom chord and the web. On the following day, the
web and the top chord were fabricated in a second step.
The concrete was mixed at the laboratory of the Institute
of Structural Concrete at RWTH Aachen. The specimens
remained in the formwork covered with a polyethylene sheet
Bar size,
mm (in.)
A0, mm
(in.2)
fy, MPa
(ksi)
ft, MPa
(ksi)
6 (0.236)
28 (1.10)
605
(87.75)
653
(94.71)
17.3
201.3
(29,196)
10
(0.394)*
78 (3.07)
499
(72.37)
626
(90.79)
19.0
201.3
(29,196)
10
(0.394)
77 (3.03)
610
(88.47)
704
(102.11)
20.0
206.0
(29,878)
20 (0.787)
307
(12.09)
544
(78.90)
645
(93.55)
23.9
200.4
(29,066)
Stirrups.
Longitudinal reinforcement.
A10, %
Es, GPa
(ksi)
lOm, mm (in.)
Vmax, kN (kip)
Vcalc, kN (kip)
Vcalc/Vmax
DE-1.1
65.7 (9529)
3.84 (556.9)
35.8 (5192)
157 (0.243)
950 (37.4)
113 (25.4)
122 (27.4)
1.08
DE-1.2
64.2 (9311)
3.78 (548.2)
107 (24.0)
DE-2.1
68.3 (9906)
3.64 (527.9)
36.1 (5236)
157 (0.243)
650 (25.6)
101 (22.7)
116 (26.1)
1.15
DE-2.2
68.8 (9979)
4.16 (603.4)
37.1 (5381)
236 (0.366)
950 (37.4)
117 (26.3)
120 (27.0)
1.03
DE-3.1
110.6 (16,041)
6.08 (881.8)
49.6 (7194)
157 (0.243)
950 (37.4)
135 (30.3)
167 (37.5)
1.24
DE-3.2
110.3 (15,998)
6.14 (890.5)
47.5 (6889)
236 (0.243)
950 (37.4)
143 (32.1)
167 (37.5)
1.17
Notes: fc,cyl is cylinder compression strength; fct,sp is splitting tensile strength; Ec is Youngs modulus of concrete; As,A,L is vertical reinforcement at opening edges; lOm is distance
between support and midspan of opening; Vmax is maximum shear force; and Vcalc is calculated load-bearing shear force for local bending failure.
225
Load-deflection characteristics
The load-deflection curves of all tests are presented in
Fig. 8. To eliminate the influence of different spans, the
deflections were related to the span and plotted over the
applied shear force V. Initially, the first test on each specimen (DE-1.1, DE-2.1, and DE-3.1) had a small impact on
the load averted opening, on which the second beam test
(DE-1.2, DE-2.2, and DE-3.2) was performed. In fact, the
averted opening was preloaded by a shear force of approximately 30% of the predicted load-bearing capacity. Consequently, certain initial cracks of low width were detected in
the tensile chord and in the joint between the web and the
bottom chord. Due to that preloading impact, the stiffness
of each second beam test (DE-2.2 and DE-3.2) was lower
compared to the first one. The tests with higher concrete
strength (DE-3.1 and DE-3.2) had higher stiffness and loadbearing capacities. A sufficient ductility and good loadbearing behavior was observed throughout the entire test
series. The load-bearing capacities, however, were reached
at different vertical deflections.
Cracking characteristics
The cracking behavior of the beam is strongly influenced
by the secondary bearing mechanism of the web opening.
The crack patterns of the tested beams after failure are
presented in Fig. 9. Caused by secondary bending moments
at the opening edges, the first bending cracks appeared in
the top chord of the concrete beam. The cracking of the
top chord started simultaneously on its lower surface at
the opening edge next to the load introduction and on its
upper surface at the opening edge next to the support. With
increasing load, transverse shear cracks occurred in the
slender web of the beam around the opening. The shear
cracking began approximately at the service load level.
At the moment of their formation, the shear cracks had a
width of 0.1 to 0.2mm (0.004 to 0.008 in.). The angle of the
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
Fig. 7Arrangement of strain measurements: (a) concrete strains; and (b) reinforcement steel strains.
Fig. 8Shear force V over related deflection f/l3: Test: (a) DE-1; (b) DE-2; and (c) DE-3.
227
Fig. 10Typical crack formation: Test: (a) DE-2.1; (b) DE-2.2; and (c) DE-3.2.
= G =
Ec
(13)
2(1 + )
M global = x Az Ec =
M global (1 2 )
Az (e x + e x )
(14)
The acting shear force in the top chord results from the integration of the shear stress over the cross section. As reference, the tensile forces in the vertical reinforcement at the
load-allocated edge of the opening were calculated by the
measured strains. In the case of distinctive crack formation,
the sum of these forces equaled the shear force carried by
the top chord. The results of these calculations are presented
in Fig. 17. With increasing load, both methods led to the
same values. As expected, the strains of the reinforcement
were small at low load levels because the beam remained
in an uncracked state. Thus, the shear force of the top chord
was underestimated by the evaluation of the reinforcements
strains. The values calculated by the strain gauge rosette on
the concrete surface remained nearly constant over the entire
load range. Similar results were already detected in tests by
Twelmeier24 and Tan.25
Due to the measured compression strain with the strain
gauge applied in a 45-degree direction in Test DE-1.1, a
significantly lower value of the shear force acting in the
top chord was detected. At higher load levels, however,
the values calculated by the strains of the reinforcement lie
between the values of the other tests.
Higher degrees of vertical reinforcement at the edge of
the opening (Tests DE-2.2 and DE-3.2) led to higher shear
forces carried by the top chord compared to the other tests
with only two bars 10 mm (0.4 in.) in diameter as vertical
reinforcement. With the exception of Test DE-3.1, the
measured shear force carried by the top chord was determined to be approximately 90% of the acting shear force in
ultimate limit state. These results fall between the predicted
values in References 13 and 18.
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
1. Frangi, A.; Fontana, M.; and Mensinger, M., Innovative Composite Slab
System with Integrated Installation Floor, Structural Engineering International, V. 19, No. 4, 2009, pp. 404-409. doi: 10.2749/101686609789846948
2. Hegger, J.; Claen, M.; Gallwoszus, J.; Schaumann, P.; Weisheim,
W.; Sothmann, J.; Feldmann, M.; Pyschny, D.; Bohne, D.; and Hargus,
S., Multifunctional Composite Slab System with Integrated Building
Services, Stahlbau, V. 83, No. 7, 2014, pp. 452-460. doi: 10.1002/
stab.201410170
3. Classen, M.; Gallwoszus, J.; and Hegger, J., Load-Bearing Behavior
of an Integrated Composite Floor System, Bauingenieur, V. 89, No. 3,
Mar. 2014, pp. 91-101.
4. Kolleger, J.; Kainz, A. E.; and Burtscher, S. L., Slab with Integrated
Installations, Creating and Renewing Urban StructuresTall Buildings,
Bridges and Infrastructure, 17th Congress of IABSE, Sept. 17-19, Chicago,
IL, 2008, pp. 230-231.
5. Hegger, J.; Dreen, T.; and Schiel, P. et al., Nachhaltiges Bauen im
Lebenszyklus, Bauingenieur, V. 84, July-Aug. 2009, pp. 304-312.
6. Dressen, T., and Classen, M., Experimentelle Untersuchung an Spannbetontrgern mit groen Stegffnungen, Bauingenieur, V. 89, No. 9,
Sept. 2014, pp. 359-369.
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M.; Psychny, D.; and Feldmann, M., Sustainability Assessment of Long
Span Floor Systems, Bauingenieur, V. 89, No. 3, Mar. 2014, pp. 125-133.
232
8. Nasser, K. W.; Acavalos, A.; and Daniel, H. R., Behavior and Design
of Large Openings in Reinforced Concrete Beams, ACI Journal Proceedings, V. 64, No. 1, Jan. 1967, pp. 25-33.
9. Pessiki, S., and Thompson, J. M., Experimental Investigation of
Precast, Prestressed Inverted Tee Girders with Large Web Openings, PCI
Journal, V. 51, No. 6, 2006, pp. 2-17.
10. Hottmann, H. U., and Schfer, K., Bemessen von Stahlbetonbalken
und -wandscheiben mit ffnungen, Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton,
Heft 459, Beuth Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1996.
11. Kennedy, J. B., and Abdalla, H., Static Response of Prestressed
Girders with Openings, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, V. 118,
No. 2, 1992, pp. 488-504. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1992)118:2(488)
12. Mansur, M. A.; Tan, K.-H.; and Lee, S.-L., Collapse Loads
of R/C Beams with Large Openings, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, V. 110, No. 11, 1984, pp. 2602-2618. doi: 10.1061/
(ASCE)0733-9445(1984)110:11(2602)
13. Schnellenbach-Held, M.; Ehmann, S.; and Neff, C., Untersuchung
des Trag- und Verformungsverhaltens von Stahlbetonbalken mit groen
ffnungen, Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton, Heft 566, Beuth Verlag,
Berlin, Germany, 2007.
14. Mansur, M. A., and Tan, K.-H., Concrete Beams with Openings:
Analysis and Design, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1999, 224 pp.
15. Salam, A., and Harrop, J., Prestressed Concrete Beams with Transverse Circular Holes, Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, V. 105,
1979, pp. 635-652.
16. Barney, G. B.; Corley, W. G.; Hanson, J. M.; and Parmalee, R. A.,
Behavior and Design of Prestressed Concrete Beams with Large Web
Openings, PCI Journal, V. 22, No. 6, 1977, pp. 32-61. doi: 10.15554/
pcij.11011977.32.61
17. Abdalla, H., and Kennedy, J. B., Design of Prestressed Concrete Beams
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May 1995, pp. 890-898. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1995)121:5(890)
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Teil Grundlagen zum Bewehren im Stahlbetonbau, Springer Verlag,
Berlin, Germany, 1977, 246 pp.
19. Dressen, T., and Classen, M., Deformation of Reinforced and
Prestressed Concrete Beams with Large Web Openings, Beton- und Stahlbetonbau, V. 108, No. 7, July 2013, pp. 462-474.
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and Dring, B., Integrated Composite Floor-Slab-Systems for Sustainable
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21. Classen, M.; Gallwoszus, J.; and Hegger, J., Einfluss von Querrissen
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22. Classen, M., and Hegger, J., Verankerungsverhalten von Verbunddbelleisten in schlanken Betongurten, Bautechnik, V. 91, No. 12, 2014,
pp. 869-883.
23. European Committee for Standardization, Eurocode 2: Design of
Concrete Structures, Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings,
Brussels, Belgium, Dec. 2004, pp. 96-99.
24. Twelmeier, H.; Dallmann, R.; Fischer, T. et al., Einfluss von groen
Stegffnungen auf das Trag-und Verformungsverhalten von Stahlbetontrgern, Report of the Institute of Structural Analysis, Technical University of
Brunswick, Brunswick, Germany, 1985, pp. 120-123.
25. Tan, K. H.; Mansur, M. A.; and Huang, L.-M., Reinforced
Concrete T-Beams with Large Web Openings in Positive and Negative
Moment Regions, ACI Structural Journal, V. 93, No. 3, May-June 1996,
pp.277-289.
DISCUSSION
Disc. 111-S41/From the May-June 2014 ACI Structural Journal, p. 503
Bond-Slip-Strain Relationship in Transfer Zone of Pretensioned Concrete Elements. Paper by Ho Park and
Jae-Yeol Cho
Discussion by Jos R. Mart-Vargas
Professor, ICITECH, Institute of Concrete Science and Technology, Universitat Politcnica de Valncia, Valencia, Spain
AUTHORS CLOSURE
The authors would like to thank the discusser for his
interest in the paper and valuable comments. The authors
item-by-item response is presented in the following text:
1. Over last decades, many equations for transfer lengths
have been proposed by various researchers. Because it was
impossible to consider all of the equations in the paper, the
most representative and frequently cited equations were
chosen to be compared with the experimental results and the
proposed model. Equations incorporating the term of end
slip26,27 were not included in the comparison because the
measured end slip data were found to be unreliable. There is
no difference in the calculation of transfer lengths according
to the 2008 and the 2011 editions of ACI 318.1,28
2. As mentioned by the discusser, concrete cover depth
greatly affects transfer lengths in the pretensioned concrete
members. The authors stated that cover depth has little effect
on bond characteristics if there are no splitting cracks. Many
researchers indicated that the influence of cover depth on
transfer length is reduced with increasing cover depth. Den
Uijl15 stated that transfer length decreases with increasing
cover depth but no further reduction occurs beyond the cover
depth of 3 to 4dp. Oh and Kim11 reported that the reduction
234
Fire Protection for Beams with Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Flexural Strengthening Systems. Paper by Nabil
Grace and Mena Bebawy
Discussion by W. L. Gamble
FACI, Professor Emeritus, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL
AUTHORS CLOSURE
The authors thank the discusser for his interest in the paper
and the published work. The discussion focuses on three
main points: 1) the moment capacity of the beam; 2) the
rupture of the steel in Beam B-DH-C/F; and 3) the removal
of the entire load in Beam B-CF-G/F. The authors will try to
address all three points.
For the first point, it should be noted that due to the
nature of the fire testing, a special support system was used
throughout the entire experiment, even for beams tested at
ambient temperature. As shown in Fig. 13, the beam was
resting on two 12 in. (305 mm) wide steel plates at its ends.
Therefore, for the purpose of moment calculations, the
effective span should be taken as 10 ft (3.05 m) as the beam
rotated around the interior edges of the support plates. By
considering an effective span of 10 ft (305 mm), the moment
due to dead load will be equal to 0.935 ft-kip (1.27 kN-m).
At steel strain of 3000 , the depth of the NA is 2.26 in.
(57.4 mm) and the theoretical yield moment is 25.72 ft-kip
(34.87 kN-m). By subtracting the moment due to dead load
from the yield moment, the moment due to the concentrated
load becomes 24.79 ft-kip (33.61 kN-m), which is equivalent to a moment due to a concentrated load of 9.91 kip
(44 kN). It is worth noting that the beam was resting freely
on the supports and no significant longitudinal restraint
wasprovided.
236
Analysis and Prediction of Transfer Length in Pretensioned, Prestressed Concrete Members. Paper by Byung
Hwan Oh, Si N. Lim, Myung K. Lee, and Sung W. Yoo
Discussion by Jos R. Mart-Vargas
Professor, ICITECH, Institute of Concrete Science and Technology Universitat Politcnica de Valncia, Valencia, Spain
237
AUTHORS CLOSURE
The authors would like to thank the discusser for providing
good comments. The following are the appropriate responses
to those comments.
1. First, the discusser commented on the references in the
paper. First of all, the authors would like to thank the discusser
for the addition of more references relevant to the present
paper. Those added references would be good resources for
readers as well as the authors. As for the recent reference
of ACI 318-11,23 the provision for the transfer length is the
same as the previous version of ACI 318.17 Therefore, it does
not affect the content of the paper.
2. Second, the discusser commented on the determination
of slip values. The authors measured the strains of strand
and concrete due to pretensioning, as shown in Fig. 4 in the
paper. The slip was determined, as the discusser pointed
out, by integrating the differences between the change of
strand strain and the concrete strain.8 The authors would like
to clarify that the explanation in the paper was somewhat
mixed with the determination of transfer length, which was
determined from the variation of concrete strains along
themember.
3. Third, the discusser commented on the transfer length
in terms of end slip values, citing the authors statement that
there are good correlations between the transfer lengths
and end slip values in pretensioned members and, hence, it
may be possible to calculate transfer length from the end slip
value. The discusser also pointed out that previous studies
reported the value (in Guyons theory) of 2 to 3 depending
on the bond stress distribution (that is, constant or linear)
along the transfer length. Intermediate values of were
also reported from the previous studies.8,26,31 The discusser
suggested that the authors perform further analyses to obtain
the appropriate value of from the authors experimental
data. In the authors opinion, it is very likely that the real
distribution of bond stress may be nonlinear, which is
different from the previous assumption of constant or linear
bond stress distribution. Therefore, the authors plan to
further study this subject to clarify the real behavior (and
distribution) of bond stress and slip. As for the scatter of
the data on the end slip values that correspond to the same
238
38. Nilson, A. H.; Darwin, D.; and Dolan, C. W., Design of Concrete
Structures, Chapter 5, 14th edition, McGraw-Hill Co. Inc., 2010, pp. 168-207.
Flexural Testing of Reinforced Concrete Beams with Recycled Concrete Aggregates. Paper by Thomas H.-K.
Kang, Woosuk Kim, Yoon-Keun Kwak, and Sung-Gul Hong
Discussion by Bhupinder Singh
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
Fig. 8Crushing tests of natural aggregate (first test = 18.6 kN [4.2 kip]; second test =
17.5 kN [3.9 kip]).
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2015
239
Fig. 9Crushing tests of recycled concrete aggregate (first test = 16 kN [3.6 kip]; second
test = 16.1 kN [3.7 kip]).
concrete and its compressive strength, the authors found
that there was little correlation between the water absorption
rate and the beams flexural strength. It is also confirmed that
all the aggregates were generally in the SSD moisture state.
This was done by spraying aggregates with water at 9 am,
laying out to dry in indoor spaces until 6 pm, and packing it
in a bag to use the next day.
The authors agree that aggregate strength does become
important in high-strength concrete, although the strength
of an aggregate is rarely tested; hence, the authors
had reported in Table 2 that the strength of RCA is
approximately 90% of natural coarse aggregates strength
(not significant). Aggregate compressive strengths typically
vary from 65 to 270 MPa (9.4 to 39.2 ksi), which depends
on the aggregate type. Because it is hard to measure the
crushed aggregate cross-sectional area, the authors tried to
240
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Ankara, Turkey
Azad, Abul
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Azari, Hoda
The University of Texas at El Paso
El Paso, TX
Aziz, Omar
University of Salahaddin
Erbil, Iraq
Babafemi, Adewumi
Obafemi Awolowo University
Ile-ife, Osun, Nigeria
Bacinskas, Darius
Vilnius Gediminas Technical University
Vilnius, Lithuania
REVIEWERS IN 2014
Bae, Sungjin
Bechtel Corporation
Frederick, MD
Bagge, Niklas
Lule University of Technology
Lule, Sweden
Bai, Shaoliang
Chongqing University
Chonqqing, China
Bai, Yongtao
Kyoto University
Kyoto, Japan
Balakumaran, Soundar
Virginia Center for Transportation Innovation and Research
Charlottesville, VA
Balilaj, Mentor
Polytechnic University of Tirana
Tirana, Albania
Balouch, Sana
University of Dundee
Dundee, UK
Banibayat, Pouya
ARUP
New York, NY
Bani, Davor
Civil Engineering Institute of Croatia
Zagreb, Croatia
Baran, Eray
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
Barboza, Aline
Universidade Federal de Alagoas
Maceio, Alagoas, Brazil
Barii, Ivana
Osijek, Croatia
Barragan, Bryan
BASF Construction Chemicals
Treviso, Treviso, Italy
Barroso de Aguiar, Jose
University of Minho
Guimaraes, Portugal
Bartos, Peter
University of Paisley
Paisley, UK
Basava, Vamsi
Malla Reddy Engineering College
Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India
Bashandy, Alaa
Menoufiya University
Shibin El-Kom, Menoufiya, Egypt
Batson, Gordon
Clarkson University
Potsdam, NY
Baty, James
Concrete Foundations Assoc
Mount Vernon, IA
Bayraktar, Alemdar
Trabzon, Turkey
243
REVIEWERS IN 2014
Bayuaji, Ridho
Institut Teknologi epuluh Nopember
Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
Bebawy, Mena
Lawrence Technological Univeristy
Southfield, MI
Becq-Giraudon, Emilie
Chicago Department of Transportation
Chicago, IL
Beddar, Miloud
Msila University
Msila, Algeria
Bediako, Mark
CSIRBuilding and Road Research Institute
Kumasi, Ashanti, Ghana
Bedirhanoglu, Idris
Dicle University
Diyarbakir, Turkey
Beglarigale, Ahsanollah
Dokuz Eylul University
Izmir, Izmir, Turkey
Behnam, Hamdolah
Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
Hong Kong, China
Behnoud, Ali
Iran University of Science and Tech
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
Belagraa, Larbi
Bordj Bou Arreridj, University Center
Bordj Bou Arreridj, Algeria
Belkowitz, Jon
Stevens Institute of Technology
Freehold, NJ
Belleri, Andrea
University of Bergamo
Dalmine, Italy
Benliang, Liang
Shanghai, China
Bennett, Richard
The University of Tennessee
Knoxville, TN
Bernard, Erik Stefan
TSE P/L
Penrith, Australia
Berry, Michael
Montana State University
Bozeman, MT
Beygi, Morteza
Mazandaran University
Babol - Mazandaran, Islamic Republic of Iran
Bhangal, Malkit
Thapar University
Patiala, Punjab, India
Bharati, Raj
National Institute of Technology Calicut
Calicut, Kerala, India
Bhattacharjee, Bishwajit
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
New Delhi, India
244
Bilek, Vlastimil
ZPSV a.s.
Brno, Czech Republic
Bilir, Turhan
Blent Ecevit University
Zonguldak, Turkey
Billah, Abu Hena
The University of British Columbia
Kelowna, BC, Canada
Bimschas, Martin
Regensdorf, Switzerland
Binici, Baris
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
Birkle, Gerd
Stantec Consulting Ltd.
Calgary, AB, Canada
Bisby, Luke
University of Edinburgh
Edinburgh, UK
Bisschop, Jan
University of Oslo
Oslo, Norway
Bobko, Christopher
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC
Bolhassani, Mohammad
Drexel University
Philadelphia, PA
Bonacci, John
Karins Engineering Group
Sarasota, FL
Bondar, Dali
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
Bondy, Kenneth
Consulting Structural Engineer
West Hills, CA
Bonetti, Rodolfo
Pontificia Universidad Catlica Madre y Maestra
Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
Borges, Paulo
Federal Centre for Technological Education of Minas Gerais
Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Bouras, Rachid
UMMTO
Tiziouzou, Algeria
Bournas, Dionysios
University of Nottingham
Nottingham, UK
Bousias, Stathis
University of Patras
Patras, Greece
Bradberry, Timothy
TXDot Bridge Division
Austin, TX
Braestrup, Mikael
Ramboll Hannemann and Hojlund A/S
Virum, Denmark
Braimah, Abass
Carleton University
Ottawa, ON, Canada
Brand, Alexander
University of Illinois
Urbana, IL
Brea, Sergio
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, MA
Brewe, Jared
CTLGroup
Skokie, IL
Broujerdian, Vahid
Iran University of Science and Technology
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
Brown, Michael
Virginia Transportation Research Council
Charlottesville, VA
Brown, Simon
Read Jones Christoffersen Ltd.
Calgary, AB, Canada
Bu, Wensheng
Wardrop Engineering Inc.
Sudbury, ON, Canada
Burak, Burcu
Orta Dogu Teknik Universitesi
Ankara, Turkey
Burris, Lisa
University of Texas at Austin
Austin, TX
Byard, Benjamin
University of Tennessee at Chattanooga
Chattanooga, TN
Bzeni, Dallshad
University of Salahaddin
Erbil, Iraq
Cai-Jun, Shi
Hunan University
Changsha, Hunan, China
Calixto, Jos
UFMG
Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Camero, Hugo
Construdiseos Ingenieros Arquitectos S.A.S.
Bogota D.C., Colombia
Campione, Giuseppe
Universita Palermo
Palermo, Italy
Cano Barrita, Prisciliano
Instituto Politcnico Nacional/CIIDIR Unidad Oaxaca
Oaxaca, Mexico
Canpolat, Fethullah
Yildiz Technical University
Istanbul, Turkey
Cao, Weiqun
Qingdao, China
Capozucca, Roberto
Ancona, Italy
Carino, Nicholas
Chagrin Falls, OH
Carreira, Domingo
Chicago, IL
REVIEWERS IN 2014
Carroll, Chris
University of Louisiana at Lafayette
Lafayette, LA
Carvalho, Alessandra
Pontifical Catholic University of Gois
Goinia, Gois, Brazil
Castles, Bryan
Western Technologies Inc.
Phoenix, AZ
Castro, Javier
Pontificia Universidad Catlica de Chile
Santiago, Chile
Catoia, Bruna
Federal University of So Carlos
So Carlos, So Paulo, Brazil
Cattaneo, Sara
Politecnico di Milano
Milan, Italy
Cavalaro, Sergio Henrique
Universidad Politcnica de Catalua
Barcelona, Spain
avuolu, brahim
Gmhane University
Gmhane, Turkey
Cervenka, Vladimir
Cervenka Consulting
Petriny, Czech Republic
Cetisli, Fatih
Pamukkale University
Denizli, Turkey
Chaallal, Omar
Ecole de Technologie Superiere
Verdun, QC, Canada
Chai, Hwa Kian
Tobishima Corporation
Noda, Chiba, Japan
Chakraborty, Arun
Bengal Engineering And Science University
Howrah, West Bengal, India
Chang, Ta-Peng
NTUST
Taipei, Taiwan, China
Chao, Shih-ho
University of Texas at Arlington
Arlington, TX
Chaudhary, Sandeep
Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur
Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Chaunsali, Piyush
University of Illinois
Urbana, IL
Chen, Chun-Tao
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
Taipei, Taiwan, China
Chen, Hua-Peng
The University of Greenwich
Chatham, UK
Chen, Qi
Boral Materials Technology
San Antonio, TX
245
REVIEWERS IN 2014
Chen, Shiming
Tongji University
Shanghai, China
Chen, Wei
Wuhan University of Technology
Wuhan, Hubei, China
Chen, Xia
Changjiang River Scientific Research Institute
Wuhan, China
Cheng, Min-Yuan
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
Taipei, Taiwan, China
Chi, Maochieh
Wufeng University
Chiayi County, Taiwan, China
Chiang, Chih-Hung
Chaoyang University of Technology
Wufong, Taichung, Taiwan, China
Chindaprasirt, Prinya
Khon Kaen University
Khon Kaen, Thailand
Cho, Jae-Yeol
Seoul National University
Seoul, Republic of Korea
Cho, Soon-Ho
Gwangju University
Gwangju, Republic of Korea
Choi, Chang-Sik
Hnayang University
Seoul, Republic of Korea
Choi, Eunsoo
Hongik University
Seoul, Republic of Korea
Choi, Hyun-Ki
Hanyang University
Seoul, Republic of Korea
Choi, Kyoung-Kyu
Soongsil University
Seoul, Republic of Korea
Choi, Sejin
University of California, Berkeley
Berkeley, CA
Chompreda, Praveen
Mahidol University
Nakornpathom, Thailand
Choong, Kokkeong
Universiti Sains Malaysia
Pulau Pinang, Seberang Perai Selatan, Malaysia
Chorzepa, Migeum
Park Ridge, IL
Chowdhury, Sharmin
Bogazici University
Istanbul, Turkey
Chowdhury, Subrato
Ultra Tech Cement LTD
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Christen, Robert
American Engineering Testing Inc.
Port Charlotte, FL
246
Das, Sreekanta
University of Windsor
Windsor, ON, Canada
Das Adhikary, Satadru
National University of Singapore
Singapore
De Brito, Jorge
IST / TUL
Lisbon, Portugal
De Korte, Arin
University of Twente
Enschede, the Netherlands
De Rooij, Mario
TNO
Delft, the Netherlands
De Schutter, Geert
Ghent University
Ghent, Belgium
Deb, Arghya
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
Decker, Curtis
U.S. Military Academy
West Point, NY
Degtyarev, Vitaliy
Columbia, SC
Delalibera, Rodrigo
University of So Paulo
So Carlos, So Paulo, Brazil
Demir, Serhat
Blacksea Technical Univesity
Trabzon, Turkey
Den Uijl, Joop
Delft University of Technology
Delft, the Netherlands
Deng, Mingke
Xian University of Architecture and Technology
Xian, Shaanxi, China
Deng, Yaohua
Iowa State University
Ames, IA
Devries, Richard
Milwaukee School of Engineering
Milwaukee, WI
Dhinakaran, G.
Sastra University
Thanjavur, India
Dhonde, Hemant
University of Houston
Houston, TX
Di Ludovico, Marco
University of Naples Federico II
Naples, Italy
Diao, Bo
Beihang University
Beijing, China
Dias, W. P. S.
University of Moratuwa
Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
REVIEWERS IN 2014
Diaz Loya, Eleazar
Louisiana Tech University
Ruston, LA
Ding, Yining
Dalian, China
Diniz, Sofia Maria
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais
Be lo Horizonte, Brazil
Do, Jeongyun
Kunsan National University
Kunsan, Jeonbuk, Republic of Korea
Dogan, Unal
Istanbul Technical University
Istanbul, Turkey
Dolan, Charles
University of Wyoming
Laramie, WY
Dongell, Jonathan
Pebble Technologies
Scottsdale, AZ
Dontchev, Dimitar
University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy
Sofia, Bulgaria
Dotreppe, Jean-Claude
Universit of Liege-Mehanique Genie Civil
Liege, Belgium
Du, Hongjian
National University of Singapore
Singapore
Du, Lianxiang
The University of Alabama at Birmingham
Birmingham, AL
Du, Jinsheng
Beijing Jiao Tong University
Beijing, China
Du, Yingang
Anglia Ruskin University, UK
Chelmsford, UK
Dutta, Anjan
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
Guwahati, Assam, India
Ebead, Usama
Qatar University
Doha, Qatar
Eid, Rami
University of Sherbrooke
Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
El Meski, Fatima
American University of Beirut
Beirut, Lebanon
El Ragaby, Amr
University of Manitoba
Winnipeg, MB, Canada
El Sayed, Mohamed
University of Windsor
Windsor, ON, Canada
Elamin, Anwar
University of Nyala
Nyala, Sudan
247
REVIEWERS IN 2014
Elbatanouny, Mohamed
University of South Carolina
Columbia, SC
El-Dash, Karim
College of Technological Studies
Kuwait
El-Dieb, Amr
Ain Shams University
Abbasia, Cairo, Egypt
El-Hawary, Moetaz
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research
Safat, Kuwait
El-Maaddawy, Tamer
United Arab Emirates University
Al-Ain, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
El-Metwally, Salah
University of Hawaii at Manoa
Honolulu, HI
El-Refaie, Sameh
El-Gama City, Mataria, Cairo, Egypt
El-Salakawy, Ehab
University of Manitoba
Winnipeg, MB, Canada
El-Sayed, Ahmed
University of Sherbrooke
Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
Elfgren, Lennart
Lule University of Technology
Lule, Sweden
Elhashmy, Awad
Cairo, Egypt
Elkady, Hala
NRC
Giza, Egypt
Elnady, Mohamed
Mansoura University
Vancouver, BC, Canada
Elmenshawi, Abdelsamie
University of Calgary
Calgary, AB, Canada
Elsayed, Tarek
Cairo, Egypt
Emamy Farvashany, Firooz
Perthpolis Pty Ltd
Perth, Western Australia, Australia
Erdem, T.
Izmir Institute of Technology
Izmir, Turkey
Ergn, Ali
Afyonkarahisar, Turkey
Esmaeily, Asad
Kansas State University
Manhattan, KS
Esmaili, Omid
University of California, Irvine
Irvine, CA
Esperanza, Menendez
IETCC-CSIC
Madrid, Spain
Etman, Emad
El-Mahalla El-Kobra, Egypt
248
Evangelista, Lus
Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Lisboa
Lisbon, Portugal
Faleschini, Flora
University of Padova
Padova, Italy
Fantilli, Alessandro
Politecnico di Torino
Torino, Italy
Fardis, Michael
Patras, Greece
Farghaly, Ahmed
University of Sherbrooke
Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
Faria, Duarte
Faculdade de Cincias e Tecnologia
Caparica-Lisbon, Portugal
Farrokhi, Farhang
Zanjan, Islamic Republic of Iran
Farrow, William
Lebanon, NJ
Farzam, Masood
Tabriz, Islamic Republic of Iran
Fathi, Hamoon
Sanandaj Branch, Islamic Azad University
Sanandaj, Kurdistan, Islamic Republic of Iran
Feldman, Lisa
University of Saskatchewan
Saskatoon, SK, Canada
Felekoglu, Burak
Dokuz Eylul University
Izmir, Turkey
Fernndez Montes, David
Madrid, Spain
Fernndez Ruiz, Miguel
Ecole Polytechnique Federale De Lausanne
Lausanne, Vaud, Switzerland
Ferrara, Liberato
Politecnico di Milano
Milan, Italy
Ferrier, E.
Universit Lyon 1
Villerubanne, France
Folino, Paula
University of Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Foraboschi, Paolo
Universita IUAV di Venezia
Venice, Italy
Fouad, Fouad
University of Alabama at Birmingham
Birmingham, AL
Fradua, Martin
Feld, Kaminetzky & Cohen, P.C.
Jericho, NY
Francois, Buyle-Bodin
University of Lille
Villeneuve dAscq, France
Freyne, Seamus
Manhattan College
Riverdale, NY
Fuchs, Werner
University of Stuttgart
Stuttgart, Germany
Fuentes, Jose Maria
Polytechnic University of Madrid
Madrid, Spain
Furlong, Richard
Austin, TX
Gabrijel, Ivan
University of Zagreb
Zagreb, Croatia
Gajdosova, Katarina
Bratislava, Slovakia
Galati, Nestore
Structural Group Inc.
Elkridge, MD
Gallegos Mejia, Luis
Fundacion Padre Arrupe de El Salvador
Soyapango, San Salvador, El Salvador
Gamble, William
University of Illinois
Urbana, IL
Gao, Xiangling
Tongji University
Shanghai, China
Garber, David
Florida International University
Miami, FL
Garcez, Estela
Universidade Federal de Pelotas
Pelotas, RS, Brazil
Garcia-Taengua, Emilio
Queens University of Belfast
Belfast, UK
Gedik, Yasar
Istanbul Technical University
Istanbul, Turkey
Gesoglu, Mehmet
Gaziantep University
Gaziantep, Turkey
Gettu, Ravindra
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Chennai, India
Ghafari, Nima
Laval University
Quebec, QC, Canada
Ghali, Amin
University of Calgary
Calgary, AB, Canada
Ghanem, Hassan
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX
Ghasemzadeh, Farnam
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC
Ghezal, Acha
Ecole de Technologie de Montreal
Montreal, QC, Canada
Ghoddousi, Parviz
Iran University of Science and Technology
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
REVIEWERS IN 2014
Giaccio, Craig
AECOM
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Girgin, Canan
Yildiz Technical University
Istanbul, Turkey
Goel, Rajeev
CSIR-Central Road Research Institute
Delhi, India
Gke, H. Sleyman
Ege University
Izmir, Turkey
Gongxun, Wang
Hunan University of Science and Technology
Xiangtan, China
Gonzales Garcia, Luis Alberto
Lagging SA
Lima, Peru
Gonzlez, Javier
University of Basque Country
Bilbao, Basque Country, Spain
Gonzlez-Valle, Enrique
Madrid, Spain
Goudarzi, Nabi
Edmonton, AB, Canada
Grandi, Davor
University of Rijeka
Rijeka, Croatia
Gribniak, Viktor
Vilnius Gediminas Technical University
Vilnius, Lithuania
Gu, Xiang-Lin
Tongji University
Shanghai, China
Guadagnini, Maurizio
The University of Sheffield
Sheffield, UK
Guan, Garfield
Cambridge, UK
Guimaraes, Giuseppe
Pontificia Universidade Catlica do Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Gulec, Cevdet
Thornton Tomasetti, Inc.
Los Angeles, CA
Gneyisi, Erhan
Gaziantep University
Gaziantep, Turkey
Guo, Honglei
Wuhan Polytechnic University
Wu Han City, Hu bei Province, China
Guo, Liping
Southeast University
Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
Guo, Zixiong
Huaqiao University
Quanzhou, Fujian, China
Gupta, Ajay
M.B.M. Engineering College
Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
249
REVIEWERS IN 2014
Gupta, Rishi
Vancouver, BC, Canada
Gupta, Supratic
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
New Delhi, India
Haddad, Rami
Jordan University of Science and Technology
Irbid, Jordan
Haddadin, Laith
United Nations
New York, NY
Hadje-Ghaffari, Hossain
John A. Martin & Assoc.
Los Angeles, CA
Hagenberger, Michael
Ohio State University
Columbus, OH
Haggag, Hesham
Cairo, Egypt
Hamilton, Trey
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL
Hammood, Oday
University Technology Malaysia
Skudai, Johor Buhro, Malaysia
Han, Dongyeop
University of Texas at Austin
Austin, TX
Harajli, Mohamed
American University of Beirut
Beirut, Lebanon
Harbec, David
Universit de Sherbrooke
Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
Hariri-Ardebili, Mohammad Amin
University of Colorado
Boulder, CO
Harries, Kent
University of Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh, PA
Harris, Devin
University of Virginia
Charlottesville, VA
Harris, G. Terry
Green Cove Springs, FL
Hasan, Sahar
Higher Institute for Engineering and Technology
Alexandria, Egypt
Hashemi, Shervin
Seoul National University
Seoul, Republic of Korea
Hasnat, Ariful
University of Asia Pacific
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Hassan, Assem
Toronto, ON, Canada
Hassan, Mohamed
University of Sherbrooke
Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
250
Hassan, Wael
University of California, Berkeley
Berkeley, CA
Hassani, Abolfazl
Tarbiat Modares University
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
He, Zhiqi
Southeast University
Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
Heinzmann, Daniel
Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts
Horw, Switzerland
Helal, Yasser
University of Sheffield
Sheffield, UK
Helmy, Huda
Applied Science International
Durham, NC
Hemalatha, T.
CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Henry, Richard
University of Auckland
Auckland, New Zealand
Herrera, Angel
Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico
Hindi, Riyadh
Saint Louis University
St. Louis, MO
Ho, Johnny
The University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong, China
Hochstein, Daniel
Manhattan College
Riverdale, NY
Hoehler, Matthew
Encinitas, CA
Hoff, George
Hoff Consulting Inc.
Clinton, MS
Holschemacher, Klaus
HTWK Leipzig
Leipzig, Germany
Hong, Sung-Gul
Seoul National University
Seoul, Republic of Korea
Hosny, Amr
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC
Hossain, Mustaque
Kansas State University
Manhattan, KS
Hoult, Neil
Toronto, ON, Canada
Hrynyk, Trevor
University of Texas at Austin
Austin, TX
Hu, Jiong
Texas State University
San Marcos, TX
Hu, Nan
Tsinghua University
Beijing, China
Huang, Yishuo
Chaoyang University of Technology
Wufeng, Taichung, Taiwan, China
Huang, Zhaohui
Brunel University
London, UK
Huang, Chang-Wei
Chung Yuan Christian University
Chung Li, Taiwan, China
Huang, Chung-Ho
Dahan Institute of Technology
Hualien, Taiwan, China
Huang, Jianwei
Southern Illinois University Edwardsville
Edwardsville, IL
Huang, Xiaobao
GM-WFG/GM-N American Project Center
Warren, MI
Huo, Jingsi
Hunan University
Changsha, Hunan, China
Husain, Mohamed
Zagazig University
Zagazig, Egypt
Husem, Metin
Karadeniz Technical University
Trabzon, Turkey
Huynh, Minh Phuoc
Ho Chi Minh City University Transport
Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam
Ibell, Tim
University of Bath
Bath, UK
Ibrahim, Amer
Baquba, Iraq
Ichinose, Toshikatsu
Nagoya Institute of Technology
Nagoya, Japan
Ikponmwosa, Efe
University of Lagos
Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria
Ince, Ragip
Firat University Engineering Faculty
Elazig, Turkey
Ipek, Sleyman
Gaziantep University
Gaziantep, Turkey
Irassar, Edgardo
National University of Central Buenos Aires
Olavarria, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Islam, Md.
Chittagong University of Engineering & Technology (CUET)
Chittagong, Bangladesh
Issa, Mohamed
National Center for Housing and Building Resarch
Giza, Egypt
REVIEWERS IN 2014
Issa, Mohsen
University of Illinois at Chicago
Chicago, IL
Izquierdo-Encarnacin, Jose
Porticus
San Juan, Puerto Rico
Jaari, Asaad
Dera, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Jain, Mohit
Nirma University
Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
Jain, Shashank
Delhi Technological University (DTU)
New Delhi, India
Jalal, Mostafa
PWUT
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
Jan, Song
Bechtel Corp.
Houston, TX
Jang, Seung Yup
Korea Railroad Research Institute
Uiwang, Gyongggi-do, Republic of Korea
Jansen, Daniel
California Polytechnic State University
San Luis Obispo, CA
Jawaheri Zadeh, Hany
Miami, FL
Jayapalan, Amal
Exponent Failure Analysis Associates
Menlo Park, CA
Jeng, Chyuan-Hwan
National Chi Nan University-Taiwan
Puli/Nantou, Taiwan, China
Jiang, Jiabiao
W R Grace (Singapore) Pte Ltd
Singapore
Johnson, Gaur
University of Hawaii
Honolulu, HI
Jozi, Draan
Split, Croatia
Kaklauskas, Gintaris
Vilnius Gediminas Technical University
Vilnius, Lithuania
Kan, Yu-Cheng
Chaoyang University of Technology
Taichung County, Taiwan, China
Kanagaraj, Ramadevi
Kumaraguru College of Technology
Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
Kanakubo, Toshiyuki
University of Tsukuba
Tsukuba, Japan
Kandasami, Siva
Bristol, UK
Kang, Thomas
Seoul National University
Seoul, Republic of Korea
251
REVIEWERS IN 2014
Kankam, Charles
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology
Kumasi, Ghana
Kansara, Kunal
Mouchel Infrastructure Services
Bristol, UK
Kantarao, Velidandi
Central Road Research Institute
New Delhi, India
Karayannis, Christos
Democritus University of Thrace
Xanthi, Greece
Karbasi Arani, Kamyar
University of Naples Federico II
Napoli, Campagna, Italy
Kawamura, Mitsunori
Kanazawa, Ishikawa, Japan
Kazemi, Mohammad
Sharif University of Technology
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
Kazemi, Sadegh
University of Alberta
Edmonton, AB, Canada
Kenai, Said
Universit de Blida
Blida, Algeria
Khan, Mohammad
King Saud University
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Khan, Sadaqat
Universiti Teknologi Petronas
Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia
Khuntia, Madh
Dukane Precast Inc.
Naperville, IL
Kianoush, M. Reza
Ryerson University
Toronto, ON, Canada
Kim, Jang Hoon
Ajou University
Suwon, Republic of Korea
Kim, Sang-Woo
Kongju National University
Cheonan, Chungnam, Republic of Korea
Kim, Woo
Chonnam National University
Kwangju, Republic of Korea
Kim, Yail Jimmy
University of Colorado Denver
Denver, CO
Kirgiz, Mehmet
Hacettepe University
Ankara, Turkey
Kishen, Chandra
Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Kishi, Norimitsu
Muroran Institute of Technology
Muroran, Japan
252
Klein, Gary
Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc.
Northbrook, IL
Klemczak, Barbara
Silesian Technical University
Gliwice, Poland
Ko, Lesley Suz-Chung
Holcim Group Support Ltd.
Holderbank, AG, Switzerland
Koehler, Eric
University of Texas at Austin
Austin, TX
Koenders, Eddy A. B.
Delft University of Technology
Delft, the Netherlands
Konsta-Gdoutos, Maria
Northwestern University
Evanston, IL
Kotsovos, Gerasimos
National Technical University of Athens
Athens, Greece
Kotsovos, Michael
Athens, Greece
Kreger, Michael
Purdue University
West Lafayette, IN
Ksiek, Mariusz
Wrocaw University of Technology
Wroclaw, Poland
Kumar, Pardeep
University of California, Berkeley
Berkeley, CA
Kumar, Rakesh
Central Road Research Institute
Delhi, India
Kumaravel, S.
Annamalai University
Cuddalore, Tamilnadu, India
Kupwade-Patil, Kunal
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, MA
Kurtis, Kimberly
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, GA
Kusbiantoro, Andri
Universiti Malaysia Pahang
Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia
Kuyucular, Adnan
Pamukkale University
Kinikli-Denizli, Turkey
Kwan, Albert
The University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong, China
Lai, James
La Caada, CA
Lai, Jianzhong
Nanjing University of Science and Technology
Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
Laldji, Said
Universit de Sherbrooke
Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
Lam, Eddie
The Hong Kong Polytechnic Universiy
Hong Kong, China
Larbi, Kacimi
University of Sciences and Technology of Oran
Oran, Algeria
Laskar, Aminul
National Institute of Technology
Silchar, Assam, India
Laterza, Michelangelo
University of Basilicata
Potenza, Italy
Latifee, Enamur
Clemson University
Clemson, SC
Law, David
RMIT University
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Lawler, John
Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc.
Northbrook, IL
Lawrence, Adrian
Gainesville, FL
Lee, Chi King
Nanyang Technological University
Singapore
Lee, Chung-Sheng
University of California, San Diego
La Jolla, California
Lee, Deuck Hang
University of Seoul
Seoul, Republic of Korea
Lee, Douglas
Douglas D. Lee and Associates
Fort Worth, TX
Lee, Heui Hwang
Arup
San Francisco, CA
Lee, Hung-Jen
National Yunlin University of Science and Technology
Douliu, Yunlin, Taiwan, China
Lee, Jung-Yoon
Sung Kyun Kwan University
Suwon, Republic of Korea
Lee, Nam Ho
SNC-Lavalin Nuclear
Oakville, ON, Canada
Lee, Seong-Cheol
KEPCO International Graduate School (KINGS)
Ulsan, Republic of Korea
Lei, Aizhong
China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research
Beijing, China
Lepage, Andres
University of Kansas
Lawrence, KS
Lequesne, Remy
University of Kansas
Lawrence, KS
REVIEWERS IN 2014
Li, Fumin
China University of Mining and Technology
Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
Li, Long-yuan
University of Plymouth
Plymouth, UK
Li, Wei
Wenzhou University
Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
Li, Xinghe
University of New Hampshire
Durham, NH
Li, Yi-An
National Taiwan University
Taipei, Taiwan, China
Lignola, Gian Piero
University of Naples Federico II
Naples, Italy
Lin, Wei-Ting
Ilan, Taiwan, China
Lin, Zhibin
Fargo, ND
Liu, Jun
Beijing, China
Liu, Junshan
Sargent Lundy LLC
Chicago, IL
Liu, Shuhua
Wuhan University
Wuhan, Hubei, China
Liu, Zhao
Southeast University
Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
Liu, Xuejian
University of Texas at Arlington
Arlington, TX
Liu, Yanbo
Florida Atlantic University
Boca Raton, FL
Liu, Ze
China University of Mining & Technology, Beijing
Beijing, China
Lo, T. Y.
City University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong, China
Long, Nguyen
Kosice, Slovakia
Long, Xu
NanyangTechnological University
Singapore
Loo, Yew-Chaye
Gold Coast, Australia
Lopes, Anne
Furnas Centrais Eletricas Sa Aparecida De Goiania
Goias, Brazil
Lopes, Sergio
University of Coimbra
Coimbra, Portugal
Lpez-Almansa, Francisco
Technical University of Catalonia
Barcelona, Spain
253
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Lotfy, Abdurrahmaan
Lafarge Canada Inc.
Toronto, ON, Canada
Lounis, Zoubir
National Research Council
Ottawa, ON, Canada
Lubell, Adam
Read Jones Christoffersen Ltd.
Vancouver, BC, Canada
Ludovit, Nad
Alfa 04
Kosice, Slovakia
Luo, Baifu
Harbin, China
Lushnikova, Nataliya
National University of Water Management and
NatureResourcesUse
Rivne, Ukraine
Ma, Zhongguo
University of Tennessee
Knoxville, TN
MacDonald, Kevin
Cemstone Concrete Products Co.
Mendota Heights, MN
Machida, Atsuhiko
Saitama University
Saitama, Japan
Macht, Jrgen
Kirchdorf, Austria
Maekawa, Koichi
University of Tokyo
Tokyo, Japan
Maganti, Ravindra
D.M.S. S.V.H. College of Engineering Machilipatnam
Andhra Pradesh, India
Magliulo, Gennaro
University of Naples Federico II
Naples, Italy
Maguire, Marc
Utah State University
Paradise, UT
Mahfouz, Ibrahim
Cairo, Egypt
Mahrenholtz, Christoph
Berlin, Germany
Mahrenholtz, Philipp
Frankfurt, Germany
Malik, Adnan
University of New South Wales
Sydney, Australia
Mander, John
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX
Manso, Juan
University of Burgos
Burgos, Castilla - Len, Spain
Mari, Antonio
Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya
Barcelona, Spain
254
Marikunte, Shashi
Southern Illinois University
Carbondale, IL
Mart-Vargas, Jos
Universitat Politcnica de Valncia
Valencia, Spain
Martinelli, Enzo
University of Salerno
Fisciano, Italy
Maruyama, Ippei
Nagoya University
Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
Maslehuddin, Mohammed
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Matta, Fabio
University of South Carolina
Columbia, SC
Maximos, Hany
Pharos University in Alexandria
Alexandria, Egypt
Mbessa, Michel
University of Yaound I - ENSP
Yaound, Center, Cameroon
McCarter, John
Heriot Watt University
Edinburgh, UK
McDonald, David
USG Corp
Libertyville, IL
McLeod, Heather
Kansas Department of Transportation
Topeka, KS
Meda, Alberto
University of Bergamo
Bergamo, Italy
Medallah, Khaled
Saudi Aramco IKPMS
Al Khobar, Saudi Arabia
Meddah, Mohammed Seddik
Kingston University London
Kingston, UK
Mehanny, Sameh
Cairo University
Cairo, Egypt
Meinheit, Donald
Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc.
Chicago, IL
Melo, Jos
University of Aveiro
Aveiro, Portugal
Meng, Tao
Institution of Building Materials
Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
Menon, Devdas
Indian Institute of Technology
Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
Mermerda, Kasm
Hasan Kalyoncu University
Gaziantep, Turkey
Meshgin, Pania
University of Colorado Boulder
Boulder, CO
Milestone, Neil
Callaghan Innovation
Lower Hutt, New Zealand
Minehane, Michael
RPS Group Ltd.
Cork, Ireland
Mlynarczyk, Alexandar
Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc.
Princeton Junction, NJ
Mo, Yi-Lung
University of Houston
Houston, TX
Mohamed, Ashraf
Alexandria University
Alexandria, Egypt
Mohamed, Nayera
Assiut University
Assiut, Egypt
Mohammadyan Yasouj, Seyed Esmaeil
UTM University
Johor, Malaysia
Mohammed, Tarek
University of Asia Pacific
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Mohd Zain, Mumammad Fauzi
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Bangi, Malaysia
Mokarem, David
Virginia Polytechnic University
Blacksburg, VA
Mondal, Bipul
Chittagong University of Engineering & Technology
Chittagong, Bangladesh
Montejo, Luis
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC
Moradi, Hiresh
Amirkabir University of Technology
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
Moretti, Marina
University of Thessaly
Athens, Greece
Moser, Robert
U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center
Vicksburg, MS
Mostafaei, Hossein
University of Toronto
Toronto, ON, Canada
Mostofinejad, Davood
Isfahan University of Technology
Isfahan, Islamic Republic of Iran
Muciaccia, Giovanni
Politecnico di Milano
Milan, Italy
Mulaveesala, Ravibabu
Indian Institute of Technology Ropar
Rupnagar, India
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MMI Engineering
Houston, TX
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Federal Highway Administration
McLean, VA
Muttoni, Aurelio
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
Lausanne, Switzerland
Nabavi, Esrafil
Rezvanshahr, Guilan, Islamic Republic of Iran
Nafie, Amr
Cairo, Egypt
Nair, Priya
Cochin University of Science and Technology
Kochi, Kerala, India
Naish, David
California State University, Fullerton
Fullerton, CA
Najimi, Meysam
University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Las Vegas, NV
Nakamura, Hikaru
Nagoya University
Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
Nam, Boo Hyun
University of Central Florida
Orlando, FL
Negrutiu, Camelia
Technical University of Cluj Napoca
Cluj Napoca, Cluj, Romania
Neves, Lus
University of Coimbra
Coimbra, Portugal
Ng, Ivan
Drainage Services Department
Hong Kong, China
Nichols, John
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX
Niemuth, Mark
Lafarge
Alpharetta, GA
Nimityongskul, Pichai
Asian Institute of Technology
Pathumthani, Thailand
Nishiyama, Minehiro
Kyoto University
Kyoto, Japan
Noor, Munaz
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Noshiravani, Talayeh
EPFL
Lausanne, Switzerland
Ochotorena, Richard
Permasteelisa Group
Hong Kong Island, Hong Kong, China
Oh, Byung
Seoul National University
Seoul, Republic of Korea
255
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Ohtsu, Masayasu
Kumamoto University
Kumamoto, Japan
Okeil, Ayman
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, LA
Okelo, Roman
Dallas, TX
Olanitori, Lekan
Federal University of Technology, Akure
Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
Ombres, Luciano
University of Calabria
Cosenza, Italy
Omran, Ahmed
University of Sherbrooke
Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
Orakcal, Kutay
Bogazici University
Istanbul, Bebek, Turkey
Orr, John
University of Bath
Bath, UK
Ortega, J.
University of Alacant
Alacant, Alicante, Spain
Ortiz-Lozano, Jose
Autonomous University of Aguascalientes
Aguascalientes, Mexico
Orton, Sarah
University of Missouri Columbia
Columbia, MO
Osifala, Kehinde
Somolu, Lagos, Nigeria
Otieno, Mike
University of the Witwatersrand
Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa
Ouzaa, Kheira
USTO
ORAN, Algeria
Ozturan, Turan
Bogazici University
Istanbul, Turkey
Ozturk, Ali
Dokuz Eylul University
Izmir, Buca, Turkey
Pacheco, Alexandre
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)
Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
Palieraki, Vasiliki
National Technical University of Athens
Athens, Zografou, Greece
Palmisano, Fabrizio
Politecnico di Bari
Bari, Italy
Pan, Wang Fook
Segi University
Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
Pang, Sze Dai
National University of Singapore
Singapore
256
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Demokritus University of Thrace
Xanthi, Greece
Pape, Torill
University of Newcastle
Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia
Parsekian, Guilherme
Federal University of So Carlos
So Carlos, So Paulo, Brazil
Pauletta, Margherita
University of Udine
Tavagnacco, Udine, Italy
Paulotto, Carlo
Acciona S.A.
Alcobendas, Spain
Pavlikova, Milena
CTU
Prague, Czech Republic
Pellegrino, Carlo
University of Padova
Padova, Italy
Peng, Cao
Harbin Institute of Technology
Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
Peng, Jianxin
Institute of Bridge Engineering
Changsha, Hunan, China
Pereira, Eduardo
University of Minho
Guimaraes, Portugal
Perez Caldentey, Alejandro
Universidad Politcnica de Madrid
Madrid, Spain
Persson, Bertil
Bara, Sweden
Phillippi, Don
Diamond Pacific
Rancho Cucamonga, CA
Piccinin, Roberto
Hilti, Inc.
Tulsa, OK
Pocesta, Ylli
Debar, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
Ponnada, Markandeya
MVGR College of Engineering
Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
Potnoor, Naveen
Sasan, Madhya Pradesh, India
Potter, William
Florida Department of Transportation
Tallahassee, FL
Pourazin, Khashaiar
Pars Ab Tadbir Consulting Engineers Co.
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
Prasad, Saurabh
University of California, San Diego
La Jolla, CA
Prashanth, P.
SJCE
Mysore, Karnataka, India
Prasittisopin, Lapyote
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR
Puertas, F.
Eduardo Torroja Institute
Madrid, Spain
Puthenpurayil Thankappan, Santhosh
Granite Construction Company
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Putra Jaya, Ramadhansyah
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia
Qasrawi, Hisham
The Hashemite University
Zarqa, Jordan
Qian, Kai
Nanyang Technological University
Singapore
Qiangqiang, Zhang
Harbin Institute of Technology
Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
Quaranta, Giuseppe
Sapienza University of Rome
Rome, Italy
Quiroga, Pedro
Escuela Colombiana de Ingenieria
Bogota, Colombia
Rafi, Muhammad
NED University of Engineering and Technology
Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan
Raikar, Chetan
Structwel Designers and Consultants Pvt. Ltd.
Navi Mumbai, India
Ramamurthy, K.
IIT Madras
Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
Ramaswamy, Ananth
Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Ramos, Antnio
Faculdade de Cincias e Tecnologia
Monte de Caparica, Portugal
Rao, Hanchate
JNTU College of Engineering
Anantapur, India
Rashed, Youssef F.
Giza, Egypt
Rasol, Mezgeen
Dohuk Polytechince University
Zakho, Duhok, Iraq
Ray, Indrajit
Purdue University Calumet
Hammond, IN
Regan, Paul
Trigram
London, UK
Restrepo, Jose
University of California-San Diego
La Jolla, CA
REVIEWERS IN 2014
Riad, Khaled
Ain Shams University
Cairo, Egypt
Riding, Kyle
Kansas State University
Manhattan, KS
Rinaldi, Zila
University of Rome Tor Vergata
Rome, Italy
Rivard, Patrice
Universit de Sherbrooke
Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
Rivero-Angeles, Francisco
Mexico, DF, Mexico
Rizk, Emad
Memorial University of Newfoundland
St. Johns, NL, Canada
Rizwan, Syed Ali
University of Engineering and Technology
Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
Rodriguez, Mario
National Autonomous University of Mexico
Mexico City, DF, Mexico
Sabouni, Faisal
Architectural Consulting Group
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Sadeghi Pouya, Homayoon
Coventry University
Coventry, UK
Saedi, Houman
Tabiat Modares & Tabriz University and TSML CO.
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
Safan, Mohamed
Menoufia University
Shebeen El-Kom, Menoufia, Egypt
Sagaseta, Juan
University of Surrey
Guildford, Surrey, UK
Sagues, Alberto
University of South Florida
Tampa, FL
Sahamitmongkol, Raktipong
CONTEC, SIIT, Thammasat University and MTEC
Pathumthani, Thailand
Sahmaran, Mustafa
Gazi University
Ankara, Turkey
Saibabu, S.
CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre
Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
Sajedi, Fathollah
University of Malaya
Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, Malaysia
Saka, Mehmet
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
Salem, Hamed
Cairo University
Giza, Egypt
Salib, Sameh
Markham, ON, Canada
257
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Salinas-Basualdo, Rafael
National University of Engineering
Lima, Peru
Sallam, Hossam El-Din
Zagazig University
Zagazig, Sharkia, Egypt
Sanada, Yasushi
Toyohashi University of Technology
Toyohashi, Japan
Snchez, Isidro
University of Alicante
Alicante, Spain
Sanchez, Leandro
So Paulo, Brazil
Santos, Srgio
Instituto de Ps-Graduao
Goinia, Gois, Brazil
Saqan, Elias
American University in Dubai
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Sarker, Prabir
Curtin University of Technology
Bentley, Western Australia, Australia
Sato, Yuichi
Kyoto University
Kyoto, Japan
Scanlon, Andrew
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA
Schileo, Giorgio
Sheffield Hallam University
Sheffield, UK
Schindler, Anton
Auburn University
Auburn, AL
Semaan, Hassnaa
Ottawa Hills, OH
Sener, Siddik
Istanbul Bilgi University
Instanbul, Eyup, Turkey
Sengul, Ozkan
Istanbul Technical University
Istanbul, Turkey
Sengupta, Amlan
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Serna-Ros, Pedro
Universidad Politecnia de Valencia
Valencia, Spain
Setin, Jess
University of Cantabria
Santander, Cantabria, Spain
Shafigh, Payam
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Shafiq, Nasir
University Technology Petronas
Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia
Shah, Attaullah
Allama Iqbal Open University
Islamabad, Pakistan
258
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Dharmsinh Desai University
Nadiad, Gujarat, India
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King Saud University
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Shao, Yixin
McGill University
Montreal, QC, Canada
Sharifi, Yasser
Vali-e-Asr University of Rafsanjan
Rafsanjan, Islamic Republic of Iran
Sharma, Akanshu
Institute of Construction Materials
Stuttgart, Germany
Shashikala, A. P.
National Institute of Technology Calicut
Calicut, Kerala, India
Shawky, Mostafa
Alexandria, Egypt
Shehata, Medhat
Ryerson University
Toronto, ON, Canada
Sheikh, Shamim
University of Toronto
Toronto, ON, Canada
Sherif, Alaa
Helwan University
Cairo, Egypt
Sherman, Matthew
Simpson Gumpertz and Heger
Melrose, MA
Sherwood, Edward
Carleton University
Ottawa, ON, Canada
Shi, Xianming
Washington State University
Pullman, WA
Shi, Xudong
Tsinghua University
Beijing, China
Shi, Yilei
Rockville, MD
Shing, Pui-Shum
University of California, San Diego
La Jolla, CA
Shivali, Ram
Central Soil and Materials Research Station
New Delhi, India
Silfwerbrand, Johan
KTH Royal Institute of Technology
Stockholm, Sweden
Singh, Harvinder
Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College
Ludhiana, Punjab, India
Sinn, Robert
Thornton Tomasetti
Chicago, IL
Sisman, Can
Namk Kemal University
Tekirdag, Turkey
Smadi, Mohammad
Jordan University of Science and Technology
Irbid, Jordan
Sobhan, Khaled
Florida Atlantic University
Boca Raton, FL
Sobhani, Jafar
Building and Housing Research Center
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
Soliman, Ahmed
Western University
London, ON, Canada
Soltani, Amir
Purdue University Calumet
Hammond, IN
Soltani, Masoud
Tarbiat Modares University
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
Song, Xin
Zhejiang, China
Sossou, Gnida
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
Kumasi, Ghana
Souza, Rafael
Universidade Estadual de Maring
Maring, Paran, Brazil
Sylev, Altug
Yeditepe University
Istanbul, Turkey
Spinella, Nino
University of Messina
Messina, Italy
Spyridis, Panagiotis
Institute for Structural Engineering
Vienna, Austria
Stein, Boris
Twining Laboratories
Long Beach, CA
Strang, Fred
New Brunswick Department of Transportation
Fredericton, NB, Canada
Strauss, Alfred
University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences
Vienna, Austria
Su, Yu-Min
National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences
Sanmin, Taiwan, China
Sujjavanich, Suvimol
Kasetsart University
Bangkok, Thailand
Suksawang, Nakin
Florida Institute of Technology
Melbourne, FL
Sullivan, Patrick
Sullivan and Associates
Rickmansworth, UK
Suraneni, Prannoy
ETH Zrich
Zrich, Switzerland
Switonski, Aleksander
Bydgoszcz, Poland
REVIEWERS IN 2014
Tabatabai, Habib
University of Wisconsin Milwaukee
Milwaukee, WI
Tadayon, Mohammadhosein
University of Tehran
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
Tae, Ghi Ho
Leader Industrial Co.
Seoul, Republic of Korea
Tahir, Muhammad
UET Taxila
Taxila, Punjab, Pakistan
Tahmasebinia, Faham
University of Wollongong
Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
Talbot, Caroline
Cleveland, OH
Tan, Kefeng
Southwest University of Science and Technology
Sichuan, China
Tanacan, Leyla
Istanbul, Yesilkoy, Turkey
Tang, Chao-Wei
Cheng-Shiu University
Niaosong District, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan, China
Tang, Liqun
South China University of Technology
Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
Tang, Pei
Eindhoven, the Netherlands
Tangtermsirikul, Somnuk
Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology
Patumthani, Thailand
Tank, Tejenadr
Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University
Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Tankut, Tugrul
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
Tanner, Jennifer
University of Wyoming
Laramie, WY
Tao, Shi
Zhejiang University of Technology
Hangzhou, China
Tapan, Mcip
Yuzuncu Yil University
Van, Turkey
Tarighat, Amir
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
Tassios, Theodosios
Athens, Greece
Tastani, S. P.
Demokritus University of Thrace
Xanthi, Greece
Tavares, Maria
UERJ-State University of Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Tavio
Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology (ITS)
Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
259
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Tawana, M. M.
Tongji University
Shanghai, China
Tawfic, Yasser
Minia University
Minia, Egypt
Taylor, Peter
National Concrete Pavement Technology Center
Ames, IA
Tazarv, Mostafa
University of Nevada, Reno
Reno, NV
Tegos, Ioannis
Salonica, Greece
Tehrani, Fariborz
California State University, Fresno
Fresno, CA
Tepfers, Ralejs
Ralejs Tepfers Consulting
Gteborg, Sweden
Tharmarajah, Gobithas
Belfast, UK
Thiagarajan, Ganesh
University of Missouri - Kansas City
Kansas City, MO
Thokchom, Suresh
Manipur Institute of Technology
Imphal, India
Thomas, Adam
Europoles gmbh
Neumarkt, Germany
Thompson, Phillip
Palm Desert, CA
Thorne, A.
Center of Engineering Materials and Structures
Guilford, UK
Thorstensen, Rein Terje
University of Agder
Grimstad, Norway
Tian, Ying
University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Las Vegas, NV
Tjhin, Tjen
Buckland and Taylor Ltd.
North Vancouver, BC, Canada
Tolentino, Evandro
Centro Federal de Educao Tecnolgica de Minas Gerais
Timteo, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Topu, lker
Eskiehir Osmangazi University
Eskiehir, Turkey
Torrenti, Jean-Michel
Chevilly-Larue, France
Tosun, Kamile
Dokuz Eylul University
Izmir, Turkey
Toubia, Elias
University of Dayton
Dayton, OH
260
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University of Patras
Patras, Greece
Tripura, Deb
NIT Agartala
Agartala, India
Trost, Burkhart
University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern
Switzerland
Muttenz, Switzerland
Tsonos, Alexander
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
Thessaloniki, Greece
Tsubaki, Tatsuya
Yokohama National University
Yokohama, Japan
Tsuruta, Hiroaki
Kansai University
Suita, Japan
Tuchscherer, Robin
Northern Arizona University
Flagstaff, AZ
Turanli, Lutfullah
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
Turk, A. Murat
Istanbul Kultur University
Istanbul, Turkey
Tutikian, Bernardo
Unisinos
Porto Alegre, Rio Grande Do Sul, Brazil
Uygunoglu, Tayfun
Afyon Kocatepe University
Afyonkarahisar, Turkey
Uzal, Burak
Abdullah Gul University
Kayseri, Turkey
Vakhshouri, Behnam
University of Technology Sydney
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Van Deurzen, John
Van Deurzen and Associates PA
Overland Park, KS
Varum, Humberto
University of Porto
Porto, Portugal
Vasovic, Dejan
University of Belgrade
Belgrade, Serbia
Vatani Oskouei, Asghar
Shahid Rajaee University (BHRC)
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
Vaz Rodrigues, Rui
EPFL
Lausanne, Switzerland
Vazquez-Herrero, Cristina
La Corua, Spain
Velzquez Rodrguez, Sergio
Universidad Panamericana
Zapopan, Jalisco, Mexico
Vellalapalayam Nallagounder, Vijayakumar
Bannari Amman Institute of Technology
Erode, Tamilnadu, India
Velu, Saraswathy
CECRI
Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, India
Venkatesh Babu, D. L.
Kumaraguru College of Technology
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Venkiteela, Giri
New Jersey Department of Transportation
Trenton, NJ
Vercher, Jose
Polytechnic University of Valencia
Valencia, Spain
Vichit-Vadakan, Wilasa
CTLGroup
Skokie, IL
Villar Cocia, Ernesto
Central University of Las Villas
Santa Clara, Cuba
Vimonsatit, Vanissorn
Curtin University
Perth, Australia
Vintzileou, Elizabeth
National Technical University of Athens
Athens, Greece
Viviani, Marco
HEIG-VD
Yverdon les Bains, Switzerland
Vogel, Thomas
Institute of Structural Engineering
Zurich, Switzerland
Waldron, Christopher
University of Alabama at Birmingham
Birmingham, AL
Wan, David
Old Castle Precast Inc.
South Bethlehem, NY
Wang, Chang-Qing
Tongji University
Shanghai, China
Wang, Chong
Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
Wang, Huanzi
San Jose, CA
Wang, Kejin
Iowa State University
Ames, IA
Wang, Vincent
James Cook University
Townsville, Queensland, Australia
Wang, Xuhao
Ames, IA
Wang, Zhen Yu
Harbin Institute of Technology
Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
Watkins, Melanie
Michigan Technological University
Houghton, MI
REVIEWERS IN 2014
Wehbe, Nadim
South Dakota State University
Brookings, SD
Wei, Ya
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, MI
Wei-Jian, Yi
Changsha, China
Weiss, Jason
Purdue University
West Lafayette, IN
Wen, Qingjie
China University of Mining & Technology
Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
Werner, Anne
Southern Illinois University Edwardsville
Edwardsville, IL
Wheeler, Andrew
University of Western Sydney
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Wilson, William
Universite de Sherbrooke
Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
Windisch, Andor
Karlsfeld, Germany
Wood, Richard
University of California, San Diego
La Jolla, CA
Wu, Chenglin
Missouri S&T
Rolla, MO
Wu, Hui
Beijing, China
Wu, Hwai-Chung
Wayne State University
Detroit, MI
Wu, Yu-You
Dania Beach, FL
Wu, Yu-Fei
City University of Hong Kong
Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
Wu, Yu-You
Dania Beach, Florida
Xia, Jin
Zhejiang University
Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
Xiang, Tianyu
Chengdu, Sichuan, China
Xiao, Yan
Hunan University
Changsha, Hunan, China
Xie, Guoshuai
Wuhan University
Wuhan, Hubei, China
Xin-hua, Cai
Wuhan University
Wuhan, Hubei, China
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REVIEWERS IN 2014
Xuan, D.X.
The Hongkong Polytechnic University
Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
Yahia, Ammar
Universit de Sherbrooke
Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
Yamada, Kanji
Akita Prefectural University
Yurihonjo, Japan
Yanez, Fernando
IDIEM University of Chile
Santiago, Chile
Yang, Kai
Belfast, UK
Yang, Keun-Hyeok
Kyonggi University
Suwon, Kyonggi-do, Republic of Korea
Yang, Kuochen
National Kaohsiung First University of Science and Technology
Kaohsiung, Taiwan, China
Yang, Xinbao
Olathe, KS
Yassein, Mohamed
Doha, Qatar
Yatagan, Serkan
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Istanbul, Turkey
Yazbeck, Fouad
Readymix Abu Dhabi
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Yazc, emsi
Ege University
zmir, Turkey
Yekrangnia, Mohammad
Sharif University of Technology
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
Yerramala, Amarnath
Dundee University
Dundee, UK
Yeung, Jaime
Yue Xiu Concrete Co Ltd
Hong Kong, China
Yildirim, Hakki
Istanbul, Turkey
Yilmaz, Bulent
Bilecik Seyh Edebali University
Bilecik, Turkey
Ylmaz, Ali
KT
Trabzon, Turkey
Yindeesuk, Sukit
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Urbana, IL
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zmir, Turkey
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Taisei Corporation
Tokyo, Japan
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Yoon, In-Seok
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Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Korea University
Seoul, Republic of Korea
Youkhanna, Kanaan
University of Dohuk
Duhok, Iraq
Yu, Baolin
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI
Yu, Haiyong
Shanghai Research Institute of Building Sciences
Shanghai, China
Yu, Jiangtao
Research Institute of Civil Engineering and Disaster Reduction
Shanghai, China
Yu, Tzu-Yang
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Lowell, MA
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PSI, Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center, FHWA
McLean, VA
Yuan, Xiaohui
Wuhan University of Technology
Wuhan, China
Yksel, Isa
Bursa Technical University
Bursa, Turkey
Yun, Hyun Do
Daejeon, Republic of Korea
Zaidi, S. Kaleem
Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh, UP, India
Zaki, Adel
SNC - Lavalin
Montreal, QC, Canada
Zandi Hanjari, Kamyab
Chalmers University of Technology
Gothenburg, Sweden
Zanuy, Carlos
Universidad Politcnica de Madrid
Madrid, Spain
Zdiri, Mustapha
National Engineering School of Tunis
Tunis, Rades Tunis, Tunisia
Zeris, Christos
National Technical University of Athens
Zografou, Greece
Zhang, Jieying
National Research Council Canada
Ottawa, ON, Canada
Zhang, Jun
Tsinghua University
Beijing, China
Zhang, Peng
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)
Karlsruhe, Germany
Zhang, Y. X.
The University of New South Wales
Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
Zhang, Yamei
Southeast University
Nanjing, China
Zhang, Xiaogang
Shenzhen University
Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
Zhang, Xiaoxin
Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha
Ciudad Real, Spain
Zhao, Jian
University of Wisconsin Milwaukee
Milwaukee, WI
Zheng, Herbert
Gammon Construction Limited
Hong Kong, China
Zheng, Jianjun
Zhejiang University of Technology
Hangzhou, China
REVIEWERS IN 2014
Zheng, Yu
Dongguan University of Technology
Dongguan, Guangdong, China
Zhou, Changdong
Beijing Jiaotong University
Beijing, China
Zhou, Wei
Harbin Institute of Technology
Harbin, China
Zhou, Xiangming
Brunel University
Uxbridge, UK
Ziehl, Paul
University of South Carolina
Columbia, SC
Zilch, Konrad
Technische Universitat Munchen
Munich, Germany
263
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