Vol11 1 2013

Asociaia de Psihologie
Industrial i Organizaional
Volumul 11, nr. 1 / 2013
Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional

Centrul de Monitorizare Profesional
n Psihologia Muncii Organizaional,
Universitatea Babe-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca
Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional

Facultatea de Comunicare i Relaii Publice
Bucureti, Str. Povernei 6, 010416
Tel./fax: 021.310.0718
Adresa web: www.apio.ro
E-mail: office@apio.ro
Copyright 2012 Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional

i Editura Comunicare.ro
Publicarea de articole n Revista Psihologia Resurselor Umane

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CONT IBAN: RO38 BTRL 0130 1205 9213 60XX.
ISSN 1583-7327
Cuprins
Editorial
Drago Iliescu
Starea actual a psihologului specializat n psihologia muncii i organizaional n Romnia (romn) / 7
Drago Iliescu
The current status of work and organizational psychologists in Romania (englez) / 12
Studii i cercetri
Andreea Butucescu, Lavinia C. Usctescu
Cum arat un workaholic romn? Asocierea dintre workaholism i caracteristicile angajatului; o validare preliminar a
scalei DUWAS / 17
Elena Raluca Ciobot
Relaia dintre stresul ocupaional, satisfacia n munc i implicarea n munc / 33
Delia Vrg , Diana Miruna Pascu, Mdlina Mioc, Isabela Elena Dragu, Andrei epe-Onea, Emma Petruc
Rolul resurselor personale n starea de bine a angajailor: implicarea n munc i epuizarea profesional / 51
Florina D. Spnu, Adriana S. Bban
Un review sistematic asupra antecedenilor i consecinelor nvrii colective n spitale / 65
Crisanta-Alina Mazilescu, Bernard Gangloff
Meserii, caracteristici i valori sociale atribuite masculinitii i feminitii / 83
Alena Todorov
O poveste despre pasiune: Copilul meu sau locul meu de munc? Studiu comparativ privind antreprenorii i angajaii / 92
Recenzii
Nastasia Slgean
Florin Alin Sava, Psihologia validat tiinific. Ghid practic de cercetare n psihologie, 2013, Polirom / 106
Srboiu Floriana
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice Sixth Edition, 2013, Editura Sage / 107
Carmen Munteanu
Dan Merzick, The Culture Game A tool for Agile Managers, 2012, FreeStandling Press / 108
Roxana Iulia Man
Victoria V. Swisher, Becoming an agile leader, 2012, Korn/Ferry, Ed. Lominger, Minneapolis / 110
Evenimente
Silvia Rusu
Exploratory workshop on Evaluative Conditioning, Changing attitudes through evaluative conditioning: challenges and
promises, Timioara 15-16th of September 2012 / 112
IN MEMORIAM
Corina Ilin
ADRIAN NECULAU (30 august 1938 21 decembrie 2012 ) / 115
Summary
Editorial
Drago Iliescu
Starea actual a psihologului specializat n psihologia muncii i organizaional n Romnia (romanian) / 7
Drago Iliescu
The current status of work and organizational psychologists in Romania (english) / 12
Study and research
What does the Romanian workaholic look like? A first glimpse into the links between workaholism and employee
characteristics; a validation attempt of DUWAS scale/ 17
Elena Raluca Ciobot
The relationship between occupational stress, job satisfaction and work engagement / 33
The role of personal resources in well-being of the employees: work engagement and burnout / 51
A review of empirical studies investigating antecedents and consequences of collective learning behaviors
in Hospitals / 65
Trades, characteristics and social values attributed to masculinity and femininity / 83
Alena Todorov
A story about passion: My child or my job? Comparative study regarding the entrepreneurs and the employees / 92
Reviews
Nastasia Slgean
Srboiu Floriana
Carmen Munteanu
Roxana Iulia Man
Events
Silvia Rusu
IN MEMORIAM
Corina Ilin
Sommaire
Editorial
Drago Iliescu
Starea actual a psihologului specializat n psihologia muncii i organizaional, n Romnia (roumaine) / 7
Drago Iliescu
The current status of work and organizational psychologists in Romania (anglais) / 12
Etudes et de recherches
Le drogu du travail? De possible associations entre làddiction du travail et les traits de l'employ; une validation
prliminaire du DUWAS / 17
Elena Raluca Ciobot
La relation entre le stress au travail, la satisfaction au travail et l'engagement au travail / 33
Le rle des ressources personnelles and bien-tre des employs: l'engagement de travail et l'puisement
professionnel / 51
Un review systmatique sur les antcdents et les consquences de lapprentissage collectif dans les hpitaux / 65
Mtiers, caractristiques et valeurs sociales attribues a la masculinit et a la fminit / 83
Alena Todorov
Une histoire sur la passion: Mon enfant ou mon emploi? tude comparatif concernant les entrepreneurs et
les employs / 92
Recension
Nastasia Slgean
Srboiu Floriana
Carmen Munteanu
Roxana Iulia Man
Evnements
Silvia Rusu
IN MEMORIAM
Corina Ilin
Starea actual a psihologului specializat n psihologia muncii i

organizaional n Romnia
Drago Iliescu1
Motivaie
n ultimii ani psihologia romneasc a trecut
prin multe transformri i evoluia sa este, de
principiu, una pozitiv. Totui, avem uneori
impresia c, dei lucrurile evolueaz, ele
evolueaz mult prea lent. Am vrea sa vedem din
ce n ce mai puini diletani i am vrea ca acest
lucru s se ntmple mai rapid. Uneori, nici nu
sunt foarte convini c evoluia are loc de fapt. n
continuare vedem muli diletani ba, uneori
avem impresia c numrul lor crete. n
continuare un numr foarte mic de psihologi
urmeaz tiina de exemplu, putem afirma c
cele mai voluminoase asociaii profesionale nu
sunt cele care ofer tiin, ci cele care ofer alte
avantaje, cum ar fi mult hulitele dar att de
vnatele credite Copsi.
n orice discuie informal cu un alt
psiholog, indiferent de specializare, n mod
inevitabil auzim frustrare. C muncim pe prea
puini bani, c exist concuren neloial, c alte
profesii intr pe teritoriul nostru, c proprii notri
colegi sunt slabi pregtii, c testele sunt scumpe,
c formarea e i mai scump, c facultatea nu nea pregtit pentru viaa real, c e plin de oameni
cu diverse interese, c societatea nu ne vede la
adevrata valoare, c instituiile care ar trebui s
ne apere de fapt ne apas ... am putea continua
aici.
Eu privesc aceast atitudine a colegilor mei
pe care o observ i la mine deseori cu
ngrijorare. Pe de o parte, pentru c nu m simt
bine n prezena unor emoii negative att de
generalizate. Pe de alt parte, pentru c, prin
specializarea pe care o am, a vrea s vd n
profesia mea expresii ale implicrii i
performanei: a vrea s vd entuziasm, vigoare,
emoii pozitive i psihologi cu o imagine de sine
pozitiv, mndri de ceea ce sunt, care vor s
creeze nite nvingtori.
Bine, bine, o s spunei aa suntem noi
romnii. Ne plngem de toate i ntotdeauna. Ei

bine, ca s sondm realitatea i pentru a evalua
ceva mai realist cum gndete, triete i
muncete psihologul specializat n psihologia
muncii i organizaional (PMO) n 2012-2013,
Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i
Organizaional (APIO) a realizat un studiu la
sfritul anului 2012. Acest sondaj este o
abordare profesionist, care ofer o reflecie ceva
mai obiectiv asupra felului n care un numr
mai mare de participani privete realitatea. Este,
dac vrei, o radiografie a practicii psihologice n
domeniul psihologiei muncii i organizaionale i
credem c este binevenit.
Culegerea de date n studiul APIO cu privire
la starea actuala a PMO n Romnia s-a
desfurat n perioada Septembrie-Noiembrie
2012. n total au participat cu nregistrri valide
N = 812 psihologi care activeaz n domeniul
psihologiei muncii i organizaionale, exclusiv
sau n combinaie cu alte activiti. Culegerea
datelor s-a fcut att online (N = 214), ct i prin
aplicare fa-n-fa a chestionarului (N = 598).
Chestionarul efectiv a fost secondat de un numr
de 21 de interviuri telefonice i fa n fa,
realizate cu o parte din acei psihologi care, n
faza de culegere a datelor prin chestionar, au
declarat c ar fi disponibili pentru un astfel de
interviu.
O s trecem rapid n revist cteva din
concluziile acestui studiu i o s ncercm s
mprtim o parte din gndurile noastre despre
locul n care suntem i locul spre care probabil ar
trebui s tindem.
nainte de orice ns, o precizare: prezentul
studiu se dorete a fi o imagine ct mai
obiectiv, liber de partizanate, a felului n
care muncete psihologul cu aceast
specializare n Romnia actual. Dorim totui
s atragem atenia c, la fel ca orice alt studiu
de acest tip, i acesta este imperfect. n ciuda
volumului mare al eantionului i al
coala Naional de Studii Politice i Administrative

Adres de coresponden - dragos.iliescu@testcentral.ro
Editorial
compoziiei sale echilibrate n ceea ce privete

proveniena geografic a participanilor,
limitele studiului sale sunt date de faptul c
participarea a fost voluntar i nu s-a aplicat
nici o metod de eantionare, precum i de
faptul c datele sunt auto-raportate de
participani. Studiul n sine este absolut liber de
orice acuze ctre persoane sau instituii.
Interpretarea lui este altceva: v aparine i
sperm ca fiecare s trag acele concluzii care i
se potrivesc mai bine.
Participani. La studiu au participat
N = 812 psihologi activi non-exclusiv n
domeniul psihologiei muncii i organizaionale.
Un numr de 169 (21%) sunt de gen masculin i
643 (79%) sunt de gen feminin. Vrsta minim
este de 22, iar cea maxim este de 62 de ani, cu
o vrst medie de M = 35.98 (SD = 8.78).
Experiena n munc, n specialitatea muncii i
organizaional, declarat de participani, este
cuprins ntre 0 i 35 ani (M = 5.99, SD = 5.29).
Relaia cu Colegiul Psihologilor. Dintre
participani, 289 (36%) nu sunt nregistrai n
Colegiul
Psihologilor,
iar
dintre
cei
nenregistrai, doar o treime intenioneaz s i
ia acest atestat n viitor. Avem aadar n
Romnia un segment important de psihologi,
activi n domeniul PMO, care nu sunt
nregistrai n Colegiu. Dintre participani, 22%
sunt nregistrai n regim de supervizare, 27%
practic n regim de autonomie. Un procent de
6% sunt nregistrai ca supervizori.
Dintre cei 523 de participani care sunt
nregistrai n Colegiu, 51% nu i-au pltit i nu
i pltesc taxele la timp. Aproape toi cei
intervievai suplimentar au declarat c nu i
pltesc i nu i vor mai plti de principiu aceste
taxe niciodat. Totui, n trecut aceti
participani au fost implicai n activitile
Colegiului. Un procent de 41% dintre ei au
participat la alegerile locale ale reprezentanilor
din regiunea n care profeseaz, iar 21% declar
c au fost reprezentani n cel puin una din cele
dou ocazii, pentru Convenia Naional de la
Bucureti. n acest context, considerm c
exist o tendin destul de pronunat de
diminuare a implicrii n activitile Colegiului
Psihologilor.
Gradul de satisfacie cu activitatea
Colegiului este extrem de sczut. Doar un
procent de 3% din participani declar c sunt
foarte mulumii de activitatea Colegiului. Un
nemulumii sau foarte nemulumii. Activitatea
comisiei de Muncii din Colegiu este evaluat cu

o tendin pozitiv, ns nu extrem de pozitiv doar 3% din participani declar c sunt foarte
mulumii de activitatea acestei comisii, pe cnd
40% declar c sunt nemulumii sau foarte
nemulumii.
Majoritatea
simpl
a
psihologilor
participani la studiu, 57% consider c la
urmtoarele alegeri este nevoie de schimbri
radicale, n oameni i strategie. Doar 11% din
participani au considerat c este nevoie de
continuitate, att n oameni, ct i n strategie.
Restul participanilor nclin spre o form
oarecare de schimbare, ori n oameni, ori n
strategie. Aceste opinii par a fi convergente cu
scderea dorinei de implicare i respectiv
gradul sczut de mulumire observate mai sus.
Loc de munc i plan de carier. Cam
jumtate din psihologii activi n domeniul PMO
sunt angajai prin contract de munc pe
perioad nedeterminat (57%), n diverse
companii. Majoritatea covritoare a celor care
nu sunt membri n Colegiul Psihologilor fac
parte din aceast categorie. Colegiul nu a reuit,
aadar, s capteze interesul sau s i stabileasc
un rol n percepia psihologilor activi ca
specialiti n resurse umane, n companii.
Majoritatea celor angajai sunt parte din
companii private (66%) timpurile n care statul
era cel mai mare angajator de psihologi n
domeniul nostru pare s fi trecut. Totui, 23% din
psihologii angajai lucreaz n instituii bugetare,
printre acestea sistemul aprrii i ordinii publice
ieind n mod deosebit n eviden.
Puin peste un sfert din participani (28%)
sunt antreprenori, ns majoritatea prefer s
funcioneze prin firme (SRL) i doar 6%
acioneaz pe baza unui cabinet, nfiinat
conform normelor Colegiului.
Felul n care psihologii din domeniul PMO
ajung s fie angajai este neobinuit, comparat
cu abordarea tipic, care spune c pentru a
ajunge s ai un loc de munc, e nevoie s trimii
CV-uri sau s acionezi printr-o agenie de
plasare. Cea mai mare parte din psihologi
(28%), pentru a avea un loc de munc, i-au
deschis propria afacere n domeniu, iar ali 15%
declar c au fost contactai de actualul
angajator. Un procent de 12% au contactat ei
angajatorul, 4% au fost plasai de companii
private de plasament i nici mcar un psiholog
din eantionul nostru nu i-a gsit loc de munc
prin ageniile publice de plasament (de ex.
AJOFM).
Editorial
Peste 36% dintre participani afirm c nu

au un plan de carier clar conturat pentru
urmtorii ani. Participanii care au dat acest
rspuns sunt, n marea lor majoritate, ori
psihologi la nivel de autonomie profesional
care progreseaz oarecum inerial, fr un scop
clar formulat, ori psihologi nceptori, care nu
sunt convini c aceast profesie le poate
asigura o carier.
Aproape dou treimi, 61% dintre
participani afirm c sunt mndri sau foarte
mndri de profesia lor de psiholog. Un procent
de 18% dintre participani consider c sunt
nemulumii de alegerea profesional fcut,
atunci cnd au ales PMO ca profesie.
Majoritatea lor covritoare sunt tineri care nu
i vd perspective n acest domeniu. Un
procent de 33% dintre participani intenioneaz
s i schimbe domeniul de activitate pe viitor,
majoritatea n alt domeniu al psihologiei, ns
un procent de 15% din acetia vor prsi
complet profesia de psiholog.
Activitate i venituri. Cam un sfert dintre
participani (25%) lucreaz exclusiv n
domeniul psihologiei muncii i organizaionale,
cu 40 sau mai multe ore pe sptmn.
Aproximativ jumtate din participani (49%)
sunt activi n acest domeniu mai puin de 20 de
ore pe sptmn (30% chiar mai puin de 10
ore). Alte domenii n care sunt activi sunt
legate, n ordine, de consilierea psihologic
(14%), psihologia clinic (13%), sau psihologia
transporturilor (11%). Domeniul n care ei
practic cel mai activ n afara PMO, este ns
complet n afara psihologiei: 32% din munca
acestor psihologi nu are de-a face deloc cu
psihologia.
Cea mai mare parte a muncii psihologilor
specializai n PMO este ocupat de evaluarea
psihologic; n medie aproximativ 58% (indice
consolidat) din munc este alocat nspre
evaluare i restul de 42% nspre intervenia
psihologic. n evaluare, 60% din psihologi
utilizeaz cu precdere metode cantitative i
40% cu precdere metode calitative.
Venitul mediu net calculat pentru acest
eantion de participani este de 2413 RON pe
luna. Aproximativ o zecime (9%) din
participani ctig sub 500 RON pe lun i
aproape un sfert (23%) ctig sub 1000 RON
pe lun. Aceast situaie este absolut critic, i
este doar n parte contrabalansat de zecimea
(11%) din participani care ctig peste 4500
RON pe lun (deci peste aproximativ 1000
Euro). Doar aproximativ 38% din acest venit

(SD = 36) este ctigat de participani exclusiv
din activitatea de psihologie a muncii i
organizaional.
Se pare c promovarea se face pentru cea
mai mare parte a psihologilor, prin recomandri
(29%) i prin contact direct cu potenialul client
(39%). De principiu, competenele legate de
promovare, marketing i vnzare sunt
recunoscute ca puncte slabe de ctre psihologii
specializai n PMO, motiv pentru care puini au
de fapt o strategie personal de promovare i se
rezum la comportamente tactice. Totui,
munca bine fcut i legtura cu fotii clieni,
care este inut de aproximativ 60% dintre
psihologi, este n msur s le asigure o baz
fidel de clieni care apeleaz constant la
serviciile lor (63%).
Educaie. Un numr mic din participani au
absolvit facultatea nainte de 1989 (5%).
Aproximativ 15% din participani fac parte din
promoiile care au absolvit n primii 5 ani dup
1989, iar 66% din participani au absolvit n
ultimii 10 ani studiile de licen.
Dei cifrele de colarizare arondate
facultilor private care au programe de
psihologie au fost mai mari dect cele tipice
pentru facultile de stat, se pare c absolvenii
facultilor private nu urmeaz att de activ
profesia pentru care s-au format. n eantionul
nostru, 67% din participani sunt absolveni ai
unei faculti de stat.
Un procent de 26.2% nu au dect studii
universitare, 67.1% au absolvit sau urmeaz
acum studii de masterat, iar 5.4% dintre
participani au studii doctorale, absolvite sau pe
care le urmeaz acum. Aceasta demonstreaz
interes pentru formarea academic formal i
atingerea unui nivel mai nalt de certificare.
Psihologii activi n domeniul PMO nu au o
orientare extrem de activ spre formarea
profesional continu. Majoritatea dintre ei se
in la curent cu schimbrile din domeniul lor
profesional prin urmtoarele metode: 66% i
extrag noutile din discuiile cu colegii, 87%
din vizitarea unor site-uri i 73% din diverse
Newsletter-e pe care le primesc. Doar 3% merg
frecvent la conferine tiinifice i doar 5%
citesc, chiar i din cnd n cnd, reviste
tiinifice. De principiu, 61.5% declar c nu
citesc niciodat reviste tiinifice i doar 6%
citesc mai mult de 5 astfel de reviste pe an.
Atunci cnd consult diferite surse de
informare (reviste, cri, site-uri profesionale),
Editorial
majoritatea (81%) se concentreaz pe surse de

specialitate din Romnia.
Formarea continu este rezumat, pentru
cea mai mare parte a psihologilor aflai n
supervizare, chiar prin activitile de
supervizare per se. Pentru ceilali, care nu mai
sunt direct presai spre formare continu, forma
principal de formare este audierea de
workshop-uri, urmat de prezena ca audient la
conferine i teriar ca i prezentator la
conferine. Proporia dintre aceste trei activiti
este de 45:33:20. Cu alte cuvinte, psihologii
prefer s asiste la workshop-uri sau la
comunicri mai degrab dect s creeze astfel
de activiti.
Numrul de ore dedicat pentru activiti de
formare continu, de la absolvirea facultii,
este cuprins ntre 0 i 6000, cu o medie de 445
(SD = 753). n ultimele 12 luni acest numr este
cuprins ntre 0 i 1500 de ore (M = 132,
SD = 237). Numrul este aproape de 3 ori mai
mare la persoanele aflate n supervizare dect la
restul participanilor i este mai mic de o
zecime la acei participani care sunt i
supervizori. Cu alte cuvinte, supervizorul tipic a
dedicat n ultimul an mai puin de 15 ore pentru
formarea sa.
Educaia profesional suplimentar este cea
mai mare povar pentru psihologul tnr.
Participanii la aceast cercetare declar c n
total, de la absolvirea ultimei forme de
nvmnt, au cheltuit pentru astfel de activiti
n medie 8163 RON (SD = 11464 RON). Pentru
ultimele 12 luni, media este de 3431 RON
(SD = 8267). Doar pentru 9.6% dintre
participani, angajatorul suport integral taxele
aferente acestor activiti; pentru ali 18%
aceste taxe sunt suportate mixt, ns
aproximativ 70% din psihologi trebuie s i le
suporte singuri.
Pentru cei supervizai, mulumirea fa de
competena supervizorului predomin. Un
procent de 34.2% evalueaz competena
supervizorului lor ca fiind foarte bun. n
acelai timp, ponderea total a celor mulumii
sau foarte mulumii, 50.4%, ntrunete la limit
criteriul majoritii. n acelai timp, exist 18%
care sunt nemulumii sau foarte nemulumii de
competena supervizorului lor. Implicarea
supervizorului este evaluat uor mai dur, 20%
dintre participani fiind nemulumii sau foarte
nemulumii de implicarea supervizorului lor.
n medie, pentru cei care fac supervizare,
exist un numr de 4 ore de supervizare pe lun
10
(SD = 9). Tariful mediu pltit pe edin este de

118 RON (SD = 49). n medie, astfel, o
persoan aflat n supervizare cheltuiete 493
RON pe lun, doar pentru supervizare.
Competen autoevaluat. Doar 2% din
psihologi se consider foarte competeni n
munca lor i doar 3% se consider extrem de
incompeteni. Totui, marea majoritate nu se
plaseaz pe medie, ci 59% consider c sunt,
dac nu foarte buni, totui buni i competeni
ntr-un mare numr de activiti pe care le fac.
Un procent de 65% cunosc lista de
competene elaborat de APIO pentru comisia
de specialitate a Colegiului Psihologilor, ceea
ce arat c se in la curent cu criteriile
profesionale. Totui, 35% din participanii la
studiu nu au auzit niciodat de aceast list jumtate dintre acetia sunt supervizori iar o
parte semnificativ supervizai.
Din
aceast
list,
autoevaluarea
competenelor proprii remarc scoruri relativ
mari pentru competene precum Evaluarea
indivizilor (73%) sau Acordarea de feedback
oral (71%) i relativ mici pentru competene
precum Designul de produs (43%). n ceea ce
privete competenele secundare, un punct
puternic relativ pare a fi competena Relaiile
profesionale (67%) i puncte slabe par a fi
competene precum Vnzrile i marketingul
(41%),Managementul afacerii (46%) sau
Cercetarea i dezvoltarea (51%).
n ceea ce privete competena proprie n
comparaie cu normele i standardele existente,
autoevaluarea conformitii cu standardele
naionale este mult mai bun dect cea a
conformitii cu standardele internaionale.
Doar 3% din psihologi se consider a fi complet
conformi cu cerinele internaionale ale
domeniului.
Concluzii
Avem n aceste date lucruri mbucurtoare
i lucruri ngrijortoare.
The Good... S ncepem cu cele bune.
Avem la acest moment n Romnia psihologi n
marea majoritate tineri, n marea majoritate
absolveni din generaia nou (de dup
Revoluie), n marea majoritate absolveni de
instituii de nvmnt de stat, care au urmat
apoi mcar un program masteral suplimentar.
Ei, nu e aa de ru, nu?
(Desigur, ca o concluzie secundar, putem
comenta despre lipsa de eficien pe care o au
Editorial
instituiile educaionale private, nu neaparat n

termeni de competene, dar totui mcar n
termeni de inserie n piaa munci a
absolvenilor lor.)
Majoritatea psihologilor specializai n
PMO lucreaz n companii private i o parte
semnificativ dein pri n compania n care
lucreaz probabil acestea fiind firme mici sau
cabinete de psihologie. Doar un numr mic de
psihologi funcioneaz pe baza unor cabinete de
psihologie, nregistrate dup preceptele Copsi.
Un numr mult prea mic au acel spirit
antreprenorial care ar fi de ateptat de la o
profesie liberal majoritatea sunt mulumii cu
statutul de angajat. Ei, da, ncepe s nu mai fie
att de pozitiv.
The Bad... Majoritatea psihologilor
specializai n PMO au un venit foarte sczut.
Venitul mediu, dei mic, este totui plasat
semnificativ peste venitul mediu net pe
economia Romniei calculat de Institutul
Naional de Statistic pentru 2012. Psihologii
din oraele mai mici ctig radical mai puin
dect psihologii din oraele mari sau din
Bucureti. Exist, din pcate, decalaje majore
de competen profesional n chiar ariile care
ar putea s i ajute pe psihologi s ctige mai
bine, de exemplu Vnzrile i marketingul,
Managementul afacerii etc. i, evident, nici un
curs n aceste domenii nu este compensat cu
credite din partea Copsi.
La aceste venituri mici se adaug o
presiune financiar extraordinar de mare
cauzat
de
reglementrile
Colegiului
psihologilor. Necesitatea de a acumula un
numr de credite se reflect, n mod special, pe
cei mai tineri membri ai profesiei, adic fix pe
aceia care ctig cel mai puin. Pentru peste
80% din psihologii n regim de supervizare care
au participat la studiu formarea pentru trecerea
n regim de autonomie profesional cost mai
mult pe lun dect venitul lor lunar.
And the Ugly... Psihologii, n mod special

cei tineri, au devenit astfel un consumator
captiv pentru ... psihologi, n special pentru cei
care au reuit s se poziioneze pozitiv n relaia
cu Copsi. n interviuri ni s-au dat exemple de
psihologi care supervizeaz i care de ceva timp
bun nu i mai ctig venitul practicnd, ci
doar superviznd. Din pcate, o parte a acestei
presiuni este doar formal. O parte din cei care
ofer formare doar mimeaz faptul c dezvolt
competena celor formai. Cursurile sunt
scumpe, slile se umplu, banii vin. ns de bun
seam c nu crete competena unui psiholog
tnr prin faptul c audiaz o prezentare sau c
particip la un workshop fr a se implica activ.
Criteriul de acordare a creditelor a ajuns s fie
ora, nu incrementul de cunotine sau
competene. i prea puine astfel de ateliere se
finalizeaz cu o examinare, orict de informal,
a cunotinelor, deprinderilor sau competenelor
dobndite n acele cteva ore. Credem din toate
aceste motive c acest sistem, aa cum este el
acum, cu presiune pe o singur categorie, cu un
numr relativ redus de persoane care profit de
o audien captiv, fr ca reglementatorul s
protejeze cumva sau s compenseze cumva
efortul acestei audiene, este o greeal i va
trebui rectificat.
Sunt convins c aceste studiu va putea s
fie o baz obiectiv pentru diverse politici n
urmtorii ani. Sunt convins c propuneri de
astfel de politici ar putea veni de la noi toi.
Probabil c n timpul celei de-a XIII-a Ediii a
Conferinei Naionale de Psihologie Industrial
i Organizaional care se va desfura la
finalul lunii Aprilie la Braov, vom avea ocazia
s discutm o parte din paii pe care APIO are
responsabilitatea de a-i face pentru toi
psihologii specializai n psihologia muncii i
organizaional, n Romnia.
11
The current status of work and organizational psychologists in Romania
Drago Iliescu1
Motivation
During the past few years, Romanian
psychology has gone through many changes
and its evolution is basically a positive one.
However, we sometimes feel that, although
things evolve, they do so too slowly. We would
like to see fewer amateurs and we want this to
happen fast. Sometimes, we are not really
convinced that evolution actually occurs. We
still see dilletants practicing moreover
sometimes we feel that their numbers are
growing. Still a very small number of
psychologists attend to science for example,
we can say that the largest professional
associations in Romanian psychology are not
those providing science, but those providing
others advantages, like the oh-so-evil but oh-socoveted Copsi credits.
In any informal discussion with other
psychologist, regardless their field of activity,
we inevitably hear frustration. That we work for
too little money, that competition is unfair, that
other professions infringe on our field, that our
own collegues are poorly trained, that tests are
too expensive, that training is even more
expensive, that universities did not prepare us
for real life, that we are lead by people with
only their own interests on their mind, that
society doesnt appreciate us at our true value,
that authorities who should defend us actually
press us ... and we could continue.
I regard with concern these attitudes even
more so because I often have them myself. On
one hand, because I feel unwell when in the
middle of such widespread negative emotions.
On the other hand, because as a result of my
professional specialization (I/O Psychology) I
would like to see in my profession expressions
of wellbeing, involvement and performance: I
would like to see enthusiasm, vigour, positive
emotions and psychologists with positive selfimage, proud of what they are, who want to
create winners.
1
National School of Political and Administrative Studies

Corresponding address - dragos.iliescu@testcentral.ro
12
Okay, Okay, you will say this is just the

way Romanians are. We always complain about
everything. Well, to probe reality and to assess
the way a Romanian psychologist specialized in
work and organizational psychology (WOP)
thinks, lives and works in 2012-2013, the
Association of Industrial and Organizational
Psychology (APIO) has run a study at the end
of 2012. This survey is a professional approach
that provides a more objective perspective on
how a larger number of participants view
reality. It is, if you want, a review of the
psychological practice in the field of work and
organizational psychology and we believe that
it is more than welcome.
The data collection process for the APIO
survey on the current state of WOP in Romania
took place between September and November
2012. The total number of valid entries is
N = 812 psychologists active in the field of
work
and
organizational
psychology,
exclusively or in combination with other
activities. Data collection was done online
(N = 214) and by face-to-face questionnaires
(N = 598). The actual questionnaire was
complemented by a number of 21 telephone and
face to face interviews, run with some of those
psychologists who at questionnaire completion
had said that they would be available for such
an interview.
We will quickly review some of the findings
of this study and we will try to share some of our
thoughts about where we are and the place where
we probably should aspire to be.
Before anything, however, a mention: this
study aims to be as objective and free from
partisanship image as possible, of how the
psychologist work in this field in Romania today.
However, we wish to draw attention that like any
other study of this kind, this one is also
imperfect. Despite the large volume of the
sample and its balanced composition in terms of
geographical origin of participants, its limits are
Editorial
given by the voluntary nature of participation, by

the fact that no method of sampling has been
applied and by the fact that the data were selfreported by the participants. The study itself is
absolutely free from any blame to individuals or
institutions. Its interpretation is something else: it
belongs to you and we hope that each one of you
will draw important conclusions from the data.
Participants. The study was run on N =
812 psychologists, active non-exclusively in the
field of work and organizational psychology. A
number of 169 (21%) are male and 643 (79%)
are female. The minimum age is 22 and the
maximum age is 62 years, with a mean age of
M = 35.98 (SD = 8.78). Work experience in the
field of work and organizational psychology, as
stated by the participants, is between 0 and 35
years (M = 5.99, SD = 5.29).
Relationship with the Board of Psychology
(Copsi). Of the participants 289 (36%) are not
registered in the Board of Psychology (Copsi)
and among these only one third intend to take
this certification in the future. Therefore, we
have in Romania an important segment of
psychologists active in WOP, who are not
registered in the Board. A percentage of 22%
out of all participants are registered with the
Board and practice under supervision, 27%
practice autonomously, and 6% are registered
as supervisors.
Of the 523 participants who are registered
with the Board, 51% have not paid and do not
pay their yearly dues on time. Almost all those
interviewed in the qualitative follow-up phase
have said that they will no longer pay any of
these fees. However, most if not all of these
participants were involved in the past in the
activities of the Board. A percentage of 41% of
all the participants attended the local elections
of the representatives in the area were they
practice while 21% state that they were electors
in at least one of the two past occasions at the
National Convention in Bucharest. Given this
context, we believe that we see a pronounced
tendency to decrease involvement with the
activities of the Board of Psychology (Copsi).
The degree of satisfaction regarding the
activity of the Board is extremely low. Only 3%
of the participants declare that they are very
satisfied by the Board. A percentage of 49%
state that they are dissatisfied or very
dissatisfied. The activity of the Boards
Committee for Work and Organizational
Psychology is assessed with a very slightly
more positive trend, but still extremely negative

only 3% declare that they are very satisfied by
the activity of this committee, while 40%
declare that they are unsatisfied or very
unsatisfied.
The simple majority of psychologists who
participated in this study (57%) believe that for
the next elections we need radical changes in
the Board, in people and strategy. Only 11% of
the participants consider that we need
continuity in both people and strategy. The
remaining participants lean toward some form
of change in either people or strategy. Those
points of view seem to be convergent with the
decreasing desire for involvement and the low
degree of satisfaction noted above.
Current work and career plans. About half
of the psychologists active in WOP are
employed in various companies, based on a
contract for an indefinite period (57%). The
overwhelming majority of those who are not
members of the Board, are part of this category.
Therefore, the Board failed to capture their
interest or to establish a role for itself in the
perception of psychologists active as Human
Resources specialists in companies.
Most of those employed work in private
companies (66%) the time when the State was
the largest employer of psychologists in our
field seems to have passed. However, 23% of
those employed work in budgetary institutions,
among these we may mention the fact that the
defense and public order system stands out.
Just over a quarter (28%) of the
participants are entrepreneurs (self-employed),
but they prefer to work through self-owned
companies (SRL), and only 6% work through a
psychological practice established according to
the rules of the Board.
The way WOP psychologists come to be
employed is unusual when compared with the
typical approach, which says that in order to get
a job one would need to send out resumes or act
through a placement agency. In order to have a
job, the greatest percentage of those who
participated in the present survey (28%) have
opened up their own businesses and another
15% said they were contacted by the current
employer. A percentage of 12% contacted their
employer, 4% were placed by private placement
companies an not even a psychologist in our
sample found employment through public
placement agencies (ex: AJOFM).
13
Editorial
Over 36% of the participants say that they

have no clear career plan outlined for the next
few years.
Participants who have given this response
are in their great majority psychologists
working autonomously, progressing somehow
inertial, without a clearly formulated purpose,
or beginners (supervised psychologists) who are
not convinced that this profession can provide a
career.
Nearly two-thirds (61%) of the participants
say they are proud or very proud of their
profession as a psychologist. A percentage of
18% of the participants consider they are
unsatisfied by the professional choice made
when they chose WOP as a profession. The
overwhelming majority of them are young
professionals who do not see any perspectives
in this area. A percentage of 33% of the
respondents intend to change their professional
field in the future, mainly in other areas of
psychology, but 15% of them will leave the
profession completely.
Work and income. About one quarter of the
respondents (25%) work exclusively in the the
area of work and organizational psychology
with 40 or more hours per week. Almost half of
the participants (49%) are active in this area
less than 20 hours per week (30% even less
than 10 hours). Other fields where they are
active are, in descending order, psychological
counseling (14%), clinical psychology (13%) or
traffic psychology (11%). The domain in which
they practice most actively apart from WOP is
completely outside of psychology: 32% of the
work of these psychologists has nothing to do
with psychology.
Most of the work of psychologists
specialised in WOP is occupied by
psychological assessment; on average about
58% (consolidated index) of the work is
assigned to assessment and the remaining 42%
to psychological intervention. In assessment,
60% of participating psychologists mainly use
quantitative
methods
and
40%
use
predominantly qualitative methods.
The average net income for this sample is
2413 RON per month. About one tenth (9%) of
the participants earn less than 500 RON per
month and almost a quarter (23%) earn less
than 1000 RON per month. This is absolutely
critical and is only partly counterbalanced by
the tenth (11%) of the participants who earn
over 4500 RON per month (i.e. over 1000
14
Euro). Only about 38% of this income

(SD = 36) is earned by the respondents
exclusively from their activity in WOP.
It seems that most of these psychologists
gain contracts through recommandations and
through direct contact with potential clients
(39%). Basically, the competencies related to
advertising, marketing
and sales are
acknowledged as weaknesses by psychologists
specialised in WOP, which is why few actually
have any personal promotion strategy and are
limited to tactical behavior. However, work
well done and their relationship with former
clients (relationships which are kept alive by
60% of respondents) are able to ensure a base
of loyal customers who use their services
constantly (63%).
Education. A small number of participants
have graduated before 1989 (5%). About 15%
of them are graduates of the first five classes
from after 1989 and 66% of the participants
have graduated during the past 10 years.
Although the numbers of graduates from
psychology programmes in private universities
are higher than those typical for public
universities, it seems that the graduates of
private universities are not so active in the
profession for which they were trained. In our
sample, 67% of the participants have graduated
from a state university.
A percentage of 26% only have university
studies, 67.1% have graduated or are currently
in a master programme and 5.4% of the
participants have doctoral studies, completed or
ongoing. This shows an interests for formal
academic training and for achieving a higher
level of certification.
Psychologists active in WOP do not exhibit
much interest for continuous professional
development. Most of them are kept up to date
with changes in their professional field by the
following methods: 66% get the news from
discussions with colleagues, 87% by visiting
websites and 73% from various newsletters
they receive. Only 3% go frequently to
scientific conferences and only 5% read, even
once in a while, scientific journals. In principle
61.5% say they don't read scientific journals
and only 6% read more than five such
magazines a year.
When they consult different sources of
information (magazines, books, professional
websites) the majority (81%) focuses on
sources from Romania.
Editorial
For most of those psychologists working

under supervision, continuous training means
being supervised. For those who are not directly
pressured towards continuous training any
longer, the main form of training is going to
workshops, and this is followed by auditioning
conferences, and only after that by presenting at
conferences. The proportion between these
three activities is 45:33:20. In other words,
psychologists prefer to attend workshops or
look at other people presenting, rather than
creating such presentations themselves.
The number of hours assigned to
continuous development after graduation is
between 0 and 6000 with an average of 445
(SD = 753). In the past 12 months, this number
is placed between 0 and 1500 hours (M = 132,
SD = 237). The number is nearly three times
higher in psychologists practicing under
supervision than for the rest of the participants
and is less than a tenth in those participants who
are also supervisors. In other words, the average
supervisor has dedicated during the past year
fewer than 15 hours for his professional
development.
Continuous professional education is the
greatest burden for young psychologists.
Participants at this survey declare that since
graduating their last form of education, they
have spent a total average of 8163 RON
(SD = 11464 RON) for these activities. For the
past 12 months the average is 3431 RON
(SD = 8267). Only for 9.6% of the participants
is the employer bearing the full costs associated
with these activities; for 18% of them the costs
are beared by both sides, but nearly 70% of the
psychologists have to pay these costs
themselves.
For those psychologists working under
supervision, satisfaction with the competence of
their supervisor prevails. A number of 34%
assessed the competence of their supervisor as
very good. At the same time, the total
percentage of those satisfied or very satisfied,
i.e 50.4%, hardly reaches the majority criterion.
At the same time, there are 18% who are
unsatisfied of very unsatisfied by the
competence of their supervisor. Supervisor
involvement is assessed slightly worse and 20%
of participants are unsatisfied or very
unsatisfied by the involvement of their
supervisor.
On average, those who have to take
supervision, take a total of 4 hours of
supervision per month (SD = 9). The average

cost per supervisory meeting is 118 RON
(SD = 49). On average a person under
supervision spends 493 RON a month just for
supervision.
Self-reported competency. Only 2% of the
participants
consider
themselves
very
competent in their work and only 3% consider
to be extremely incompetent. However, most
are not placed on the average, but 59% are, if
not very good, at least good and competent
for a wide range of activities which they do.
A percentage of 65% of the participants
know about the competencies developed by
APIO for the Board's WOP committee, which
shows that they are up to date with professional
criteria. However, 35% of the participants in the
study have never heard of this list - half of them
are supervisors and a significant part
supervised.
Self-assessment of their own competencies
by this list shows high scores for competencies
such as Assessment of individuals (73%) or
Providing verbal feedback (71%) and
relatively low scores for competencies such as
Product design. For the secondary
competencies, a relatively strong point seems to
be Professional relationships(67%) and weak
points seem to be Sales and Marketing (46%)
or Research and Development (51%).
With regard to their own competence in
comparison with existing norms and standards,
compliance with national standards is much
better assessed than compliance with
international standards. Only 3% of the
participants consider themselves to be fully
compliant with international requirements for
the WOP domain.
Conclusions
These data show a few pleasant things and
a whole many worrisome things.
The Good... Let's start with the good. We
have at this moment in Romania mostly
graduates of the new generation (after the
Revolution), most of them graduates of public
educational institutions, who have followed at
least one additional MA programme. It's not so
bad, right?
(Of course, as a secondary conclusion, we
can comment about the lack of efficiency of
private educational institutions, not necessarily
in terms of competence, but at least in terms of
15
Editorial
insertion of their graduates in the labor

market.)
Most psychologists specialized in WOP
work in private companies and a significant
percentage hold shares in the company where
they work these are probably small companies
or private practices in psychology. Only a small
number of psychologists are working in private
practices in psychology, registered after the
precepts of Copsi. A too small number of
psychologists have that entrepreneurial spirit
that would be expected from a liberal
profession the majority are satisfied with the
status of an employee. Well, yes, it starts to be
not so positive.
The Bad... Most psychologists specialized
in WOP have a very low income. The average
income, although small, is still significantly
placed above the average net income for the
Romanian economy, as reported for 2012 by
the
National
Institute
for
Statistics.
Psychologists from smaller cities earn radically
less than psychologists from large cities or from
Bucharest. We see a major lack of professional
competence in areas which could help
psychologists to earn better, for example Sales
and marketing, Business management, etc. And
obviously no training in these fields is
acknowledged and credited by the Board of
Psychology (Copsi).
As if this low income is not enough, we
also see an extremely high financial pressure
caused by the regulations of the Board of
Psychology (Copsi). The need to accumulate a
number of credits is particularly a pressure for
younger members of the profession, i.e. exactly
those who earn the least. For over 80% of the
psychologists who participated in this study the
training needed for passing to professional
autonomy costs more per month than their
monthly income.
16
And the Ugly... Psychologists, especially

young ones, have become a captive consumer
for... psychologists, particularly for those who
have managed to place themselves in a positive
relationship with Copsi. In interviews the
respondents gave us examples of supervisors
who no longer earn their income practicing, but
only supervising. Unfortunately, a part of this
pressure is only formal. A part of those who
provide training only mime that they develop
the competence of those trained. Trainings are
expensive, classrooms are filled, the money
comes in. But of course that hearing a
presentation or attending a workshop without
being actively involved does not increase the
competency of a young psychologists. The
criterion for receiving credits has became
"hours spent", not an increment in knowledge
or competencies. And too few such workshops
are completed with an examination or a review
of the knowledge, skills and competences
acquired in those few hours, no matter how
informal such a review would be. We believe
for all these reasons that this system, as it is
now, with pressure put on a single category,
with a relatively small number of people who
take advantage of a captive audience, without
the regulator to protect or compensate somehow
the effort of this audience, is a mistake and
should be corrected.
I am convinced that this survey will be an
objective base for various policies in the
coming years. I am convinced that such
proposals could come from all of us. Probably
during the 13th Edition of the National
Conference of Industrial and Organizational
Psychology, which will take place in Brasov at
the end of April we will have the opportunity to
discuss some of the steps which we have to
take, to be true to our responsibility for all
psychologists specialized in WOP in Romania.
What does the Romanian workaholic look like? A first glimpse into the
links between workaholism and employee characteristics;
a validation attempt of DUWAS scale
Andreea Butucescu1, Lavinia C. Usctescu2
Abstract
The primary objective of this study was to explore the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of
the Romanian employee, and see whether these traits might also favor workaholism. In order to do that, a
validation of a workaholism assessment tool was necessary. For the purpose of the present study, DUWAS
(Dutch Work Addiction Scale) was chosen, as it captures core concepts related to workaholism and is hence
widely accepted as a suitable tool. Preliminary results show a suitable validation and a real potential for the use
of DUWAS in future studies, in Romania. Moreover, the study also brings forth interesting findings related to
the link between demographic and socio-economic employee characteristics and a predisposition to
workaholism.
Keywords: workaholism, DUWAS, Romanian employee, demographic and socio-economic characteristics
Resum
L'objectif principal de cette tude tait d'examiner les caractristiques socio-conomiques et
dmographiques du salari roumain, et voir si ces traits pourrait galement favoriser làddiction au travail. Pour
ce faire, une validation d'un outil d'valuation dàddiction au travail tait ncessaire. Aux fins de la prsente
tude, DUWAS (Dutch Work Addiction Scale) a t choisi, car il surprend les concepts cl lis au drogue du
travail et est donc largement accept comme un outil acceptable. Les rsultats prliminaires montrent une
validation satisfaisante et un rel potentiel de l'utilisation de DUWAS dans les tudes prochaines, en Roumanie.
Par ailleurs, l'tude relve aussi des rsultats intressants concernant les caractristiques dmographiques et
socio-conomique des employs,qui metent ces hommes en danger de devenir drogus du travail.
Mots cls: addiction au travail, DUWAS, salari roumain, caractristiques dmographiques et socioconomique
Rezumat
Principalul obiectiv al acestui studiu const n investigarea caracteristicilor socio-economice i demografice
ale angajailor romni pentru a vedea dac acestea pot influena aparita fenomenului de workaholism. Pentru a
realiza acest lucru, a fost necesar validarea unui instrument de evaluare a workaholismului. DUWAS (Dutch
Work Addiction Scale) este scala asupra creia ne-am concentrat n acest studiu. Rezultatele preliminare
sugereaz o traducere i adaptare adecvat, ceea ce o recomand pentru viitoare studii n Romnia. Mai mult
dect att, cercetarea de fa exploreaz legturile dintre statutul socio-economic i caracterisitici demografice cu
predispoziia spre workaholism.
Cuvinte cheie: workaholism, DUWAS, angajai romni, caracteristici socio-economice i demografice
1
2
Ovidius University, Corresponding address: andreea.butucescu@gmail.com

Babe-Bolyai University
17
characteristics; a validation attempt of DUWAS
Introduction
Over the years, important changes relating
to the work environment have occurred. The
emergence of multinational companies as well as
of a vaster array of career opportunities,
combined with the technological development,
are just some of the defining traits of our modern
society. These factors have also greatly
contributed to the occurrence of workaholism all
over the world, as well as in Romania.
Researchers` interest towards workaholism
has continually increased, especially in the
western societies. It all started 41 years ago,
when Wayne Oates coined the term workaholism
and tried to define its meaning. Nevertheless,
various studies have reached different, or even
contradictory conclusions on this matter. In
Romania, the term workaholism has mostly been
propagated by the mass-media, being advertised
as rather a trendy term than a proper scientific
construct. This is all the most surprising
considering the fact that no further than five
years ago a young female manager died from
what doctors diagnosed as overwork. Although
her case drew great public attention, the
Romanian researchers` and occupational health
specialists` interest to the subject of workaholism
and its assessment has remained extremely
reduced, compared to their western counterparts.
To our knowledge, there has been no other
attempt to either create or adapt a tool to
measure workaholism in the Romanian work
environment.
The present study brings several important
contributions to the area of occupational health
by: (a) adapting, for the first time on the
Romanian population, an instrument designed to
assess the risk of overworking; (b) identifying
relevant demographic and socio-economic data
(i.e. education, income, gender etc.) that might
be associated with a higher risk for workaholism,
as well as with workaholism-related traits (i.e.
anxiety,
mania,
intolerance,
obsessivecompulsiveness).
Workaholism: Definition and
Conceptualization
Workaholism, as coined by Wayne Oates
(1971) from the term alcoholism, was originally
defined as a compulsive need to work without
any interruption. The term and its meaning
became so empirically relevant, that nowadays it
is part of our routine vocabulary. An important
18
aspect which made the term increasingly

appealing to the public was the lack of separation
between work and private life (Sorensen and
Feldman, 2007). Although workaholism, as a
scientific construct, has had a period of over 40
years of development, contradictions still exist
regarding its meaning. One reason for this could
reside in its nature, while another reason is more
concerned with its health-related value. First of
all, confusion regarding its nature comes from
the
existence
of
several
different
conceptualizations: as a personality trait, that
shows stability over one`s life course; as a
learned behavior, that tends to manifest itself in
certain organizations or cultures; as a disorder,
similar in manifestations and consequences to
any other type of addiction. Second, it has been
debated whether workaholism is a healthy habit.
Older approaches argue that it is a positive
phenomenon because it derives from the love of
work (Cantarow, 1979; Machlowitz, 1980;
Sprankle and Ebel , 1987). On the contrary,
recent opinions on this subject tend to view
workaholism as unhealthy, more likely
belonging to the same category as other types of
addictions. What is more, this last approach
argues that workaholism leads to unhappiness,
obsession, lack of performance at work and even
difficulties with co-workers.
Conceptual differences
Working hard versus Workaholism
In spite of the conceptual differences, there
is a consensus regarding the fact that workaholic
persons spend most of their time working.
However, researchers insist on clarifying the fact
that having a work addiction is fundamentally
different from simply working hard. There is
nothing wrong with being passionate about one`s
work, if one gets more involved when something
needs to be done in a shorter period of time, or if
one feels proud about one`s professional
accomplishments.
Workaholics` lives differ from these in that
they feel a total lack of control; they are unable
to slow down, not even in order to enjoy the
results of their own work. Workaholism is
mostly associated with an increased number of
working hours. It is, however, much more than
that. Workaholism is rather similar to an
addiction, an obsessive-compulsive disorder, and
is much more than working hard or working for
many hours (Robinson, 2000). Their obsession
with work occupies their entire time, which
prevents them from maintaining a healthy social

life, or a healthy lifestyle in general (Tuck,
2003).
It is somewhat understandable why it is
difficult to differentiate between working hard
and working too much, between being and not
being addicted to work. That is because work is
usually seen as a virtue. Those who do not work
hard are generally disrespected by society. In
contrast, diligent workers are praised or
rewarded. Work recognition often plays the role
of social and personal validation in an
individual`s life.
Work engagement versus Workaholism
Dutch researchers (Schaufeli and Bakker,
2003) have generally agreed that workaholism
can be either good or bad. Thus, in order to
obtain a conceptual clarification, it has been
suggested to replace the concept of good
workaholism with that of engagement and the
concept of bad workaholism with that of
workaholism (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2003).
Employees engaged in their activity work more
intensely, are happy and absorbed in their tasks,
and may seem a lot similar to the workaholics.
However, in contrast to the latter, employees
engaged in their activity work hard because they
like it, or due to external factors such as financial
rewards, career perspectives etc., and not
because they are driven by an inner impulse they
cannot resist (Bakker, Schaufeli, Leiter, and
Taris, 2008).
Gorgievski and Bakker (2010) consider that
both work engagement and workaholism refer to
being passionate about work, the major
difference between the two residing in the
motivation that drives each of them. Thus, on
one hand, there is the harmonious passion,
when an individual is in control of the activities,
and feels rewarded by his/her work. On the other
hand, there is the obsessive passion, when an
individual is controlled by his/her work and only
thinks about avoiding guilt, frustration, and other
negative emotions (Vallerand, 2008).
Workaholism assessment
challenges
Workaholism assessment comes no easier
than its conceptualization. A first attempt in this
respect was undergone by Spence and Robbins
(1992), who created the Workaholism Battery
(WorkBat). The basis for this instrument resides
in three main characteristics of a workaholic:

being heavily involved in work, motivated by an
inner drive, and at the same time feeling reduced
enjoyment for one`s work. Some conflicting
view about the usefulness of the WorkBat still
exist, although it is, at present, the most
frequently used instrument of this sort. Several
studies have reported that the work involvement
subscale did not show appropriate psychometric
properties. Another important critic was related
to the enjoyment of work subscale, which some
authors do not consider a core feature of
workaholism.
Another workaholism assessment tool was
developed by Robinson (1999), who closely
observed a group of members from Workaholic
Anonymous. He reached the conclusion that
workaholism has the following characteristics:
(1) Compulsive Tendencies, which refer to
intense working and difficulties relaxing after
work; (2) Lack of control, which refers to being
unable to wait for something, or someone, or
about being unable to tolerate not doing
something in the desired way; (3) Impaired
Communication/Self-Absorption, which could
be explained as the tendency to rate work as
more important than anything else, at the cost of
social interactions; (4) Inability to Delegate, and
(5) Self-Worth, when the individual considers
the results of his/her work to be more interesting
than work itself. Based on these observations,
the Work Addiction Risk Test (WART) was
developed. Nevertheless, critics argued that it
tends to rely on type A behaviors, therefore
referring to daily aspects of an individual`s life
rather than to work-related characteristics
(McMillan, O`Driscoll, Marsh and Brady, 2001).
From a theoretical perspective, workaholics
are considered to spend a great deal of time on
work-related activities, being also obsessed with
their work. Based on these characteristics, the 20
item Dutch Workaholism Scale (DUWAS) was
created by Taris and Schaufeli (2003). The
DUWAS has two essential dimensions, namely,
Working Excessively (WE) and Working
Compulsively (WC). WE (items 3, 4, 6, 8, 11,
13, 14, 17, and 19) originated from WART and
stands for the Control Tendencies factor, while
WC (items 2, 5, 7, 9, 12, 15, and 18) originated
from WorkBat and stands for the Drive factor.
DUWAS also contains an Overwork (items 1,
10, 16, and 20) dimension, in order to determine
the actual duration of one`s work. Four more
items determine the length of time one spends
19
working. Data show that the DUWAS has good

psychometric properties (Schaufeli, Taris, and
Bakker, 2006; Schaufeli, Taris, and van Rhenen,
2008).
A fourth scale, the Work Attitudes and
Behaviors Inventory (WABI), was elaborated by
Senholzi (2008). The WABI includes five scales
measuring: anxiety, obsessive-compulsiveness,
mania, intolerance, and self-doubt. The anxiety
scale comprises questions regarding a series of
physical health-related items (i.e. exhaustion,
headaches, mood swings, and forgetfulness). The
obsessive-compulsiveness scale includes items
pertaining to: amount of time spent working and
thinking about work, and difficulty relaxing. The
mania scale includes items regarding one`s
organization skills, multitasking abilities, and
time spent planning the future. The intolerance
scale refers to perfectionism, intolerance of
mistakes, and dissatisfaction with the work of
others. The self-doubt scale contains items
regarding negative self-attitudes and lack of time
to complete tasks. The total number of items
contained in the WABI amounts to 70, yet a
shorter version, with 25 items, has also been
used.
The DUWAS was the focus of the present
study, and it was preferred over WART and
WorkBat, for several reasons. First of all, the
WART lacks items referring to the underlying
motivation of working hard (Del Libano,
Llorens, Salanova, and Schaufeli, 2010). Second,
the WorkBat failed to contain the three factors
considered to be central to workaholism: work
involvement, work enjoyment and inner drive to
work (Kanai, Wakabayashi, and Fling, 1996;
McMillan, Brady, ODriscoll, and Marsh, 2002).
These characteristics are, above all, considered
to be core components of the construct, as one
definition presents workaholism as a negative
psychological state characterized by working
excessively due essentially to an internal drive
that cannot be resisted (Salanova, Del Libano,
Llorens, Schaufeli & Fidalgo, 2008, p. 1, apud
Del Libano et al., 2010).
The present study had, thus, two major
objectives. The first was to verify the
psychometric properties of the DUWAS on the
Romanian population. The second objective was
to identify the relations between certain traits
that might be associated with workaholism
(Anxiety, Obsessive-Compulsiveness, Mania,
Intolerance), a series of demographic
characteristics (type of institution, income,
20
gender, sex, marital status, education), and three

workaholism components (i.e. WC, WE, and
combined workaholics/CW a cumulated
dimension resulting from the summation of WC
and WE).
Method
Participants
Sample 1
For the linguistic validation of the DUWAS,
34 volunteers were recruited. All of them were
bilingual speakers. The sample comprised 15
males and 19 females, and had an age range
between 21 and 45 years old.
Sample 2
For the construct validity, a total number of
137 participants voluntarily took part in the
study. The questionnaires were completed via
internet by 32 of them, while for 105
participants, printed questionnaires were used.
Of all participants, 64 were males, and 72 were
females. This sample was also asked to answer
several questions regarding socio-economic and
demographic aspects. Thus, 33.8 % reported
working in the public sector, while 65.4 %
reported working in the private sector. Further
on, 2.9 % reported having only secondary school
education, 25 % having graduated from high
school, 53 % participants reported having
graduated from university, and 32.4 % reported
having post-university education. The income
varied from 100 to more than 1000 Euros/month.
Regarding their marital status, 60.3 % of the
participants were married, 34.6 % have never
been married, while 5.1 % reported being
divorced. All the participants were middle-aged
adults.
Measures
For the present study, the 20-item version of
the DUWAS was applied. The responses are
scored on a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from
totally disagree to totally agree. For each of the
subscales, the total score is calculated first by
adding the scores on all the items from the
respective subscale, and then by dividing the
sum by the number of items contained in the
subscale.
A 25-item version of the WABI was also
administered. It contains only the first four
factors (anxiety, obsessive-compulsiveness,
mania, and intolerance), and was previously
translated and adapted on the Romanian

population by Cotrl (2006). The items are
Never true to Always true.
Procedure
In order to obtain a good linguistic

validation of the DUWAS, the translation - backtranslation procedure was used. The translation
procedure followed the International Test
Commission Guidelines (Van de Vijver &
Hambleton, 1996; Hambleton, Merenda, and
Spielberger, 2005). The scale items were
translated from English into Romanian by two
translators, after which another one translated the
Romanian
version
back
into
English
(retroversion). The English items obtained
following the retroversion were compared to the
original English items, as recommended by
Brislin (1970). The equivalence of the translated
version to the original measure was evaluated
using the bilingual test retest method (Butcher
and Gur, 1974). In order to do that, bilingual
speakers were recruited. The English and
Romanian versions of the DUWAS were
applied, in this order, with a 10 days period in
between. Before completing the measures,
participants were informed about the
confidentiality of the data. Participants
completed both versions of the DUWAS
anonymously, being asked to provide a code that
would allow them to identify their responses.
The entire procedure was completed online.
Next, for the construct validation, both printed
and electronic versions of the scales were used.
What is more, another workaholism scale, the
WABI, was also applied. The participants were
also asked to provide a series of demographic
data (i.e. type of institution, income, gender, sex,
marital status, and education).
At first, steps were taken in order to verify

the linguistic equivalence of the two versions.
Afterwards, the psychometric properties of the
Romanian version of the DUWAS were verified,
as well as the temporal stability of the translated
instrument. Further on, construct validity and
reliability were verified. Eventually, with the
help of the data collected with the WABI, traits
related to workaholism (anxiety, obsessivecompulsiveness, mania, intolerance) were also
accounted for, and later used in the analysis. In
the end, three components of workaholism were
taken into consideration: working compulsively,
working excessively and combined workaholics.
Results
Objective 1. Assessing the psychometric
properties of the DUWAS
In order to verify that the two linguistic

versions of the DUWAS are equivalent, two
approaches were chosen. On one hand, the
difference between the two versions was
assessed using a paired samples t-test, with the
presumption that no significant difference will be
found. On the other hand, by performing
Spearman correlations, the presumption that the
two linguistic versions would be strongly
associated was tested.
To assess the stability of the translated
DUWAS, a paired samples t-test was performed,
on the English (M = 47.44, SD = 8.81) and
Romanian (M = 47.17, SD = 8.83, t = -2.58, p =
.79) scores. The results show no significant
difference between the two linguistic forms,
therefore the data support the equivalence
between the Romanian translation and the
original, English version (See Table1).
Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and t Tests for the English and Romanian Versions of the DUWAS
Scale
DUWAS
En version
Mean
SD
47.44
8.81
The next step was to determine the temporal

stability of the translated DUWAS by correlating
the scores obtained from the administration of
English and Romanian versions of the DUWAS.
The Spearman product-moment correlation
Ro version
Mean SD
47.17
8.83
t- test
-2.58
Sig.
.79
coefficient of these scores was highly significant,

and confirms good test-retest reliability. The
same was true for all item pairs correlations (See
Table 2 & 3).
21
Table 2 Test-Retest Reliability of the DUWAS

DUWAS Ro
DUWAS En
Spearman Correlation
Sig.
N
.69**
.00
34
**p < .01

Table 3 Spearman Correlations per Item Pairs
English Romanian pair for item no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
* p < .05. ** p < .01.
The internal consistency for the English and

Romanian versions of the DUWAS was tested
by calculating Cronbach` Alpha. Both
.03 (p=.867)
.62**
.52**
.71**
.60**
.68**
.44**
.43**
.53**
.71**
.56**
.61**
.64**
.39*
.64**
.68**
.67**
.50**
.63**
.68**
coefficients were quite high: = .82 for the

English version, and = .85 for the Romanian
version (see Table 4).
Table 4 Internal Consistency of the English and Romanian Versions of the DUWAS
Scale
DUWAS English
DUWAS Romanian
Cronbach's Alpha
.82
.85
In order to assess the convergent validity of

the DUWAS, the relation between workaholism
and the Overwork dimensions was explored. As
shown by the Pearson correlations performed;

WE showed a stronger correlation with OW (r =
.53, p < .01), than did WC (r = .46, p < .01).
Table 5. Pearson Correlations between Working Excessively, Working Compulsivelly,

Combined Workaholism, and Overwork
WE
WC
CW
OW
** p < .01.
22
WE
WC
CW
OW
.77**
.96**
.53**
.91**
.46**
.53**
Further on, correlations between the

workaholism scores obtained from the two
instruments were performed. There was a
significant, considerable association between the
two (r = .43, p < .01).
used separately in all the three models were:

Working Compulsively Workaholics (WC),
Working Excessively Workaholics (WE), and
Combined
Workaholics
(CW;
Working
Compulsively and Working Excessively taken
together). The independent variables used in all
the three models were: type of institution (public
sector versus private sector), monthly income,
marital status, education, sex, anxiety, mania,
intolerance, obsessive-compulsiveness.
A regression analysis was performed, in
which workaholic behavioral patterns, namely
CW, WC, and WE were regressed on nine
predictors: type of institution (public sector
versus private sector), monthly income, marital
status, education, sex, anxiety, mania,
Table 6 reveals that in the case of the
dependent variables, the F- ratio is significant at
p < .01, and the value of the adjusted R-square
explains .23 %, .25 %, and .17 % respectively of
the total variance.
Objective 2: verifying the association

between workaholism and demographic,
and socio-economic data
Due to the exploratory nature of this

objective, an increased number of analyses were
performed. More precisely, the concept of
workaholism, as measured with both the
DUWAS and the WABI, was verified in the
following associations. Due to the novelty that
workaholism studies represent within the
Romanian work space, the decision to fully
scrutinize its relation to other demographic data
was taken.
Three models were formulated in the
present study. The three dependent variables,
Table 6. The regression analysis, in which 3 criterions (Combined Workaholics, Working Compulsively
Workaholics, and Working Excessively Workaholics) were regressed on nine predictors (type of institution,
monthly income, marital status, education, sex, anxiety, mania, intolerance, Obsessive-Compulsiveness)
Model
workaholics
Variables
Combined Workaholics
Working Compulsively
Working Excessively
Standardized t
Coefficients
Standardized t
Coefficients
Standardized t
Coefficients
(Constant)
Typecof
institution
Education
Sex
Monthly Income
Marital Status
Sig.
1.01 .31
Sig.
1.22 .22
.76
Sig.
.44
.22
2.73 .00
.20
2.56 .01
.21
2.53 .01
-.03
.03
.14
-.04
-.46
.40
1.68
-.60
.64
.69
.09
.54
-.12
.06
.16
-.04
-1.59
.75
2.05
-.54
.11
.45
.04
.58
.02
.01
.10
-.04
.32
.12
1.25
-.57
.74
.90
.21
.56
.76
Anxiety
.04
.41
.67
.06
.52
.60
.03
.30
Mania
.37
3.02 .00
.45
3.67 .00
.29
2.25 .02
-.42
.67
-.08
-.63
.52
-.03
-.23
.81
.86
.38
.07
.53
.59
.13
.98
.32
Intolerance
ObsessiveCompulsiveness
-.05
.11
F Ratio
5.49***
R Square
.28
Adjusted R Square
.23
* p < .05. ** p < .01. ***p < .10.
6.12***
.30
.25
4.15***
.23
.17
23
Important predictions could be inferred from

the resulting relations between the predictors and
the criterions. Namely, the type of institution
(private versus public sector) and mania show a
significant predictive power for all criterions.
Monthly income, on the other hand, only seemed
to be predictive for WC.
Further on, the associations between
workaholism and various socio-economic and
demographic characteristics were explored. It
can be noticed that the probability for someone

to be a workaholic significantly increases for
those employed in the private sector (see
Chart 2). Moreover, after performing an
independent samples t test, a significant
difference was found between the two means (t
(133) = 3.216, p <.01), those working in the
private sector being more likely workaholics (M
= 39.63, SD = 8.45) compared to those working
in the public sector (M = 33.57, SD = 11.25).
Figure 1. The Association between Workaholism (DUWAS) and Type of Institution
The relation between education and

workaholism (as reflected by the responses on
the DUWAS) was also assessed. A one-way
ANOVA showed no significant difference
between the four groups (F = 1.27, p = .28), the
means for each group being: (1) gymnasium
(M = 44); (2) high school (M = 35.29); (3)
university (M = 38.26); (4) post-university
(M = 37.86). Further analysis, however, showed
that the probability for someone to be a
workaholic is inversely associated with the
monthly income (rho = -.17, p = .04).
Correlations between the two dimensions of
the DUWAS (WE and WC), as well as the total
score, and the demographic data (type of
institution, monthly income, marital status,
24
education, sex) as well as the dimensions of the

WABI (Anxiety, Mania, Intolerance, ObsessiveCompulsiveness) were performed. WE was
found to be positively correlated with all the
dimensions of the WABI; Intolerance (r = .31,
p < .01), Mania (r = .39, p < .01), Anxiety
(r = .32, p < .01), Obsessive-Compulsiveness
(r = .38, p < .01). At the same significance
levels, the same was true for WC and:
Intolerance (r = .30), Mania (r = .46), Anxiety
(r = .35),
and
Obsessive-Compulsiveness
(r = .38). Finally, the same was found for the
total score of the DUWAS and: Intolerance
(r = .32), Mania (r = .44), Anxiety (r = .35), and
Obsessive-Compulsiveness (r = .40).
Table 7. Correlations between the two dimensions of the DUWAS (WE and WC), the total score, the
demographic data (type of institution, monthly income, marital status, education, sex), and the dimensions of the
WABI (anxiety, mania, intolerance, obsessive-compulsiveness)
Marital Income Sex Education Instit Intolerence. Mania Anxiety Obsessivestatus
Compulsiveness
**
**
**
**
.04
.04
.06 .08
.26 .31
.39
.32
.38**
Working
Excessively
Pearson
Correlation
Sig.
.57
N
136
Working
Pearson
.05
Compulsively Correlation
Sig.
.50
N
136
Workaholism Pearson
.05
(DUWAS)
Correlation
Sig.
.52
N
136
* p < .05. ** p < .01. ***p < .10.
.61
136
.06
.43 .33
136 135
.10 -.03
.00 .00
135 136
.28** .30**
.00
136
.46**
.00
136
.35**
.00
136
.38**
.48
136
.05
.22 .65
136 135
.08 .03
.00 .00
135 136
.29** .32**
.00
136
.44**
.00
136
.35**
.00
136
.40**
.54
136
.30 .68
136 135
.00 .00
135 136
.00
136
.00
136
.00
136
In the end, nonparametric correlations

between the demographic data and the
dimensions of the WABI were performed (See
Table 8). Results show significant associations
between obsessive-compulsiveness and: marital
status (rho = .17, p <.01), and type of institution
(rho = .21, p < .01). Anxiety correlated

significantly with sex (rho = .23, p < .05), while
mania inversely correlated with monthly income
(rho = -.20, p < .01). Other associations between
the demographic data are shown in Table 8.
Table 8. Nonparametric correlations between the demographic data and the dimensions of the WABI (anxiety,
mania, intolerance, obsessive-compulsiveness)
Variable
Marital Income
status
.21*
Marital status
Monthly income
Sex
Education
Type of institution
Intolerance
Mania
Anxiety
Obsessivecompulsiveness
** p < .05. * p < .01.
Sex
Edu.
Instit.
Intolerance
Mania
Anxiety
.07
-.04
.07
.21*
.17*
.19*
.11
-.02
-.03
.15
-.12
.05
.15
.08
.04
-.20*
.15
.10
.10
.72**
.10
-.06
.23**
.15
.11
.64**
.64**
To further clarify the relations detailed in

Table 8, a series of figures were produced.
Figure 2 shows that the probability that one
is obsessively compulsive about one`s work
increases if one is divorced. However, A
KruskalWallis test was conducted to evaluate
this hypothesis. The results of the test were not
significant, H(2) = 2.48, p = .288, with a mean
rank of 64.25 for the married individuals, 78.57
for the divorced, and 74.41 for those who had
never been married. One possible limit due to
.17*
-.14
.09
.08
.21*
.73**
.71**
.70**
which an effect failed to be statistically visible

might be the reduced number of divorced
respondents (N = 7), compared to those who
reported being married (N = 82), or never
married (N = 47). Thus the means of obsessivecompulsiveness did not differ significantly
among the three groups: (1) married (M =
21.59); (2) divorced (M = 23.43); (3) never
married (M = 23.02). Therefore, we may
conclude that only a tendency is observable that
being divorced increases the probability of being
25
more obsessive-compulsive about one`s work.

Figure 3 shows the relation between
obsessive-compulsiveness and the type of
institution when one works. It can be observed
that the probability of someone acting more
obsessive-compulsive slightly increases for those
who work in the private sector. More precisely,

the people working in the private sector showed a
significantly higher workaholism level (M = 22.8,
SD = 3.53), than those working in the public
sector (M = 20.93, SD = 4.72), t (133) = 2.35,
p = .02.
Figure 2. The relation between obsessive-compulsiveness and marital status, where: 1 = married, 2 = divorced, 3
= never married
Figure 3. The relation between obsessive-compulsiveness and the type of institution
26
Finally, Figure 4 shows the relation between

anxiety and sex. As it can be observed, being
female increases, although slightly, the
probability of feeling anxious about one`s work.
The independent samples t test shows that the
mean anxiety level for the sampled women is

2.04 greater than for the sampled men (t (134) =
2.04, p < .01). The exact values are as follows:
for women (M = 20.42, SD = 3.93), and for men
(M = 18.38, SD = 4.44).
Figure 4. The relation between anxiety and sex
Discussion
The present study had two main objectives:
(1) to assess the psychometric properties of the
DUWAS, and (2) to verify the association
between workaholism, related traits and sociodemographic and economic data. The first step
was to translate and perform a linguistic
validation of the DUWAS. Afterwards, the
convergent validity was tested, with the help of a
second workaholism questionnaire the WABI.
Finally, the relation between workaholism and
various demographic and socio-economic data
were analyzed. This final part of the study was
somewhat more exploratory, considering the fact
that this subject has not yet been investigated
within the Romanian work space. It is for this
purpose that it was decided in favor of a more
extensive approach, for example to also perform
correlations between the demographic and socioeconomic data and workaholism, as measured not
only with the DUWAS, but also with the WABI.
The linguistic equivalence between the

Romanian and the English versions was verified
using a paired-samples t-test. No significant
difference between the two tests was found.
What is more, significant correlations between
the two language versions were found, both
between the global scores, and between the item
pairs. Moreover, the internal consistency of the
Romanian DUWAS was very similar to the
original.
So far, the DUWAS has been translated into
several languages and its psychometric
properties have been tested in Spain (Del Lbano
et al., 2010), Brazil and Japan (Schaufeli,
Bakker, and Van Rhenen, 2009). The results
showed that regardless of the sample used, all
values of Cronbachs alpha met the criterion of
.70 (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994), which is
used as a rule of thumb and can be interpreted as
having sufficient internal consistency. The only
exception was the WC scale in the Japanese
sample, whose value was slightly below the
criterion ( = .68). All the aforementioned results
27
support the fact that the Romanian version of the

DUWAS met the prior standards and can be
considered successful and was included in a
subsequent construct validity procedure.
For this second purpose, another
workaholism scale was used - the WABI.
Significant correlations were found between the
two sets of data, both between the final scores
and between the individual components. These
results are in accordance with previous studies
(Schaufeli et al., 2008), and support the view that
the more a person is a workaholic, the more time
and effort will be invested in one`s work.
Another important finding supporting a good
validity of the Romanian version of the DUWAS
is that WE, compared to WC, was more strongly
correlated with OW. These results have
previously been found on very large samples of
over 7,500 Dutch and 3,311 Japanese employees
(Schaufeli et al., 2009). All correlations between
workaholism (WE and WC) and OW were
positive and significant. WE was more strongly
associated with OW than WC in both samples (r
between .23 and .53, p < .001). Moreover, the
same relation was also found in the present
study, which shows that, on one hand, the
Romanian version of the DUWAS can be
trustfully used , and on the other hand, the
relation between WE and OW is generalizable to
the Romanian work environment.
Having, thus, successfully validated the
Romanian version of the DUWAS, the relation
between workaholism (as measured with both
scales) and different socio-demographic and
economic data was assessed. Both scales were
equally used in this endeavor.
Those working in the private sector seemed
more likely to be workaholics (according to the
data collected with the DUWAS), compared to
those working in the public sector. Although
workaholics feel compelled to work unhealthily
long hours because of internal pressures, some
studies have shown that there are some variables
that can foster or, on the contrary, prevent this
form of maladaptation. For example, regarding
the type of institution (i.e. either public or private
sector), some claim that there is no relation to
workaholism (Morgan, 1998), while many more
argue that there are organizations which can
precipitate or maintain the workaholic behaviors
of their employees (Fassel, 1990; Porter, 1996;
Schaef and Fassel, 1988).
Data from this study also showed that the
lower someone`s income, the higher the
28
probability of being workaholic (as assessed

with the WABI). This result supports some
indications in the literature concerning the role of
economic motivators for working. Money plays
an important role in the life of most people
(Lawler, 1971), and financial earnings are as
important as ever (Haywood et al.,1989). Oates
(1971) also stated that those who grew up in
economically deprived environments, would be
more likely to become workaholic adults. In fact,
interviews with some of the workaholics`
children actually showed that they believed the
reason for their parents` workaholism was
poverty. Regarding income, three main
arguments have dominated the literature;
workaholics either earn more, or less, or income
is in no respect linked to workaholism. A study
by Burke (2001b, apud. Schaufeli, 2008.)
revealed no evidence to support the relation
between income increases and either career
satisfaction or workaholic behaviors. However,
Scott, Moore, and Miceli (1997, apud. Harpaz
and Snir, 2003) explicitly state that workaholics
work beyond what is reasonably expected to
meet basic economic needs. Income was found
to be significant (p < .05) and negatively
correlated with CW and WC workaholics
(Sharma & Sharma, 2011). A Canadian General
Social Survey found that 38% of the
respondents, who also had an income of over
$100,000 per year, described themselves as
workaholics, compared to only 23% who made
under $10,000 annually (Hamermesh and
Slemrod, 2008).
In the present study, dimensions of the
WABI also showed interesting associations with
some demographic data, such as being divorced.
Robinson and Post (1997) have also found that
workaholics tend to have more dysfunctional
families. Moreover, increased workaholism has
been linked to increased problem coping
difficulties,
communication
difficulties,
decreased
emotional
involvement
and
dysfunctional couple dynamics. Even if having a
work addiction seems to impact aspects of one`s
life which are unrelated to work, there is no
evidence to suggest that workaholism favors a
higher divorce rate (Burke, 2000b). Things are
even more complicated when considering a
comparison between married and single
individuals. Harpaz and Snir (2003), analyzing a
three-way interaction of gender by marital status,
found that married women worked fewer hours
per week than unmarried women, while married
men worked more hours per week than

unmarried men. Moreover, Doerfler and
Kammer (1986) had previously shown that most
single workaholics are women, while workaholic
women tend to be more masculine.
In the present study, sex differences were
also noticed with respect to being anxious about
one`s work. Thus, being a female slightly
increased the probability of being more anxious.
The link between anxiety and workaholism is
more complex, other studies showed anxiety
while relaxing to be associated with
workaholism (Morris & Charney 1983).
Closely related to the issue of clinical
features within the workaholics` spectrum of
characteristics, earning less meant an increased
probability of feeling a state of euphoric
exaltation, hyperactivity and insomnia (the
Mania dimension of the WABI). This seems to
be in line with the view that workaholism can be
conceptualized as an obsession (Fassel, 1990;
Robinson, 1998; Chonko, 1983; Naughton,
1987; Clark, McEwen, Collard and Hickok,
1993), or as mania, referring to features such as
experiencing an excessive fear of inactivity,
feeling the urge to be energetic and
overinvolved, also showing a great enthusiasm
for life (Klaft i Kliener, 1988; Machlowitz,
1980).
Finally, regression analysis showed that the
type of institution where subjects work (private
versus public sector) show a significant
predictive power for: Combined Workaholics
(Working
Compulsively
and
Working
Excessively),
Working
Compulsively
Workaholics, and Working Excessively
Workaholics. Some studies showed that some
organizations can foster workaholism (Fassel,
1990; Porter, 1996; Schaef & Fassel, 1988); the
employees become addicted to the corporation as
a result of income and other benefits (Schaef and
Fassel, 1988). The rewards applied by some
organizations encourage the idea that long,
intense working hours, and the loyalty towards
the organization are very important (Salancik,
1977).
Another predictor mania, seem to support
Trait-Specific Model, according to which
workaholics show hippomanic (Klaft i Kliener,
1988; Machlowitz, 1980). As defined by the
DSM-IV TR, hippomania refers to feeling
increasingly well, while at the same time feeling
no need to sleep, thinking rapidly about different
things and also being very fast in various
activities, all being related or included in one`s

work (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
to be predictive for Working Compulsively.
The main limit of the current study refers to
the characteristics and size of the sample, which
require caution in generalizing these findings.
However, on the whole, the results of the present
study are in agreement with those obtained in
other populations investigated (Schaufeli et al.,
2009).
The present study brings important
contributions to the field of occupational health,
as eastern European participants were included
in the research, thus confirming equivalence for
the concept of workaholism, as proposed by
Schaufeli and previously investigated in Western
cultures and Japan.
In conclusion, the present study was the first
successful attempt to validate a tool designed to
assess workaholism, on the Romanian
population the DUWAS. Although Romanian
occupational health professionals have so far
showed only a limited interest in the subject of
workaholism, hopefully, having a valid
assessment tool will help increase their interest
for this exciting subject.
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Anex
Varianta n romn a scalei DUWAS
Urmtoarele 20 de afirmaii se refer la modul n care v simii la locul de munc. V rugm citii cu atenie fiecare
afirmaie i decidei ct de des simii n acest fel n legtur cu munc dumneavoastr. V rugm indicai pentru
fiecare afirmaie varianta care descrie cel mai bine ct de frecvent v simii n acel mod. De exemplu, dac
niciodat sau aproape niciodat nu v-ai simit n acest fel, ncercuii 1 (unu). Dac ntotdeauna sau aproape
ntotdeauna ai avut acest sentiment, ncercuii 4.
(Aproape) niciodat- 1 Uneori -2 Deseori- 3 (Aproape) ntotdeauna - 4
1. Nu mi place munca n exces.
2. Mi-a dori s nu fiu att de dedicat/ muncii mele.
3. Par s fiu n grab i contra cronometru.
4. Continuu s muncesc chiar i dup ce colegii mei au renunat.
5. Este important pentru mine s muncesc din greu, chiar i atunci cnd nu-mi place ceea ce fac.
6. Stau ocupat/ i lucrez pe mai multe fronturi.
7. M gndesc la munc chiar i atunci cnd vreau s-mi iau, temporar, o pauz.
8. M implic n mai multe lucruri dect pot face.
9. Par s simt un impuls intern de a munci din greu, un sentiment c e ceva ce trebuie s fac, fie c vreau sau nu.
10. Merg la munc i atunci cnd nu m simt bine.
11. Tind s m in sub presiune prin termene limit auto-impuse cnd muncesc.
12. Simt c este ceva n interiorul meu care m face s muncesc din greu.
13. Petrec mai mult timp muncind dect petrecnd timp cu prietenii sau fcnd activiti preferate sau relaxante.
14. M simt vinovat/ atunci cnd nu lucrez la ceva.
15. M simt obligat/ s muncesc din greu, chiar i atunci cnd nu este plcut.
16. Lucrez i n weekend-uri.
31
17. M surprind fcnd dou sau trei lucruri deodat, cum ar fi s iau prnzul i s scriu un e-mail n timp ce
vorbesc i la telefon.
18. M simt vinovat/a atunci cnd iau pauz de la lucru.
19. mi este greu s m relaxez atunci cnd nu muncesc.
20. mi iau de lucru i acas.
Ore de munc
a. Cte ore lucrai pe sptmn n mod oficial?
b. Cte ore lucrai efectiv pe sptmn (incluznd munca peste program)?
b. Ct timp v ia n mod obinuit s ajungei de acas la locul de munc i napoi? *minute
c. Muncesc (v rugm indicai):
c.1. program normal
c.2. n ture
c.2. n ture (dac da):
doar ture de zi
doar ture de noapte
att ture de zi, ct i de noapte
32
Relaia dintre stresul ocupaional, satisfacia n munc i implicarea n munc
Elena Raluca Ciobot1
Abstract
Nowadays the economic situation increases the demands and pressure levels upon the employees, which
eventually affects the organizations efficiency. Thus, understanding the issue of occupational stress is essential
for identifying adequate strategies to manage it. Analysing the relationship between occupational stress and
different attitudinal variables is a constant concern of the researchers in the area of behavioural sciences.
However, the results obtained so far with regards to job satisfaction and work engagement are not satisfactory
since they refer to a small amount of stress sources faced by the employees at work. The current research
analyses the relationship between six occupational stressors, job satisfaction and work engagement. Three
psychometric instruments are used in order to examine the association between the variables and the predictive
values of occupational stress. It is also determined the moderating effect played by demographic variables of the
238 participants included in the research. Statistical data highlight the negative, medium and low correlations
between the subscales of the independent variables and the dependent variables and that certain occupational
stress sources are predictors of the dimensions specific to job satisfaction and work engagement. The results
obtained from the moderating analysis show that five demographic variables have a moderating effect on the
relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction subscales. The employees age, gender and the age
in the organization are unique moderators with regards to the relationship between stress and work engagement.
In conclusion, the research points out the urge of introducing in organizations some stress management
programs, which should consider the employees and job characteristics.
Keywords: occupational stress, job satisfaction, work engagement
Rsum
La situation conomique actuelle augmente les exigences et les pressions qui s'exercent sur les employs, ce
qui finalement fait du mal l'efficacit des organisations. Dans ce contexte, il est essentiel de comprendre les
problmes de stress au travail afin de pouvoir identifier les stratgies appropries le grer. L'analyse de la
relation entre le stress au travail et des variables attitudinales diffrentes reprsente une proccupation constante
des thoriciens dans le domaine des sciences comportementales. Cependant, les rsultats obtenus jusqu' prsent,
se rfrant la satisfaction au travail et l'engagement au travail sont insuffisantes vu qu'ils incluent une zone
limite des sources du stress auxquelles les employs doivent faire face au travail. La prsente tude examine la
relation entre six stresseurs professionnels et la satisfaction au travail et l'engagement au travail. On analyse les
corrlations entre les variables et les valeurs prdictives du stress professionnel l'aide des trois instruments
psychomtriques. On examine aussi l'ffet moderatur des variables dmographiques pour le lot de 238
participants inclus dans la recherche. Les donnes statistiques soulignent l'existence des corrlations ngatives
reduites et moyennes entre les souschelles de la variable indpendente et celles des variables dpendentes et que
certaines sources de stress professionnel constituent des prdicteurs des dimensions specifiques de la satisfaction
au travail et de l'engagement au travail. Les rsultats qui sont issus de l'analyse de modration montrent qu'il y a
cinq variables dmographiques qui modrent la relation entre les souschelles du stress au travail et celles de la
satisfaction. En ce qui concerne la relation entre le stress et l'engagement, l' ge de l'employ, le genre et
l'anciennet de travail sont les seuls qui ont un effet modrateur. Les conclusions de la recherche indiquent la
necessit d'introduire dans les organisations des programmes de gestion du stress ayant en vue les rsultats
obtenus en tenant compte des caractristiques des employs et du lieu du travail.
Mots-cls: stress au travail, satisfaction au travail, engagement au travail

Adresa de corespondenta- raluca.ciobota@yahoo.com
33
Rezumat
Situaia economic actual conduce la creterea solicitrilor i presiunilor care acioneaz asupra
angajailor, ceea ce afecteaz, n final, eficacitatea organizaiilor. n acest context, nelegerea problematicii
stresului ocupaional este esenial pentru a putea identifica strategii de gestionare adecvate. Analiza relaiei
dintre stresul ocupaional i diferite variabile atitudinale reprezint o preocupare constant a cercettorilor din
domeniul tiinelor comportamentale. Totui, rezultatele obinute pn n prezent referitoare la satisfacie n
munc i implicare n munc sunt insuficiente de vreme ce includ o arie restrns de surse de stres cu care
angajaii se confrunt la locul de munc. Studiul de fa investigheaz relaia dintre ase stresori ocupaionali i
satisfacia n munc i implicarea n munc pe populaie romneasc. Sunt analizate corelaiile dintre variabile i
valorile predictive ale stresului ocupaional cu ajutorul a trei instrumente psihometrice. De asemenea, este
examinat efectul de moderare al variabilelor demografice pentru lotul de 238 de participani inclui n cercetare.
Datele statistice evideniaz existena unor corelaii negative, reduse i medii ntre subscalele variabilei
independente i cele ale variabilelor dependente i c anumite surse de stres ocupaional constituie predictori ai
dimensiunilor specifice satisfaciei n munc i implicrii n munc. Rezultatele care reies din analiza de
moderare arat c cinci variabile demografice au efect moderator n relaia dintre subscalele stresului ocupaional
i cele ale satisfaciei n munc. n ceea ce privete relaia dintre stres i implicare n munc, moderatori sunt
doar vrsta, genul i vechimea n organizaie. Concluziile cercetrii indic necesitatea introducerii unor programe
de gestionare a stresului n organizaii care s aib n vedere rezultatele obinute prin prisma caracteristicilor
angajailor i ale locului de munc.
Cuvinte cheie: stres ocupaional, satisfacie n munc, implicare n munc
Introducere
Relaia dintre stresul ocupaional i diferite
variabile
atitudinale
caracteristice
ariei
industrial-organizaionale este una dintre cele
mai intens cercetate problematici din ultimii ani.
Acest fapt este justificat de vreme ce stresul
ocupaional are implicaii majore att asupra
angajailor ct i asupra organizaiilor.
Consecinele asupra angajailor apar la nivel
psihologic, medical i comportamental. Efectele
psihologice asociate cu un nivel ridicat de stres
ocupaional sunt suprasolicitarea i epuizarea
psihic, anxietatea, tulburrile de somn, depresia
etc. Din punct de vedere medical, stresorii
ocupaionali au fost corelai cu o serie de
probleme de sntate severe precum: boli
cardiovasculare, cancer, atacuri cerebrale,
vtmri corporale, pneumonie, diabet, boli
infecioase, boli cronice ale ficatului, boli ale
plmnilor, boli de piele, bronite cronice etc.
Stresul ocupaional contribuie semnificativ la
apariia i agravarea acestor boli prin intermediul
stilului de via caracteristic angajailor stresai,
care include comportamente precum creterea
consumului de igri, abuzul de alcool i droguri,
predispoziia spre accidente, comportamentele
agresive, tulburri ale comportamentului
alimentar etc. (Cartwright & Cooper, 1997;
Jones & Bright, 2001). n ceea ce privete
consecinele stresului ocupaional asupra
organizaiilor, cele directe vizeaz participarea
34
defectuoas a angajailor la munc (absenteism,

ntrzieri, greve, fluctuaie de personal,
comportamente contraproductive etc.), n timp ce
efectele indirecte se refer la comportamentele
de munc dezadaptative: eecul de a investi
resurse fizice i psihice suficiente n sarcinile de
munc (burnout-ul), diminuarea performanei
(scderea productivitii i a calitii serviciilor
oferite clienilor), fluctuaia de personal i
costurile mari asociate concediilor medicale i
serviciilor de sntate n munc (Stamatios,
Antoniou & Cooper, 2005). Amploarea
ngrijortoare a acestor consecine a fcut ca
stresul ocupaional s intre nu doar n atenia
cercettorilor (mai ales a celor din domeniul
tiinelor comportamentale), ci i a managerilor
preocupai de sntatea organizaional.
Studiul de fa urmrete s clarifice natura
relaiei dintre stresul ocupaional, satifacia n
munc i implicarea n munc. Cercetarea
relaiei dintre cele trei concepte este important,
n primul rnd, n msura n care acesta indic
elementele i relaiile dintre acestea care trebuie
analizate cu atenie n cadrul interveniilor ce
vizeaz dezvoltarea organizaional. Aceast
etap este esenial pentru orice organizaie care
urmrete nu doar s supravieuiasc ntr-un
mediu concurent, ci s reprezinte un pilon
important pentru industria n care activeaz. Pe
lng utilitatea sa practic, cercetarea relaiei este
semnificativ deoarece problematica este nc
nediscutat
suficient
n
psihologia
organizaional, fiind necesare clarificri

suplimentare: dac despre relaia dintre stres i
satisfacie s-a scris foarte mult, cercetrile despre
relaia acestora cu implicarea n munc sunt
destul de puine, aa cum reiese din numrul mic
de articole publicate pe aceast tem (Schaufeli
& Bakker, 2004).
Tema cercetrii este actual n msura n
care, n ultimii ani, stresul ocupaional a devenit
un element nelipsit al realitii organizaionale,
cu vaste implicaii asupra satisfaciei i asupra
implicrii n munc. Locul de munc se
dovedete a fi un mediu tot mai instabil pe
msur ce organizaiile contientizeaz rolul
pozitiv pe care l are schimbarea continu n
ndeplinirea misiunii i pentru realizarea
scopului organizaional. Nivelul de stres
ocupaional asociat acestei incertitudini crete n
condiiile n care schimbarea solicit utilizarea
de noi tehnologii, ncheierea de contracte de
scurt durat, relocri impuse de noile strategii
de eficientizare a muncii etc. (Jones, 2001). n
acest context, atitudinile pozitive ale angajailor
sunt afectate semnificativ, fapt ce poate genera
dezechilibre organizaionale importante.
Dintre aceste atitudini, satisfacia n munc
constituie un subiect de mare interes pentru
cercettorii din domeniul psihologiei industrialorganizaionale
i
al
comportamentului
organizaional
i
pentru
managementul
organizaional deopotriv. Astfel, pe de o parte,
satisfacia n munc ocup un loc central n
cercetrile privind atitudinile angajailor la locul
de munc, ceea ce reiese din numrul de studii
publicate pe aceast tem. Pe de alt parte,
evaluarea satisfaciei angajailor reprezint o
activitate de rutin n tot mai multe organizaii.
Preocuparea pentru aceast variabil atitudinal
este justificat din moment ce satisfacia n
munc genereaz comportamente cu implicaii
asupra sntii fizice i asupra strii de bine
psihologice a angajailor. Acest fapt influeneaz
la rndul lui binele organizaiei n ansamblu de
vreme ce satisfacia n munc reprezint un
factor important pentru eficacitatea afacerilor.
Nivelul crescut de satisfacie al angajailor
contribuie att la diminuarea fluctuaiei de
personal, ct i la reputaia organizaiei de
angajator preocupat de binele angajailor. Acest
aspect favorizeaz atragerea de candidai
performani pe posturile vacante.
n literatura de specialitate s-au conturat
dou perspective privind motivele pentru care
organizaiile ar trebui s fie atente la nivelul de
satisfacie al angajailor lor. Perspectiva

umanitar, centrat pe individ, susine c
angajaii merit s fie tratai cu respect i
corectitudine. Astfel, modul n care organizaia
se comport fa de angajaii si se reflect n
satisfacia n munc. n plus, satisfacia este un
indice al strii de bine psihologice. A doua
perspectiv, mai pragmatic, utilitarismul,
consider c, n funcie de nivelul de satisfacie
al angajailor, acetia manifest comportamente
care afecteaz funcionarea organizaiei. Modul
n care angajaii se simt la locul de munc poate
determina comportamente dezirabile sau
negative. De asemenea, satisfacia n munc
spune dac organizaia are o funcionare coerent
sau deficitar. Cele dou perspective explic i
justific preocuparea fa de satisfacia
angajailor (Spector, 1997).
Pe de alt parte, studiul implicrii n munc
este important datorit consecinelor vaste pe
care le are asupra realitii organizaionale.
Acestea in de atitudinile pozitive fa de munc
i fa de organizaie, printre care demne de
remarcat sunt satisfacia n munc, dedicarea
organizaional i inteniile reduse de a prsi
organizaia.
De
asemenea,
consecinele
implicrii se refer i la comportamente
organizaionale dezirabile precum: iniiativ
personal, motivaia de a nva, comportament
extra-rol
i
proactiv.
Efecte
pozitive
semnificative ale implicrii au fost nregistrate i
asupra sntii fizice, asupra strii de bine
psihologice i n ceea ce privete nivelurile de
depresie, distres i tulburri psihosomatice.
Nu n cele din urm, implicarea n munc
este semnificativ deoarece aceasta exercit un
impact
deosebit
asupra
performanei
organizaionale (Schaufeli, 2004). Cei doi
cercettori identific dou procese care se
desfoar n context organizaional i care au
inciden asupra performanei individuale i
organizaionale: (1) un proces de eroziune sau de
deteriorare a sntii n care stresorii
organizaionali i lipsa resurselor de la locul de
munc sunt asociate cu apariia burnout-ului,
care, la rndul lui, e asociat cu reclamaii
(plngeri) privind starea de sntate i atitudini
negative fa de locul de munc; i (2) un proces
motivaional n care existena unor resurse
suficiente la locul de munc este asociat cu
implicarea care, la rndul ei, este relaionat cu
atitudini pozitive fa de locul de munc. Astfel,
implicarea n munc exercit un efect de mediere
asupra relaiei dintre resursele locului de munc,
35
pe de o parte, i atitudinile pozitive orientate spre

munc i comportamentele de la locul de munc,
pe de alt parte.
Stresul ocupaional
Din perspectiv teoretic, importana
consecinelor stresului ocupaional asupra
angajailor i asupra organizaiilor se reflect n
numeroasele definiii i modele elaborate. ntr-o
abordare recent, stresul ocupaional este un
proces cognitiv care rezult din interaciunea
(numit tranzacie) dintre individ i mediul i
care este influenat de sursele de stres, de
maniera n care sunt acestea evaluate de ctre o
anumit persoan i de resursele de gestionare
ale acesteia. Apariia stresului presupune, nainte
de toate, existena unui stimul. Un stimul
devine factor stresor n funcie de caracteristicile
persoanei expuse la acest stimul (Lazarus, 2006,
p. 53), mai precis, dac aceasta este vulnerabil
la stimulul respectiv. De aici deriv importana
diferenelor individuale n ceea ce privete
reaciile la stres deoarece persoane diferite pot
percepe i interpreta diferit caracterul stresant al
unui stimul (Snyder, 2001). Autorii moderni pun
mare accent pe evaluarea cognitiv a situaiilor
stresante de ctre angajai, pe care o definesc
drept proces de categorizare a unei posibile
ameninri n funcie de semnificaia acesteia
pentru starea de bine psihologic (Lazarus &
Folkman, 1998, pp. 52-53). n funcie de
evaluarea obinut, angajatul genereaz diverse
mecanisme de coping, modaliti prin care
gestioneaz situaiile stresante. Pentru lucrarea
de fa s-a optat pentru prezentarea teoriei
explicative elaborate de Lazarus deoarece
cercetarea i coninutul itemilor chestionarului
administrat se refer la problematica surselor de
stres
ocupaional.
Modelul
cognitivcomportamental este cea mai potrivit abordare a
proceselor prin care stimulii din mediu devin
stresori i a mecanismelor conexe prin care se
realizeaz tranzacia dintre angajat i mediul su
de lucru.
Satisfacia n munc
Satisfacia n munc definete ceea ce
angajaii simt fa de locul lor de munc n
general i fa de anumite aspecte ale postului n
particular. Satisfacia n munc relev msura n
care angajailor le place sau nu postul de munc
pe care l ocup. Satisfacia n munc poate fi
privit ca sentiment general fa de job sau ca o
constelaie de atitudini orientate spre diferite
36
aspecte sau faete ale jobului (Spector, 1997,

p. 2). Abordarea general (global) a satisfaciei
este folosit atunci cnd cercettorii vor s
identifice efectele satisfaciei. Abordarea
faetelor
jobului
este
utilizat
cnd
managementul dorete s afle care pri ale
acestuia produc satisfacie i pe care trebuie s le
mbunteasc. Studierea faetelor ofer o
imagine mai realist asupra conceptului deoarece
un angajat poate avea sentimente diferite fa de
diverse faete.
Implicarea n munc
Implicarea reprezint o stare mental
pozitiv, de implinire care apare n contextul
muncii i care este caracterizat prin vigoare,
dedicare i absorbire. Aceasta este o stare
afectiv i cognitiv persistent i omniprezent
i nu una de moment, legat de un anumit obiect,
eveniment,
individ
sau
comportament
(Schaufeli, 2004, pp. 4-5). Cele trei aspecte sunt
nucleul implicrii. Vigoarea se caracterizeaz
prin niveluri ridicate de energie i rezilien
mental i dorin de a depune efort n
activitile de serviciu n ciuda dificultilor
ntmpinate. Dedicarea reprezint implicare
puternic n munc. Munca are semnificaie
pentru angajaii dedicai, munca i inspir, le
ofer provocri noi, de aceea acetia i
ndeplinesc sarcinile cu mndrie i entuziasm.
Absorbirea se caracterizeaz prin concentrare
total i preocupare fa de activitile de munc.
Angajaii absorbii de munca lor sunt att de
concentrai asupra a ceea ce fac (i att de
entuziasmai de sarcinile pe care le au de
ndeplinit), nct uit de ceea ce se ntmpl n
jur, le este greu s se detaeze de munca lor.
Pentru ei, timpul trece foarte repede (Schaufeli,
2004, p. 5). Aadar, aceti angajai se identific
n mare msur cu munca lor.
Relaia dintre stresul ocupaional,
satisfacia n munc i implicarea n
munc
O cercetare realizat de Mikkelsen, Ogaard
& Lovrich (2000) arat c stresul ocupaional
prezint corelaii negative semnificative cu
satisfacia n munc (r = -.24, p < .01) i cu
ataamentul organizaional afectiv (engl.
affective organizational commitment; r = -.10, p
< .05). Acest studiu examineaz interrelaiile
dintre (1) variabilele independente: solicitrile
postului, climatul organizaional orientat spre
nvare (engl. learning climate) i reclamaiile
(plngerile) privind sntatea subiectiv (engl.

subjective health complaints), (2) variabila de
mediere (engl. intermediate variable): stres
ocupaional i (3) variabilele dependente:
satisfacie n munc i dedicare organizaional.
Rezultatele studiului arat c 27% din variana
variabilei dependente, satisfacia n munc, este
explicat de climatul organizaional orientat spre
nvare, de un pattern de reacii depresive (stil
de coping pasiv, depresiv) i de stresul
ocupaional. Procentul este mai mic pentru
cealalt variabil dependent, astfel c 20% din
variana variabilei dedicare organizaional este
nvare, stres ocupaional i coping activ.
Concluziile acestei cercetri evideniaz
impactul stresului ocupaional asupra satisfaciei
n munc i a dedicrii organizaionale. n
accepiunea cercettorilor stresul ocupaional
este asociat cu caracteristici ale mediului de
lucru i cu anumite caracteristici individuale,
precum stilul de coping. De aceea, calitatea vieii
la locul de munc poate fi mbuntit prin
practici de management al resurselor umane
axate pe aceste caracteristici individuale i de
mediu (Mikkelsen, 2000).
Un alt studiu arat c dou surse de stres
prezint corelaii cu satisfacia n munc i cu
dedicarea organizaional. Ambiguitatea rolului
coreleaz semnificativ cu satisfacia (r = -.68),
iar conflictul de rol i ambiguitatea rolului
coreleaz cu dedicarea (r = -.43 i r = -.57).
Ambiguitatea rolului este un predictor negativ
puternic al satisfaciei n munc, n timp ce
ambiguitatea rolului i conflictul de rol sunt
predictori negativi moderai ai dedicrii
organizaionale. Rezultatele acestui studiu
sugereaz c satisfacia n munc nu este prezis
de sursa de stres, conflict de rol. Alte variabile
predictori ai satisfaciei sunt identitatea sarcinilor
i importana sarcinilor (Glisson & Durick,
1988). n ceea ce privete dedicarea
organizaional, cel mai bun predictor este
educaia, caracteristica individual a angajailor.
Angajaii n vrst, cu studii mai puine i cu un
sim al competiiei ridicat nregistreaz niveluri
mai ridicate de dedicare organizaional (Morris
& Sherman, 1981 apud Glisson, 1988). Vrsta i
vechimea n organizaie au fost asociate pozitiv
cu dedicarea (Glisson, 1988).
Cercetarea realizat de Curry, Wakefield,
Price & Mueller (1986) arat c o alt surs de
stres, ncrcarea muncii, este un predictor al
satisfaciei. Angajaii care consider c volumul
de munc este cel potrivit sunt mai satisfcui

dect cei care cred c au prea mult sau prea puin
de lucru. ncrcarea muncii nu coreleaz cu
dedicarea organizaional.
O cercetare recent (Vrg, Zaboril, Sulea
i Maricuoiu, 2009) arat c exist corelaii
semnificative ntre furie i scalele implicrii n
munc (vigoare r = -.21, dedicare r = -.17 i
absorbire r = -.15, p < .05) i anxietate i
dimensiunile implicrii (vigoare r = -.25,
dedicare r = -.30 i absorbire r = -.17, p < .05).
Corelaiile dintre implicare n munc i furie,
respectiv anxietate sunt, de asemenea,
semnificative: r = -.19, respectiv r = -.26, p <
.05. Aadar, angajaii care experimenteaz
sentimente de anxietate i furie manifest o
implicare n munc mai sczut deoarece acetia
se caracterizeaz printr-un nivel redus de
entuziasm, percep mediul de lucru ca fiind ostil
i conflictual i au dificulti n finalizarea
sarciunilor ntruct capacitatea lor de concentrare
scade considerabil.
n ceea ce privete relaia implicrii n
munc cu emoiile de la locul de munc,
rezultatele cercetrii au artat c angajaii care
triesc emoii pozitive la locul de munc prezint
o implicare mai ridicat. Corelaiile dintre scalele
implicrii n munc i starea afectiv pozitiv la
locul de munc sunt pozitive i moderate:
vigoare r = .42, dedicare r = .52 i absorbire r =
.35. De asemenea, corelaia dintre constructul
global implicare n munc i starea afectiv
pozitiv la locul de munc este pozitiv i
moderat: r = .47, p < .05. Cercetarea asocierii
dintre aceste dou concepte vine n completarea
unor cercetri anterioare care au ajuns la
concluzia c angajaii care triesc intens emoii
negative la locul de munc sunt mai degrab
introveri, obinuiesc s aplice rar un stil activ de
adaptare la dificulti i vor reaciona ntr-o mai
mare msur prin fug deoarece triesc
sentimente de fric la locul de munc (de
exemplu planific s prseasc organizaia, i
iau zile libere sau concedii medicale, pentru a
reduce sentimentul de insecuritate, evit
comunicarea direct cu cei fa de care simt
frica), n comparaie cu cei care au caracteristici
opuse (Pitariu, Vrg, Sulea & Zaboril, 2008
apud Vrg i colab., 2009).
Referitor la datele demografice ale
participanilor la cercetare, au fost identificate
corelaii scazute, dar semnificative, ntre vrst i
dedicare (r = .16, < .05), respectiv absorbire (r =
.17, p < .05). Alte cercetri anterioare au obinut
37
corelaii foarte slabe ntre vrst i vigoare (ntre

r = .00 i r = .28), dedicare (r = .02 i r = .28) i
absorbire (ntre r = .00 i r = .27) (Schaufeli &
colab., 2006 apud Vrg i colab., 2009).
Acelai tip de corelaii au fost obinute ntre
vechime n munc i subscalele implicrii:
.19, p < .05 i vechime n organizaie i
dimensiunile implicrii n munc: vigoare r = .21
i absorbire r = .17, p < .05. Corelaiile dintre
implicare n munc, pe de o parte, i vrst,
vechime n munc i vechime n organizaie, pe
de alt parte, sunt, de asemenea slabe, dar
semnificative statistic (p < .05): r = .17, r = .19,
respectiv r = .17. Singurele corelaii cu p > .05
sunt cele nregistrate ntre vrst i vigoare: r =
.14 i vechime n organizaie i dedicare: r = .09.
n ceea ce privete genul i nivelul de educaie
nu au fost identificate corelaii semnificative pe
nicio scal a implicrii n munc (Schaufeli &
colab., 2006; Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007 apud
Vrg i colab., 2009).
Literatura de specialitate nu prezint
rezultate foarte concludente privind relaia dintre
stres ocupaional i satisfacie n munc,
respectiv implicare n munc. Cercetrile
anterioare au studiat doar trei surse de stres
(ambiguitatea rolului, conflictul de rol i
suprancrcarea cantitativ a muncii). Studiul de
fa urmrete extinderea acestor cercetri.
Astfel, obiectivul este de a examina toate cele
trei dimensiuni ale implicrii n munc, alturi de
sursele de stres menionate (ambiguitatea rolului,
conflictul de rol i suprancrcarea cantitativ a
muncii) i alte surse de stres (suprancrcarea
calitativ a muncii, dezvoltarea carierei i
responsabilitatea pentru ceilali) i variabilele
demografice (vrst, gen, nivel de educaie,
vechime n munc, vechime n organizaie, la
care se adaug i nivelul organizaional: funcie
de conducere sau de execuie). Pe lang aceste
variabile designul cercetrii presupune un model
explicativ ce include i satisfacia n munc. Mai
precis, vor fi studiate: (1) corelaiile dintre
faetele stresului ocupaional i cele ale
satisfaciei n munc, respectiv ale implicrii n
munc; (2) predictorii dimensiunilor satisfaciei
n munc, respectiv ale implicrii n munc i (3)
efectul de moderare al variabilelor demografice
asupra relaiei dintre faetele stresului
ocupaional i cele ale satisfaciei n munc,
respectiv ale implicrii.
Prin urmare, au fost formulate urmtoareale
ipoteze pe baza studiilor avute n vedere:
38
Ipoteza 1. Stresul ocupaional prezint

corelaii puternice cu satisfacia n
munc.
corelaii slabe, dar semnificative cu
implicarea n munc.
Studiul corelaiilor dintre variabile este
important la nivel organizaional deoarece
existena relaiei liniare indic ce alte variabile sunt
problematice (i n ce grad) dac se constat c
una din variabile este n afara limitelor normale.
Dac ipoteza se confirm, atunci managementul
trebuie s aib n vedere i nivelurile de satisfacie
i de implicare atunci cnd n organizaie se
nregistreaz un nivel ridicat de stres.
Ipoteza 3. Stresul ocupaional este un
predictor al satisfaciei n munc.
predictor al implicrii n munc.
Identificarea predictorilor este semnificativ
pentru organizaie: se pot estima nivelurile de
satisfacie i de implicare dac se cunoate
nivelul de stres ocupaional. Acest aspect are
implicaii practice deosebite asupra demersurilor
de diagnoz i dezvoltare organizaional:
identificarea predictorilor indic elementele
asupra crora trebuie s se intervin pentru a
realiza schimbarea organizaional.
Ipoteza 5. Variabilele demografice au
efect moderator n relaia dintre stresul
ocupaional i satisfacia n munc.
efect de moderare n relaia dintre stresul
ocupaional i implicarea n munc.
Identificarea efectelor de moderare este
important pentru a cunoate ce variabile (1)
intervin n relaia dintre variabila independent,
stres ocupaional i variabilele dependente,
satisfacie n munc i implicare n munc i (2)
afecteaz direcia i intensitatea relaiei dintre
cele dou tipuri de variabile. Dac ipoteza se
confirm, organizaiile vor avea o imagine
complet a elementelor care influeneaz relaia
dintre stres ocupaional i satisfacie, respectiv
implicare n munc. n plus, acest aspect are
consecine practice semnificative ce in de
formularea unor strategii de abordare a
angajailor n funcie de aceste date.
Obiectiv explorativ. Explorarea relaiilor
dintre subdimensiunile variabilelor stres
ocupaional, satisfacie n munc i
implicare n munc.
Metod
Participani
Cercetarea are la baz un eantion de
angajai din diferite medii organizaionale
romaneti. Acesta cuprinde un numr de N = 238
de angajai, cu urmtoarele caracteristici: 67 de
gen masculin (28.15%), 171 de gen feminin
(71.85%), 26 cu studii medii (10.92%), 109 cu
studii universitare (45.80%) i 103 cu studii postuniversitare (43.28%), cu experien n
organizaie de la 1 lun la 24 ani (M = 2.72, SD
= 3.407), cu vechime n munc de la 1 lun la 24
de ani (M = 7.05, SD = 5.312) i cu vrsta
cuprins ntre 19 i 47 de ani (M = 28.61, SD =
5.828, Me = 28). Participanii pot fi mprii n
patru categorii de vrst: 19-30 de ani (66.81%),
31-40 de ani (28.99%) i 41-47 de ani (4.20%).
Categoria de vrst cea mai bine reprezentat
este cea de 21-30, n timp ce n categoria de
vrst 41-47 de ani se ncadreaz cele mai puine
persoane.
n organizaiile n care s-a realizat
cercetarea, chestionarele au fost administrate att
personalului cu funcii de execuie, ct i
personalului cu funcii de conducere (majoritatea
manageri de nivel sczut sau mediu).
Participanii cu funcii de execuie reprezint
76.47% din eantionul total, n timp ce
participanii cu funcii manageriale constituie
23.53%.
Procedur
Aplicarea celor trei chestionare s-a realizat
n varianta creion-hrtie, fr limit de timp
pentru
completare,
ns
majoritatea
participanilor au terminat n 15-20 de minute.
Participanilor li s-a adus la cunotin scopul
cercetrii i caracterul voluntar i anonim al
participrii i s-a obinut de la acetia
consimmntul informat. Fiecare participant a
completat individual chestionarele fr a fi
asistat pe parcursul completrii i apoi a returnat
setul de chestionare ntr-un plic sigilat,
nesemnat, mpreun cu datele demografice:
vrst, gen, vechime n munc, vechime n
organizaie i tipul de funcie ocupat: de
conducere sau de execuie. Datele obinute au
fost prelucrate prin intermediul programului
statistic SPSS 19.
n momentul centralizrii rezultatelor,
chestionarele cu mai mult de 10 % rspunsuri
lips (2 chestionare) au fost integral eliminate.
Astfel, din cele 240 de seturi de chestionare
colectate, 238 au fost incluse n cercetare. Cele
cu mai puin de 10 % rspunsuri lips au fost

supuse unui tratament al datelor lips, astfel c
rspunsul care lipsea a fost nlocuit cu media
rspunsurilor pe aceeai subscal. n total au fost
nregistrate 88 de raspunsuri lips, care au fost
tratate n aceast manier.
Instrumente
Stres ocupaional. Pentru a msura nivelul
de stres din organizaii a fost utilizat Stress
Diagnostic Survey (SDS, Ivancevich &
Matteson, 1980). Chestionarul de msurare a
stresului ocupaional a fost, mai nti, tradus n
limba romn i apoi distribuit spre completare.
Scala de evaluare a stresului ocupaional,
format din 30 de itemi, descrie tensiunea pe
care o resimt angajaii i care este produs de
ambiguitatea rolului, conflictul de rol,
suprancrcarea
cantitativ
a
muncii,
suprancrcarea calitativ a muncii, preocuparea
(nelinitea) cauzat de dezvoltarea carierei i de
responsabilitatea pentru ceilali. Chestionarul
msoar frecvena acestor surse de stres (sau
stresori) prin intermediul a cte cinci itemi, pe o
scal Likert pe apte puncte. Participanii
cercetrii sunt solicitai s noteze 1 n dreptul
itemilor ce descriu o situaie care nu e niciodat
o surs de stres, pn la 7 pentru situaiile care
constituie ntotdeauna surse de stres. Valorile
coeficientului de fidelitate Cronbach Alpha
variaz ntre .68 i .85 pentru cele ase subscale
ale chestionarului, n timp ce pentru scala de
stres ocupaional Cronbach Alpha este .93.
Satisfacie n munc. Satisfacia n munc a
fost determinat cu ajutorul Chestionarului de
evaluare a satisfaciei n munc (Job Satisfaction
Survey, Spector, 1994), n traducere autorizat.
Acesta este alctuit din 36 de itemi care
evalueaz atitudinile cu privire la locul de
munc i anumite aspecte ale acestuia, prin
intermediul a nou subscale: satisfacia cu plata,
promovarea, supervizarea, beneficiile conexe,
recunoaterea muncii, condiiile de munc,
relaia cu colegii, natura muncii i comunicarea.
Fiecare dintre aceste faete este msurat prin
cte patru itemi. Pentru nousprezece itemi
scorurile trebuie inversate pentru a obine
rezultate adecvate. Msurarea se face pe baza
scalei Likert pe ase puncte: 1 dezacord
puternic, 2 dezacord moderat, 3 uor
dezacord, 4 uor acord, 5 acord moderat i 6
acord puternic. n ceea ce privete consistena
intern, valorile coeficientului Cronbach Alpha
pentru subscalele satisfaciei n munc sunt
39
urmtoarele: .75 satisfacia cu plata, .73

satisfacia cu promovarea, .82 satisfacia cu
supervizarea, .73 satisfacia cu beneficiile
conexe, .76 satisfacia cu recunoaterea
muncii, .62 satisfacia cu condiiile de munc,
.60 satisfacia privind relaia cu colegii, .78
satisfacia cu natura muncii, .71 satisfacia cu
comunicarea. Subscalele satisfacia cu condiiile
de munc i relaia cu colegii se situeaz sub
standardul minim acceptat pentru consistena
intern i anume .70. Pentru scala global a
satisfaciei n munc coeficientul Cronbach
Alpha este .91.
Implicare n munc. Implicarea n munc a
fost msurat prin intermediul Scalei Utrecht de
msurare a implicrii n munc (Utrecht Work
Engagement Scale, Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004),
varianta complet de aptesprezece itemi, pentru
care exist, de asemenea, o traducere autorizat.
Scala Utrecht de msurare a implicrii n munc
UWES-17 vizeaz cele trei dimensiuni
constitutive ale constructului: vigoarea (VI),
dedicarea (DE) i absorbirea (AB). Dedicarea
este determinat prin cinci itemi, n timp ce
celelalte dou subscale sunt formate din ase
itemi fiecare. Participanii din cadrul cercetrilor
care se bazeaz pe acest chestionar sunt rugai s
citeasc cu atenie fiecare afirmaie i s decid
dac au avut vreodat sentimentele descrise fa
de locul de munc. Itemii sunt scorai pe o scal
de frecven Likert pe apte puncte, de la 0
(niciodat), asociat cu lipsa tririi sentimentului
descris, pn la 6 (ntotdeauna). Valorile
coeficientului Cronbach Alpha pentru cele trei
subscale sunt: .83 vigoare, .92 dedicare i .82
absorbire.
Rezultate
Corelaii
Datele statistice evideniaz existena unor
corelaii negative, moderate (n intervalul .30
.70) i sczute (sub .30) ntre satisfacia n munc
i stresul ocupaional. Implicarea n munc
prezint, de asemenea, corelaii negative,
moderate i mici cu variabila independent. Spre
deosebire de corelaiile stresului cu satisfacia n
munc, cele dintre stres i implicare sunt
preponderent mai mici i au un nivel de
semnificaie mai sczut. Intercorelaiile dintre
aceste variabile msurate n studiu sunt
prezentate n Tabelul 1.
Astfel, ambiguitatea rolului coreleaz
negativ, moderat cu satisfacia cu supervizarea
(r = -.45), beneficiile conexe (r = -.32),
40
recunoaterea muncii (r = -.40), relaia cu colegii

(r = -.39), natura muncii (r = -.41) i
comunicarea (r = -.59), la un nivel de
semnificaie p < .001. Corelaiile sunt mici ntre
variabila independent i satisfacia cu plata,
promovarea i condiiile de munc. n ceea ce
privete implicarea, corelaiile sunt sczute ntre
ambiguitatea rolului i vigoare (r = -.26, p <
.001), respectiv absorbire (r = -.20, p < .01) i
moderate ntre ambiguitatea rolului i dedicare (r
= -.32, p < .001).
Conflictul de rol coreleaz negativ, moderat
cu dedicarea (r = -.33, p < .001). Corelaiile
sursei de stres sunt sczute fa de vigoare (r = .26, p < .001) i absorbire (r = -.20, p < .01).
Corelaiile sunt moderate ntre conflict de rol i
satisfacia cu plata (r = -.34), supervizarea (r = .46, p < .001), beneficiile conexe (r = -.39, p <
.001), recunoaterea muncii (r = -.42, p < .001),
relaia cu colegii (r = -,47, p < .001), natura
muncii (r = -.41, p < .001) i comunicarea (r = .64, p < .001) i mici ntre sursa de stres i
satisfacia cu promovarea (r = -.26, p < .001) i
condiiile de munc (r = -.29, p < .001).
Corelaiile dintre suprancrcarea cantitativ
a muncii i satisfacia n munc sunt mici,
moderate i semnificative. Cele dintre sursa de
stres i vigoare, respectiv dedicare sunt mai
sczute, n timp ce absorbirea nu coreleaz deloc
cu suprancrcarea cantitativ a muncii (r = -.10,
p >.05).
n ceea ce privete responsabilitatea pentru
ceilali, aceasta coreleaz doar cu satisfacia cu
supervizarea (r = -.24, p < .001), relaia cu
colegii (r = -.28, p < .001) i comunicarea (r = .30, p < .001). Datele statistice arat c
responsabilitatea
pentru
ceilali
i
suprancrcarea calitativ a muncii nu coreleaz
cu implicarea.
Analiza de regresie
Pentru a evidenia efectul predictiv al
subscalelor stresului ocupaional a fost realizat
o analiz de regresie liniar simpl pentru fiecare
variabil criteriu. n cadrul analizei de regresie,
variabila dependent a fost reprezentat de cte o
subscal a satisfaciei n munc (satisfacia cu
plata, promovarea, supervizarea, beneficiile
conexe, recunoaterea muncii, condiiile de
munc, relaia cu colegii, natura muncii i
comunicarea), respectiv a implicrii n munc
(vigoare, dedicare i absorbire). Variabilele
independente au fost n pasul unu: variabilele
demografice ale eantionului: vrst, gen, nivel
de educaie, vechime n munc, vechime n

organizaie i nivel organizaional (funcie de
conducere sau de execuie), iar n pasul doi:
sursele de stres ocupaional ambiguitate de rol,
conflict de rol, suprancrcare cantitativ,
suprancrcare calitativ, dezvoltarea carierei i

responsabilitatea pentru ceilali. Aadar, pentru
analiza de regresie liniar simpl au fost testate
dou modele. Rezultatele obinute se regsesc n
Tabelul 2.
Tabelul 1. Intercorelaiile dintre variabile

Corelaii
VARIABILA 1
1. Ambiguitatea
rolului
2. Conflictul de
rol
3. Suprancrcarea
cantitativ
4.
Suprancrcarea
calitativ
5. Dezvoltarea
carierei
6. Responsabilitatea pentru
ceilali
7. Plata
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
.765** .480** .615** .544** .574** .641** .556** .578** .427** .384** .482** .587** .532** .587** .280** -.236** -.336** -.358** -.180** -.271** -.045
8. Promovarea -.143* -.255** -.202** -.084
-.417** .067
.473** -
9. Supervizarea -.452** -.455** -.429** -.314** -.394** -.242** .409** .373** 10. Beneficiile
conexe
11. Recunoaterea
muncii
12. Condiiile
de munc
13. Relaia cu
colegii
14. Natura
muncii
15.
Comunicarea
16. Vigoarea
-.318** -.394** -.267** -.134* -.326** -.065
.655** .468** .408** -
-.402** -.423** -.399** -.288** -.336** -.088
.625** .466** .684** .628** -
-.261** -.294** -.372** -.242** -.185** -.034
.208** .221** .276** .280** .452** -
-.255** -.263** -.155* -.111
-.397** .029
.176** .249** .316** .346** .384** .278** .245** .351** .323** -
17. Dedicarea
-.324** -.329** -.185** -.038
-.514** .003
.252** .280** .278** .335** .360** .295** .236** .365** .397** .739** -
-.339** -.073
.160* .168** .220** .291** .259** .218** .120
-.393** -.472** -.521** -.353** -.432** -.275** .295** .232** .612** .281** .517** .386** -.406** -.406** -.359** -.196** -.364** -.098
.279** .209** .589** .322** .482** .330** .595** -
-.588** -.644** -.523** -.400** -.564** -.301** .344** .337** .617** .416** .578** .397** .600** .583** -
18. Absorbirea -.203** -.211** -.097
-.010
.210** .254** .708** .687** -
Nota: * p < .05, ** p < .01.
Datele statistice arat c ambele modele

introduse n analiza de regresie liniar sunt
viabile pentru variabilele criteriu. De exemplu, n
ceea ce privete satisfacia cu recunoaterea
muncii, pentru primul model, F (6, 231) = 6.68,
p < .001. Acesta descrie 15% din variana
variabilei
dependente,
satisfacia
cu
2
recunoaterea muncii: R = .15. Variabilele cu
valoare predictiv sunt vrsta (corelat negativ:
= - 2.18, p < .05), genul (corelat pozitiv: =
4.02, p < .001) i nivelul educaional (corelat
negativ: = - 4.12, p < .001). Coeficienii
asociai acestor variabile independente arat c
angajaii mai tineri, cei de gen feminin i cei fr

studii superioare sunt mai satisfcui de modul n
care este apreciat munca n organizaie. n cazul
celui de-al doilea model alctuit din sursele de
stres ocupaional, F (12, 225) = 9.82, p < .001.
Modelul descrie 34% din variana satisfaciei cu
2
recunoaterea muncii: R = .34. Predictorii care
contribuie la estimarea corect a satisfaciei cu
recunoaterea muncii sunt genul (corelat pozitiv:
= 2.29, p < .05), nivelul de educaie (corelat
negativ: = - 3.00, p < .01), ambiguitatea rolului
(corelat negativ: = - 2.21, p < .05),
suprancrcarea cantitativ (corelat negativ:
41
= - 3.49, p < .01) i responsabilitatea pentru

ceilali (corelat pozitiv: = 3.75, p < .001).
Datele statistice indic o satisfacie sczut a
angajailor fa de recunoaterea muncii n
situaiile n care exist un nivel crescut de stres
generat de asumarea unor roluri neclare i de un
volum prea mare de lucru. Valoarile
coeficientului al variabilei responsabilitatea
pentru ceilali denot c angajaii cu un nivel
ridicat de stres cauzat de responsabilitatea pentru
ceilali vor resimi o satisfacie mai mare legat

de felul n care este recunoscut munca lor. Prin
urmare, stresul determinat de asumarea
responsabilitii pentru ceilali favorizeaz
satisfacia angajailor fa de recompensele nonfinanciare ale muncii pn la un anumit nivel
optim. Dac nivelul de stres depete acest
prag, satisfacia cu recunoaterea muncii va urma
o curb descendent.
Tabelul 2. Rezultatele analizei de regresie liniar

Satisfacia cu plata
Satisfacia cu promovarea
Satisfacia cu supervizarea
Satisfacia cu beneficiile conexe
Satisfacia recunoaterea muncii
Satisfacia cu condiiile de munc
42
Vrsta
Genul
Nivelul educaional
Nivelul organizaional
Vrsta
Genul
Nivelul educaional
Suprancrcarea cantitativ
Responsabilitatea pentru ceilali
-.45**
.24***
-.25***
-.16**
-.37*
.14*
-.19**
-.13*
-.30***
.20*
R2
.19***
Vrsta
Nivelul educaional
Ambiguitatea rolului
Conflictul de rol
Dezvoltarea carierei
-.36*
-.16*
-.13*
.19*
-.28*
-.39***
.27**
.08**
Genul
Nivelul educaional
.17**
-.19**
-.24*
-.27**
-.15*
.07*
Genul
Nivelul educaional
Nivelul educaional
Conflictul de rol
-.18**
-.23***
-.15*
-.33**
.18*
.10**
Vrsta
Genul
Nivelul educaional
Genul
Nivelul educaional
-.38*
.25***
-.25***
.13*
-.17**
-.20*
-.27**
.29***
.15***
Vrsta
Genul
Nivelul educaional
Vechimea n munc
Vrsta
Genul
Vechimea n munc
-.50**
.23***
-.12*
.53**
-.16**
-.39*
.13*
.46**
-.14*
-.36***
.26**
.13***
.30***
.29***
.30***
.26***
.34***
.28***
Satisfacia cu relaia cu colegii
Satisfacia cu natura muncii
Satisfacia cu comunicarea
Dedicarea
Absorbirea
Not:
Genul
Vechimea n organizaie
.18**
-.34***
-.24***
-.39***
-.17*
.11***
Genul
Nivelul educaional
Vrsta
.20**
-.14*
.44**
-.27**
-.29***
.25**
.07**
Genul
Nivelul educaional
Conflictul de rol
.14*
-.18**
-.20*
-.35***
-.24***
-.22***
.15*
.08**
Genul
Genul
Suprancrcarea calitativ
.20**
-.21**
-.13*
.13*
-.15*
.26**
-.46***
.17*
.08**
Genul
Genul
.29***
.29***
.21*
-.40***
.09**
.23***
.38***
.32***
.53***
.38***
Tabelul conine indici beta standardizai.

* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
Analiza de moderare
Pentru a avea o imagine complex asupra
rezultatelor obinute, se impune examinarea
rolului moderator pe care l au variabilele
demografice asupra relaiei dintre stres i
satisfacie, respectiv implicare. Pentru a pune n
lumin acest efect de moderare a fost efectuat
cte o analiz de regresie pentru fiecare variabil
dependent. n cadrul analizei de regresie,
variabila criteriu a constat n cte o subscal a
satisfaciei n munc (satisfacia cu plata,
relaia cu colegii, natura muncii i comunicarea),
respectiv a implicrii n munc (vigoare,
dedicare i absorbire). Variabilele independente
au fost reprezentate n pasul unu de cte o surs a
stresului ocupaional (ambiguitate de rol, conflict
de rol, suprancrcare cantitativ, suprancrcare
calitativ,
dezvoltarea
carierei
i
responsabilitatea pentru ceilali) i de cte o
variabil demografic (vrst, gen, nivel de
educaie, vechime n munc, vechime n

organizaie, nivel organizaional: funcie de
conducere sau de execuie), iar n pasul doi de
interaciunea (produsul) dintre sursa respectiv
de stres i variabila demografic. Prin urmare,
pentru analiza de moderare, realizat prin
regresie, au fost supuse testrii dou modele.
Datele statistice arat c exist 24 de situaii
n care apare efectul de moderare. Rezultatele
analizei de moderare sunt prezentate n
Tabelul 3. pentru fiecare dintre aceste situaii. Nu
au fost obinute efecte de moderare pentru
satisfactia cu plata si comunicarea. De asemenea,
nivelul organizational nu are efect moderator.
Modelul de regresie ntre variabila
dependent (vigoare) i variabilele independente
(dezvoltarea carierei i gen) are validitate. Al
doilea model, cel care nfieaz produsul dintre
sursa de stres (dezvoltarea carierei) i variabila
demografic (gen) semnaleaz existena
efectului moderator: ( = -1.155, p < .001).
Introducerea produsului dintre variabila
43
moderatoare i variabila independent aduce un

2
plus explicativ: R = .064, F (1, 234) = 19.821,
p < .001.
dependent (satisfacia cu natura muncii) i
variabilele
independente
(suprancrcare
calitativ i vechime n munc) este valid; iar
modelul care nfieaz interaciunea dintre
sursa de stres (suprancrcare calitativ) i

variabila demografic (vechime n munc) indic
prezena efectului de moderare: ( = -.514, p <
.01). Introducerea produsului dintre variabila
2
plus explicativ: R = .027, F (1, 234) = 6.875, p
< .01.
Tabelul 3. Rezultatele analizei de moderare
Ambiguitatea rolului x Vechimea n organizaie
R2
R2 (adj.)
Suprancrcarea cantitativ x Vechimea n organizaie
R2
R2 (adj.)
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
Nivelul educaional
Ambiguitatea rolului x Nivelul educaional
R2
R2 (adj.)
Genul
Dezvoltarea carierei x Genul
R2
R2 (adj.)
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

Nivelul educaional
Responsabilitatea pentru ceilali x Nivelul educaional
R2
R2 (adj.)
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
Nivelul educaional
R2
R2 (adj.)
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
44
Pas 1
Pas 2
-.13
-.27
-.07
-.44
.44*
.03
.02*
.04*
-.19
-.06
.04**
-.29
-.49
.48*
.02
.05*
Pas 1
Pas 2
-.43
-.91
-.11
-.41
.61*
.01
.21***
.22*
-.39
.13
.16***
-.88
-.16
.57*
.02
.08*
Satisfacia cu beneficiile
conexe
Pas 1
Pas 2
-.04
.49
-.22
-.08
.65*
.02
.04**
.06*
Satisfacia cu
recunoaterea muncii
Pas 1
Pas 2
-.37
-.95
-.19
-.54
.74*
.02
.19***
.21*
Vechimea n munc
Suprancrcare calitativ x Vechimea n munc
R2
R2 (adj.)
Vechimea n munc
Dezvoltarea carierei x Vechimea n munc
R2
R2 (adj.)
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

Vrsta
Responsabilitatea pentru ceilali x Vrsta
R2
R2 (adj.)
Vechimea n munc
Responsabilitatea pentru ceilali x Vechimea n
munc
R2
R2 (adj.)
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
Vrsta
Suprancrcarea calitativ x Vrsta
R2
R2 (adj.)
Satisfacia cu condiiile de
munc
Pas 1
Pas 2
-.25
-.08
.07
.41
-.41*
.02
.06***
.07*
-.21
.10
.04*
.04
.56
-.59**
.03
.07*
Satisfacia cu relaia cu
colegii
Pas 1
Pas 2
-.27
.39
-.06
.21
-.73*
.02
.07***
.08*
-.27
-.05
.07*
-.09
.23
-.36*
.02
.08*
Satisfacia cu natura
muncii
Pas 1
Pas 2
-.20
.44
.05
.41
-.76*
.02
.03**
.05*
Genul
Suprancrcarea calitativ x Genul
R2
R2 (adj.)
-.18
.15
Vechimea n munc
Suprancrcarea calitativ x Vechimea n munc
R2
R2 (adj.)
-.20
.01
.05**
.03*
.41
.58
-.71*
.02
.07*
.01
.44
-.51**
.03
.05*
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
45
Conflictul de rol
Vrsta
Conflictul de rol x Vrsta
R2
R2 (adj.)
Vrsta
Dezvoltarea carierei x Vrsta
R2
R2 (adj.)
-.40
.00
Genul
Ambiguitatea rolului x Genul
R2
R2 (adj.)
-.24
.12
Conflictul de rol
Genul
Conflictul de rol x Genul
R2
R2 (adj.)
-.24
.09
Genul
Suprancrcarea cantitativ x Genul
R2
R2 (adj.)
-.13
.13
Genul
R2
R2 (adj.)
-.39
.14
Conflictul de rol
Vechimea n munc
Conflictul de rol x Vechimea n munc
R2
R2 (adj.)
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
Vrsta
R2
R2 (adj.)
Genul
R2
R2 (adj.)
Vechimea n munc
R2
R2 (adj.)
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
46
Vigoarea
Pas 2
.42
.22
.78*
.02
.06***
.08*
Pas 1
-.26
-.04
.15***
.07***
.07***
.03**
.17***
-.25
-.07
.07***
.27
.32
-.81*
.01
.16*
.66
.70
-1.01**
.04
.11**
-.36
.47
-.64*
.02
.09*
-.64
.68
-.88**
.04
.06**
.60
.72
-1.16***
.06
.23***
-.04
.24
-.43*
.02
.09*
Dedicarea
Pas 2
.11
.36
-.76*
.01
.26***
.27*
Pas 1
-.53
.06
-.51
.13
.27*
-.53
.06
.26***
-.05
.39
-.53*
.01
.29*
-.35
.39
-.43*
.02
.28*
Absorbirea
Pas 2
.19
.56
-.60*
.02
.08***
.09*
Pas 1
-.33
.26
Genul
R2
R2 (adj.)
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
Discuii
Obiectivul principal al acestui studiu a fost
examinarea relaiei dintre sursele de stres
ocupaional i variabilele dependente, satisfacia
i implicarea n munc, identificarea corelaiilor
dintre variabile, a predictorilor i a efectelor de
moderare. Rezultatele cercetrii au artat c, att
corelaiile dintre stres i satisfacie, ct i cele
dintre stres i implicare sunt negative, moderate
i sczute, ceea ce nseamn c de fiecare dat
cnd nivelul de stres crete, satisfacia i
implicarea tind s scad. De asemenea, sursele
de stres constituie predictori ai satisfaciei n
munc i ai implicrii n munc. Nu n ultimul
rnd, variabilele demografice au efect moderator
mai degrab asupra satisfaciei dect asupra
implicrii.
Datele statistice obinute confirm, n unele
cazuri, cercetrile pe baza crora s-a ntemeiat
studiul de fa. De cele mai multe ori ns,
rezultatele difer, fie n ceea ce privete
intervalele n care se ncadreaz valorile
indicatorilor pentru corelaii, fie cnd vine vorba
despre predictorii care exercit un rol moderator
asupra relaiei dintre variabile. Din aceast
perspectiv, lucrarea de fa confirm i
actualizeaz informaiile existente n literatura de
specialitate. n continuare, este detaliat o
prezentare mai nuanat a acestor aseriuni.
Astfel, aa cu arat cercetarea lui Mikkelsen
(2000), stresul ocupaional prezint corelaii
negative semnificative cu satisfacia n munc i
cu implicarea n munc. Totui, corelaiile
obinute n aceast lucrare sunt mai ridicate dect
cele ale cercettorilor. La nivel global, dac
nivelul de stres ocupaional crete, atunci
satisfacia i implicarea se diminueaz ntr-o mai
mare proporie.
Dup cum arat i Glisson (1988), corelaiile
dintre ambiguitatea rolului i satisfacia n munc
sunt negative i semnificative. Totui, din
rezultatele cercetrii de fa reiese c aceast
surs de stres nu coreleaz cu satisfacia att de

puternic precum demonstreaz cercettorii mai
sus menionai. Dimpotriv, corelaiile dintre
ambiguitatea rolului i satisfacia cu plata,
promovarea i condiiile de munc se ncadreaz
n intervalul specific corelaiilor mici. Corelaiile
dintre ambiguitatea rolului i implicare sunt, de
asemenea, mai sczute fa de cele identificate de
Glisson (1988). Acest aspect implic o scdere
mai lent a satisfaciei i a implicrii n condiiile
n care ambiguitatea rolului devine mai
pregnant.
Contrar studiului lui Glisson (1988),
conflictul de rol prezint corelaii mai sczute cu
implicarea n munc. n plus, potrivit datelor
statistice, dintre toate sursele de stres, conflictul
de rol coreleaz cel mai bine cu scalele
satisfaciei n munc. Cea mai mare corelaie n
raport cu dimensiunile satisfaciei n munc s-a
nregistrat ntre subscala conflict de rol i
satisfacia cu comunicarea (r = -.64, p < .001).
Aceast corelaie se apropie de limita superioar
a intervalului caracteristic corelaiilor moderate,
ceea ce nseamn c un nivel ridicat de stres
ocupaional generat de roluri conflictuale
condiioneaz puternic scderea satisfaciei cu
comunicarea din organizaie.
Cercetarea de fa confirm parial
concluziile
legate
de
corelaia
dintre
suprancrcarea cantitativ a muncii i
implicarea n munc (Curry, 1986). Corelaiile
sunt sczute (r = -.16, p < .05 pentru vigoare i r
= -.19, p < .01 pentru dedicare), aadar, dac
volumul de munc este mare, vigoarea i nivelul
de dedicare scad ntr-un procent destul de mic.
Absorbirea, ntr-adevr nu coreleaz cu variabila
independent, prin urmare nu exist nicio relaie
ntre cele dou.
Responsabilitatea pentru ceilali are un
impact nesemnificativ asupra satisfaciei
angajailor n munc. Excepie face doar
satisfacia cu supervizarea, relaia cu colegii i
comunicarea, variabile cu care se relaioneaz
47
destul de slab. ntre responsabilitatea pentru

ceilali i implicarea n munc nu exist corelaii
semnificative.
Dezvoltarea carierei coreleaz slab i
moderat cu satisfacia n munc i cu implicarea
n munc. Atunci cnd stresul provocat de lipsa
posibilitilor de evoluie profesional scade,
satisfacia i implicarea cresc.
Corelaiile slabe i moderate dintre
suprancrcarea calitativ a muncii i satisfacia n
munc sugereaz c dac angajaii nregistreaz
niveluri ridicate de stres cauzat de realizarea unor
activiti prea solicitante, atunci satisfacia
acestora scade. Din contr, lipsa corelaiilor dintre
suprancrcarea calitativ a muncii i implicare
arat c implicarea se menine la acelai nivel,
indiferent de dificultatea muncii depuse.
Rezultatele privind variabilele cu valoare de
predicie arat c stresul ocupaional este
predictor pentru satisfacia n munc i
implicarea n munc. Variabilele demografice
incluse n analiza de regresie liniar au valoare
predictiv pentru satisfacia n munc. Pentru
implicare, doar genul i vechimea n organizaie
sunt predictive.
Rezultatele analizei de regresie liniar
confirm concluziile studiului Mikkelsen (2000)
potrivit crora un procent semnificativ din
variana satisfaciei n munc i a implicrii este
explicat de stresul ocupaional. Pentru implicarea
n munc, procentul este mai mic, aa cum
afirm i cercettorii moderni. Prin urmare,
stresul este un predictor mai puternic pentru
satisfacie dect pentru implicare.
ambiguitatea rolului i conflictul de rol nu
reprezint predictori pentru implicare. Acetia nu
influeneaz gradul de implicare al angajailor.
De asemenea, concluziile studiului amintit difer
de cele ale prezentei cercetri, de vreme ce
conflictul de rol are valoare predictiv asupra
satisfaciei astfel nct poate determina nivelul
variabilei dependente. n acord cu studiul amintit,
ambiguitatea rolului reprezint un predictor
negativ puternic pentru pentru satisfacie.
Aa cum arat Curry (1986), suprancrcarea cantitativ a muncii este un predictor
puternic al satisfaciei. Volumul de lucru al
angajailor are un impact puternic asupra
nivelului de asatisfacie al acestora.
Cercetarea de fa analizeaz i stresorii
suprancrcarea
calitativ
a
muncii,
responsabilitatea pentru ceilali i dezvoltarea
carierei, pe lng sursele de stres menionate
48
anterior. Datele statistice arat c acetia sunt

predictori puternici ai implicrii n munc. Pe de
o parte, un nivel ridicat de stres provocat de lipsa
posibilitilor de dezvoltare a vieii profesionale
va genera scderea implicrii n munc. Pe de
alt parte, creterea gradului de tensiune
provocat de asumarea responsabilitii pentru
munca celorlali i de realizarea unor sarcini care
depesc nivelul de pregtire aduc cu sine
creterea gradului de implicare pn la un punct,
dincolo de care, dac sursele de stres se
intensific, implicarea n munc scade.
n ce privete variabilele demografice,
vrsta nu este un predictor al implicrii aa cum
arat Glisson (1988). De asemenea, vechimea n
organizaie (corelat negativ) este predictor doar
pentru dedicare, una dintre cele trei dimensiuni
ale acestei variabile criteriu. Astfel, vechimea n
organizaie influeneaz gradul de implicare al
angajailor n munc. Din cercetarea de fa
rezult c genul este predictor pentru toate cele
trei subscale ale implicrii. Mai precis, angajaii
de gen feminin triesc mai frecvent un sentiment
de mplinire n contextul muncii.
Rezultatele referitoare la efectul de
moderare sugereaz c relaia dintre stres i
satisfacie, respectiv implicare n munc trebuie
privit n integralitatea sa, pe ct posibil. n acest
sens, efectul de moderare al variabilelor
demografice faciliteaz interpretarea datelor cu
mai mare acuratee. Dintre toate situaiile
identificate, este interesant c numai genul are
rol moderator n relaia dintre sursele de stres i
cele trei subscale ale implicrii n munc, n timp
ce vrsta i vechimea n munc exercit un efect
de moderare doar n relaia dintre stres i
vigoare, respectiv dedicare.
Aadar, cercetarea arat c influena
stresului ocupaional asupra nivelului de
satisfacie i de implicare din organizaii trebuie
privit cu pruden deoarece aceasta nu mai are
amploarea demonstrat cu ctiva ani n urm.
Intensitatea consecinelor stresului ocupaional
asupea atitudinilor pozitive din organizaie
precum cele de satisfacie i implicare n munc
este mai redus.
Limite i concluzii
Cercetarea de fa prezint anumite limite
referitoare la instrumentele utilizate i la
eantionare.
Un prim neajuns este legat de chestionarul
de evaluare a stresului ocupaional, pentru care
nu s-a realizat o traducere dup metode deja

consacrate, n diade de psihologi, prin aplicarea
retroversiunii asupra chestionarului tradus din
limba englez. Practica cea mai uzitat cere ca
doi psihologi s traduc chestionarul din limba
englez n limba romn i ali doi s asigure
retroversiunea. Itemii din limba englez obinui
n aceast etap trebuie comparai cu itemii
chestionarului iniial. Dac cele dou versiuni
corespund atunci versiunea n limba romn este
considerat ca adecvat instrumentului original.
Un alt dezavantaj este lipsa unor demersuri
de adaptare a chestionarului la populaia
romneasc, astfel c nu exist date despre
fidelitatea i validitatea chestionarului pentru
Romnia. n plus, nu a fost realizat o analiz
factorial confirmatorie pentru a verifica
ipotezele deja validate de Ivancevich (1980).
De asemenea, trebuie remarcat c
chestionarul Stress Diagnostic Survey nu
evalueaz i severitatea perceput a stresului
(intensitatea)
i
semnificaia
atribuite
evenimentelor stresante, ci doar frecvena de
apariie a unei situaii tensionate n activitatea
angajailor. Ar fi necesar s se msoare i aceast
dimensiune de vreme ce severitatea stresului
reprezint o realitate care ar avea o influen
considerabil asupra rezultatelor cercetrii.
Concluziile studiilor realizate cu Scala
Utrecht de msurare a implicrii n munc pe
populaia romneasc recomand utilizarea
variantei scurte de 9 itemi, care e mai potrivit
pentru diagnoz n organizaiile romneti. De
aceea, o direcie pentru cercetri viitoare este i
testarea corelaiilor i realizarea unor analize de
regresie i de moderare cu rezultatele obinute ca
urmare a utilizrii variantei UWES-9.
n ceea ce privete eantionul, acesta
prezint o anumit disproporie ntre nivelurile
de management (23.53% dintre participani) i
cele de execuie (76.47% dintre participani).
Totui, aceast discrepan este uzual la nivel
organizaional, unde managementul reprezint
un procent mic n comparaie cu angajaii fr
funcii de conducere.
O alt limit legat de lotul de participani
este aceea c numrul de participani de gen
feminin este semnificativ mai mare (71.85%).
De asemenea, nu exist o distribuie echilibrat
nici pe categoriile de vrst. Cea mai mare parte
a participanilor se ncadreaz n categoria de
vrst 19-30 (66.81%), n defavoarea celorlalte
dou categorii. Acest fapt a rezultat din lipsa
unei selecii mai riguroase a participanilor la
cercetare astfel nct s reias un eantion

controlat pe variabilele gen i vrst.
Un alt aspect care impune interpretarea
rezultatelor cu pruden este sectorul din care au
fost obinute datele. Pentru aceast cercetare,
aplicrile au fost colectate doar din organizaii
din mediul privat. De aceea, pentru a surprinde
mai adecvat corelaiile dintre variabile,
predictorii satisfaciei n munc i efectul de
moderare al datelor demografice, ar trebui s fie
inclus n cercetare un lot (similar ca mrime) de
participani angajai n organizaii din mediul
public.
Cercetri viitoare ar trebui s in cont de
aceste limite astfel nct rezultatele obinute s
aib o relevan sporit pentru tiin.
n pofida limitelor studiului, rezultatele
raportate constituie un reper important pentru
realizarea unor cercetri mai aprofundate pe
populaia romneasc, pentru a contura cu mai
mare precizie relaia dintre stresul ocupaional,
satisfacia n munc i implicarea n munc.
Cercetarea de fa surprinde stadiul actual al
relaiilor dintre stres, satisfacie i implicare i
gradul de influen pe care l exercit variabilele
independente.
Referine
Cartwright, S. & Cooper, C. L. (1997), Managing
Workplace Stress, Thousand Oaks: SAGE
Publications.
Curry, J. P.; Wakefield D. S.; Price J. L. & Mueller C.
W. (1986), The Causal Ordering of Job
Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment,
Academy of Management Journal, 29, 847-858.
Glisson, C. & Durick, M. (1988), Predictors of Job
Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment in
Human
Service
Organizations,
Public
Administration Quarterly, 33, 61-81.
Jones, F. & Bright, J. (2001), Stress. Myth, Theory and
Research, Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Lazarus, R. S. (2006), Stress and Emotion: a New
Synthesis, New York: Springer Publishing
Company.
Lazarus, R. S. & Folkman, S. (1998), Stress, Appraisal
and Coping, New York: Springer Publishing
Company.
Mikkelsen, A.; Ogaard, T. & Lovrich, N. (2000),
Modeling the Effects of Organizational Setting
and Individual Coping Style on Employees
Subjective Health, Job Satisfaction and
Commitment, Public Administration Quarterly,
24, 371-398.
Snyder, C. R. (2001), Coping with Stress: Effective
People and Processes, New York: Oxford
University Press.
49
Spector, P. E. (1997), Job Satisfaction: Application,

Assessment, Cause, and Consequences, Thousand
Oaks: SAGE Publications.
Stamatios, A.; Antoniou, G. & Cooper, C. L. (2005),
Research Companion to Organizational Health
Psychology,
Cheltenham:
Edward
Elgar
Publishing Limited.
Schaufeli, W. & Bakker, A., (2004), UWES Utrecht
Work Engagement Scale. Preliminary Manual, 160;
retrieved
from
50
http://www.fss.uu.nl/sop/Schaufeli/Test%20Manu
als/Test_manual_UWES_English.pdf
Vrg, D; Zaboril, C; Sulea, C. i Maricuoiu, L.
(2009), Adaptarea n limba romn a Scalei
Utrecht de msurare a implicrii n munc:
examinarea validitii i a fidelitii, Psihologia
Resurselor Umane, 7, 58-74.
Rolul resurselor personale n starea de bine a angajailor: implicarea n munc

i epuizarea profesional
Delia Vrg1, Diana Miruna Pascu, Mdlina Mioc, Isabela Elena Dragu,
Andrei epe-Onea, Emma Petruc
Abstract
The study is based on the extended Job Demands-Resources model and Self-Determination Theory to identify
the role of personal resources. The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of self-efficiency and
psychological needs in relationship with work engagement and burnout. Data was collected using an evidence type
questionnaire applied to a sample of 221 employees of a production company (82.1% women). The hypotheses
were tested by conducting a multiple hierarchical regression analysis. Results show that personal resources help to
explain the involvement in work (vigor, dedication and absorption) and professional burnout (exhaustion and
depersonalization). Thus, self-efficacy is positively associated with work engagement and burnout as well as their
dimensions; the need for autonomy and competence contribute to work engagement and burnout. The findings
highlight the importance of employee personal resources in adapting to the organizational dynamic.
Keywords: personal resources, self-efficiency, psychological needs, involvement in work, burnout
Rsum
L'tude est base sur les emplois-ressources des exigences modles et thorie de l'autodtermination pour
identifier le rle des ressources personnelles. Le but de cette tude est d'examiner le rle de l'auto-efficacit
besoins et psychologique en relation avec l'engagement de travail et l'puisement professionnel. Les donnes ont
t recueillies l'aide d'un questionnaire applique un chantillon de 221 employs d'une socit de production
(82,1% de femmes). Les hypothses ont t testes par une analyse de rgression multiple hirarchique. Les
rsultats montrent que les ressources personnelles contribuent expliquer l'implication dans le travail (vigueur,
le dvouement et l'absorption) et l'puisement professionnel (puisement et la dpersonnalisation). Ainsi, l'autoefficacit est associe positivement l'engagement de travail et l'puisement professionnel ainsi que leurs
dimensions, le besoin d'autonomie et de comptence contribu l'laboration d'engagement et d'puisement. Les
rsultats mettent en vidence l'importance de ses ressources personnelles des salaris s'adapter la dynamique
organisationnelle.
Mots-cls: les ressources personnelles, l'auto-efficacit, les besoins psychologiques, l'implication dans le
travail, l'puisement professionnel
Rezumat
Studiul se bazeaz pe modelul extins al Solicitrilor-Resurselor Postului i teoria autoderminrii n
identificarea rolului resurselor personale. Scopul acestui studiu este de a investiga rolul auto-eficienei i a
nevoilor psihologice n relaionarea cu implicarea n munc i cu epuizarea profesional. Pentru colectarea
datelor s-au folosit probe de tip chestionar aplicate pe un eantion de 221 angajai ai unei companii cu activitate
de producie (82.1% femei). Verificarea ipotezelor s-a realizat prin regresie ierarhic multiliniar. Rezultatele
relev c resursele personale contribuie la explicarea implicrii n munc (vigoare, dedicare i absorbie) i a
epuzrii profesionale (epuizare i depersonalizare). Astfel c, auto-eficiena este asociat pozitiv cu implicarea n
munc i epuizarea profesional, precum i dimensiunile acestora; iar nevoia de autonomie i de competen
aduc o contribuie suplimentar la implicarea n munc i epuizarea profesional. Descoperirile studiului pun n
lumin importana resurselor personale ale angajatului n adaptarea acestuia la dinamica organizaiei.
Cuvinte cheie: resurse personale, auto-eficien, nevoi personale, implicare n munc, epuizare
profesional
1
Universitatea de Vest, Timioara

Adresa de coresponden: dvirga@socio.uvt.ro
51
Rolul resurselor personale n starea de bine a angajailor: implicarea n munc i epuizarea profesional
Introducere
Organizaiile
ncearc
mereu
s
mbunteasc performana angajailor. De
curnd, conductorii organizaiilor i-au dat
seama c doar mbuntind i calitatea vieii
angajailor pot contribui cu adevrat la
performan, respectiv la succesul organizaiei.
De-a lungul timpului, interveniile ce vizeaz
mbuntirea strii de bine a angajailor au intit,
n special, modificarea postului sau a condiiilor
de munc, dar rezultatele nu au fost pe msura
ateptrilor. Astfel, n cercetrile recente, atenia
cercettorilor s-a concentrat pe ocupantul
postului i pe atributele sale personale, a cror
modificare l pot ajuta n configurarea strii de
bine la locul de munc.
Starea de bine la locul de munc este
interpretat, n acest studiu, ca fiind o
funcionare optim a angajailor, ce se manifest
prin implicare mai mare n munc i un nivele
mai sczut de epuizare.
Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner i Schaufeli
(2001) au propus un model explicativ al relaiilor
ce se stabilesc ntre solicitrile postului, resursele
pe care le ofer acesta i starea de bine a
angajatului (operaionalizat prin implicare n
munc, respectiv epuizare profesional), i
anume, modelul Solicitri - Resurse ale Postului
(engl. Job Demands - Resources JD-R). Astfel,
la locul de munc ntlnim dou categorii de
elemente: solicitrile i resursele postului. Prima
categorie, solicitrile postului (engl. job
demands) sunt asociate cu aspectele fizice,
sociale i organizaionale ce necesit un efort
fizic i psihic prelungit i care, dac depete
capacitile adaptative ale angajatului, duce la
epuizare profesional (Schaufeli i Bakker,
2004). A doua categorie, resursele postului (engl.
job resources) ajut la atingerea scopurilor
personale, protejeaz individul de costurile
psihologice i fizice i stimuleaz creterea i
dezvoltarea personal a acestuia (Xanthopoulou,
Bakker, Demerouti, Schaufeli, 2009), favoriznd
apariia satisfaciei n munc i a implicrii n
munc. Solicitrile i resursele postului sunt cele
care pot influena atitudinea muncitorilor fa de
sarcin sau fa de organizaie, dar i starea de
bine pe care un angajat o poate experimenta n
organizaie. Deoarece mediul organizaional i
comportamentul angajatului sunt vaste, modelul
Solicitri - Resurse ale Postului a fost extins cu
un concept nou: resursele personale (engl.
personal resources) (Xanthopoulou, Bakker,
52
Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2009). Resursele

personale sunt aspecte care, alturi de resursele
postului, menin starea de bine a angajatului,
avnd un rol important n rezistena la stres.
Astfel, pornind de la varianta extins a
modelului Solicitri - Resurse ale Postului
(Xanthopoulou,
Bakker,
Demerouti,
&
Schaufeli, 2009), am dorit s identificm rolul
resurselor personale n apariia implicrii n
munc i a epuizrii profesionale, precum i a
dimensiunilor acestora. Studiile anterioare au
investigat resursele personale ca moderatori sau
mediatori ntre cerinele postului i resursele pe
care le ofer locul de munc, pe de o parte, i
starea de bine a angajatului, pe de alt parte.
Scopul studiului de fa a fost de a afla dac
resursele personale (n special, auto-eficiena i
nevoile psihologice) au un rol de sine stttor n
relaionarea cu implicarea n munc i cu
epuizarea profesional, precum i cu
dimensiunile acestora. De asemenea, ne-am
propus s verificm aportul de cunotere adus de
nevoile psihologice n relaia cu cele dou faete
ale strii de bine.
Motivaia vine din descoperirile lui
Ouweneel, Le Blanc i Schaufeli (2012), care
atest c, dei resursele specific locului de
munc prezic implicarea n munc, acestea sunt
depite de factori ce in de natura individului,
precum emoiile pozitive sau alte resurse
personale ale acestuia. Astfel c, naintnd pe
aceast cale, am exclus resursele locului de
munc i solicitrile acestuia i am plasat
resursele personale ale angajailor ca factori de
interes n explicarea epuizrii profesionale i a
implicrii n munc, la nivel individual.
Implicarea n munc i epuizarea
profesional
Implicarea n munc (engl. work

engagement) a beneficiat de o atenie deosebit
din partea cercettorilor n ultimii ani. Muli
autori din comunitatea academic internaional
au scris despre acest subiect n ultimul deceniu.
n prezent, exist dou coli importante care au
abordat implicarea n munc. Maslach i Leiter
(1997), din perspectiv american, au definit
implicarea n munc ca fiind la polul opus al
epuizrii profesionale (engl. burnout) sau partea
pozitiv a acesteia. Acetia au definit epuizarea
profesional ca o eroziune a implicrii n munc,
unde energia se transform n epuizare,
implicarea n cinism i eficacitatea n
ineficacitate. Aadar, n opinia lor, implicarea n

munc este caracterizat de energie, implicare i
eficacitate profesional, care reprezint opusul
dimensiunilor epuizrii profesionale (Chughtai
& Buckley, 2008). Aceast perspectiv
sugereaz c inexistena epuizrii profesionale
nseamn, de fapt, implicare n munc i un scor
mic la una din dimensiunile epuizrii
profesionale ar reprezenta un scor mare la
dimensiunea corespondent pentru implicarea n
munc.
Schaufeli i Bakker (2004) au promovat
perspectiva european, probabil cea mai
rspndit n prezent, prin care au msurat
implicarea n munc i epuizarea profesional
independent, utiliznd instrumente diferite.
Autorii consider c implicarea n munc se
manifest ca o stare atitudinal - motivaional
pozitiv de mplinire determinat de locul de
munc, caracterizat de vigoare, dedicare i
absorbie. Pe scurt, angajaii implicai n munc
au un nivel ridicat de energie i entuziasm i sunt
foarte absorbii de munca lor, asfel nct uneori
timpul pare c zboar (Bakker, 2009). Cea mai
important diferen ntre aceast perspectiv i
cea sugerat de Maslach i Leiter (1997) este
adugarea dimensiunii absorbie vigoarea i
dedicarea fiind vzute ca dimensiunile opuse
epuizrii
i
cinismului
din
epuizarea
profesional.
Vigoarea se caracterizeaz prin niveluri
ridicate de energie i de rezisten mental n
timpul lucrului, dorina de a investi efort n
munca sa, precum i de persistena chiar i n
faa unor dificulti. Astfel, angajaii care
demonstreaz un grad ridicat de vigoare sunt
motivai de munca lor i vor fi persevereni chiar
dac ntmpin dificulti la locul de munc.
Dedicarea se descrie printr-o puternic stare de
implicare n munc, angajatul experimentnd
sentimente de importan deosebit a muncii,
entuziasm, inspiraie, mndrie i provocare. A
treia dimensiune, absorbia, se refer la a fi pe
deplin concentrat i absorbit de munc, ceea ce
nseamn c timpul trece repede dar, pe de alt
parte, apar uneori dificulti cu detaarea fa de
locul de munc (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004).
Astfel, implicarea n munc este un concept unic,
care definete o stare pozitiv, de bine, de
mplinire n relaie cu munca, caracterizat de un
nivel nalt de energie i de identificare cu munca
efectuat (Bakker & Leiter, 2010).
Dar starea de bine la locul de munc poate
releva, pe lng partea luminoas, reprezentat
de implicarea n munc, i o parte ntunecat,

manifestat prin epuizarea profesional. Astfel,
epuizarea profesional (engl. burnout) este una
dintre cele mai studiate probleme n domeniul
psihologiei organizaionale (Hobfoll, 1989, apud.
Brummelhuis, Hoeven, Bakker, Peper, 2011).
Termenul de "epuizare profesional" a nceput s
fie utilizat iniial n jurul anilor 1970, n special
pentru a descrie fenomenul de epuizare fizic i
emoional asociat cu atitudini negative (Brown,
2012). S-a descoperit c epuizarea profesional
se ntlnete des n ocupaii din domeniul
serviciilor sau care implic contacte numeroase
cu oamenii, ns acest concept a fost ulterior
extins i la alte domenii de activitate.
Epuizarea profesional poate fi definit ca
un rspuns prelungit la stresorii interpersonali
cronici care pot aprea la locul de munc (Kim,
Shin, & Swanger, 2009). Acesta poate aprea
datorit combinaiei dintre solicitrile ridicate ale
locului de munc i resursele sczute pe care le
ofer locul de munc. Maslach (1993) descrie
epuizarea profesional ca fiind un construct cu
trei dimensiuni, i anume: epuizare emoional,
depersonalizare i lipsa eficienei profesionale.
Epuizarea emoional se refer la lipsa energiei,
apariia sentimentului de oboseal i a
sentimentului c resursele emoionale deinute sau epuizat datorit cerinelor locului de munc
(Kim i colab., 2009). Depersonalizarea sau
cinismul se refer la o atitudine distant,
indiferent sau chiar negativ fa de locul de
munc i fa de colegi, pierderea interesului fa
de munc, iritabilitate (Schwarzer & Hallum,
2008). Lipsa eficienei personale se refer la
tendina de evaluare negativ a propriei
performane la locul de munc, reducerea
productivitii sau la imposibilitatea de a face
fa cerinelor locului de munc ceea ce duce la
sentimente de incompeten i stim de sine
legat de locul de munc sczut (engl.
organizational-based self-esteem).
Epuizarea profesional are consecine
negative att asupra angajailor, ct i asupra
organizaiilor. Astfel, printre consecinele
negative asupra angajailor putem aminti: stare
de bine sczut, creterea numrului conflictelor
maritale (Brummelhuis i colab., 2011),
schimbri n atitudine i personalitate, creterea
riscului unor boli, precum bolile cardiovasculare
(Melamed, Shirom, Toker, Berliner, & Shapira,
2006 apud. Schwarzer & Hallum, 2008). n ceea
ce privete consecinele negative asupra
angajatorilor, amintim: performana sczut a
53
angajailor, pensionare prematur (Schwarzer &

Hallum, 2008), absenteism ridicat, creterea
numrului de concedii medicale.
Dei acest concept a fost mult timp studiat
ca fiind un construct tri-dimensional, dup o
perioad au aprut ntrebri legate de ultima
dimensiune, i anume lipsa eficienei
profesionale. De exemplu, n studiile efectuate sa descoperit c ntre epuizarea emoional i
depersonalizare exist o inter-relaionare, dar
lipsa eficienei profesionale nu a fost asociat cu
nici una din aceste dimensiuni (Kim i colab.,
2009). n 2005, Schaufeli i Tarris au realizat o
analiz factorial confirmatorie a dimensiunilor
epuizrii profesionale a crei rezultate a dus la
un model cu doi factori: epuizare emoional i
cinism (denumit nucleul epuizrii profesionale engl. core burnout). Astfel, n acest studiu, am
analizat epuizarea profesional ca dimensiune
bine definit i din perspectiva acestor doi
factori: epuizare i cinism (Bakker, Emmerik, &
Euwema, 2006).
Resursele personale
Resursele personale sunt auto-evaluri

pozitive, flexibile, care se refer la percepia
individului asupra abilitiilor sale de a controla
i de a influena mediul personal n mod eficient
(Bakker, 2009). n studiul de fa, ne-am orientat
asupra a dou tipuri de resurse personale: autoeficiena i nevoile psihologice (conform teoriei
auto-determinrii, Deci & Ryan, 2000).
Motivaia acestei alegeri const n importana
utilizrii acestor resurse personale n mediul
organizaional, fiind specifice fiecrui individ.
Auto-eficiena a fost studiat ca i resurs
personal, pe cnd nevoile psihologice, abordate
ca resurse personale, au intrat de curnd n
atenia
cercettorilor
din
domeniul
organizaional. Studierea mpreun a acestor
resurse personale i indentificarea rolului
fiecreia dintre ele n starea de bine reprezint
scopul acestei cercetri.
Auto-eficiena a fost definit n teoria
cognitiv-social ca fiind ncrederea n
capacitile personale de a executa i organiza
activitile necesare pentru a obine rezultatele
urmrite (Bandura, 1997). Auto-eficiena este un
bun predictor al modului n care oamenii simt,
ct efort investesc n activiti i, de asemenea,
ct de mult persist n lupta cu obstacolele i cu
dificultile (Prieto, Salanova, Martinez,
Schaufeli, 2008). De aceea auto-eficiena poate fi
54
studiat ca un predictor puternic al implicrii n

munc i al epuizrii profesionale.
Studiile anterioare au artat c auto-eficiena
este un factor predictiv n apariia mai multor
aspecte ce in de locul de munc, cum ar fi:
atitudinea fa de locul de munc, formarea
competenelor sau performana la locul de
munc (Chen, Stanley, & Eden, 2001). Mai mult,
unele studii au pus n legtur auto-eficiena cu
implicarea n munc, respectiv cu epuizarea
profesional. De exemplu, Xanthopoulou,
Bakker, Demerouti i Schaufeli (2007) au
realizat un studiu n care au analizat implicarea
n munc n relaie cu trei tipuri de resurse
personale (auto-eficiena, optimismul i stima de
sine bazat pe locul de munc). Autorii au
obinut dovezi empirice pentru susinerea
ipotezei conform creia resursele personale
mediaz relaia dintre resursele de la locul de
munc i implicarea n munc. De asemenea,
studiul lor a adus dovezi empirice asupra faptului
ca resursele legate de post joac un rol activ n
prevenirea epuizrii emoionale, prin activarea
resurselor personale.
ntr-un alt studiu longitudinal, realizat de
Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti i Schaufeli
(2009), s-a investigat relaia dintre resursele
postului, resursele personale i implicarea n
munc. Rezultatele au confirmat relaiile dintre
dimensiuni, artnd c acestea se afl ntr-o
relaie de reciprocitate i c implicarea n munc
i resursele personale sunt predictori pentru
resursele postului (Demerouti & Bakker, 2011).
Elementul distinctiv din studiul realizat de
Libano, Llorens, Salanova i Schaufeli (2012),
ca extensie a modelului Solicitri- Resurse ale
Postului, a fost reprezentat de faptul c sntatea
psihologic a angajailor depinde nu numai de
cerinele i resursele locului de munc, ci i de
resursele personale. Astfel, resursele personale,
n general, i auto-eficiena, n special, reprezint
un element cheie care prezice implicarea n
munc, studiile aratnd c, cu ct auto-eficiena
este mai mare, cu att i implicarea n munc
este mai mare.
Salanova, Llorens i Schaufeli (2011) au
examinat relaia reciproc ntre auto-eficien,
eficiena colectiv i implicarea n munc. Studiul
precizeaz faptul c, dac indivizii sau grupurile
se simt eficieni atunci, pe termen scurt, acest
lucru determin o stare de entuziasm n munc
iar, pe termen lung, va determina creterea
implicrii lor n munc, influennd toate faetele
acesteia vigoare, dedicare i absorbie.
Auto-eficiena este n legatur i cu

dimensiunile acesteia. n studiul su, Gunduz
(2012) a analizat relaia dintre auto-eficien i
epuizarea profesional la consilierii colari.
Rezultatele sale, n urma analizei de regresie,
indic capacitatea de predictor a auto-eficienei
pentru realizri personale i depersonalizare, ca
dimensiuni ale epuizrii profesionale, ns nu i
pentru epuizarea profesional global. Brown
(2012) a fcut o revizuire a studiilor care au
analizat legtura dintre auto-eficien i epuizare
profesional la profesori. Din analiza celor 11
studii identificate, autorul a concluzionat c
majoritatea acestor studii au raportat o legatur
negativ ntre auto-eficien i epuizare
profesional la profesori, ca i construct global,
dar i cu fiecare dintre faetele sale, n special cu
epuizarea i cinismul. Aceste rezultate confirm
ideea c auto-eficien, ca i credin personal,
se construiete pe baza experienei i a strilor
psihologice i afective i, de aceea, afecteaz
epuizarea profesional.
Astfel, n acest studiu corelaional
transversal, am urmrit s identificam existena
unei asocieri ntre resursele personale i
epuizarea profesion, respectiv implicarea n
munc. De asemenea, ne-am propus s analizm
i relaia dintre resursele personale selectate i
faetele celor dou constructe: implicarea
emoional i epuizarea profesional.
Pentru aceasta, pornind de la analiza
literaturii de specialitate, am formulat
urmatoarele ipoteze:
H1. Exist o asociere pozitiv ntre autoeficien i implicarea n munc.
H1.a. ntre vigoare i auto-eficien este o
asociere pozitiv.
H1.b. ntre dedicare i auto-eficien este o
asociere pozitiv.
H1.c. ntre absorbie i auto-eficien este o
asociere pozitiv.
H2.
ntre
auto-eficien
i
epuizarea
profesional exist o asociere negativ.
H2.a. ntre epuizare i auto-eficien este o
asociere negativ.
H2.b. ntre cinism i auto-eficien este o
asociere negativ.
Locul de munc este arena unde se pot
potena i contracara nevoile angajailor n
termeni de autonomie, competen i
sentimentele despre relaiile cu ceilali.
Satisfacerea nevoilor reprezint un punct de

interes pentru organizaii ce poate fi de folos n
evaluarea impactului motivaional al diferitelor
aspecte organizaionale, cum ar fi proiectarea
postului (Van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste, De
Witte, & Lens, 2008a). n plus, Van den Broeck
i colab. (2008a) specific faptul c cerinele i
resursele postului, ca i caracteristici ale muncii,
sunt n relaie strns cu frustrrile i, respectiv,
satisfacerea nevoilor i, prin urmare, asociate cu
epuizarea emoional i vigoarea, ca dimensiune
a implicrii n munc.
Teoria auto-determinrii (Deci i Ryan,
2000) exploreaz premisa c nevoile psihologice
ale individului au un rol n manifestarea strii de
bine a angajatului. De asemenea, acest teorie
susine c nevoile psihologice ale indivizilor
trebuie s fie satisfcute pentru ca acetia s
funcioneze bine, din punct de vedere psihologic
(Van den Broeck, 2012). Trei trebuine
psihologice sunt considerate eseniale pentru ca
persoanele s se dezvolte, i anume, nevoia de
autonomie, de afiliere i de competen (Deci &
Ryan, 2000), care sunt, de asemenea, menionate
i ca autonomie, sentimentul de apartenen i
competen (Van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste, &
De Witte, 2008b). Nevoia de autonomie se
consider a fi ndeplinit cnd indivizii se simt
liberi s acioneze i ei sunt cei ce decid propriile
aciuni. Nevoia de compenten reprezint gradul
n care fiecare individ i stpnete mediul i
produce rezultatele dorite, iar nevoia de
relaionare se refer la nivelul la care individul se
simte conectat la ceilali. n cadrul teoriei autodeterminrii (Deci & Ryan, 2000), atenia s-a
ndreaptat spre variaiile inter-individuale i
intra-individuale a nivelului de satisfacere a
nevoilor. Angajaii sunt mulumii de satisfacerea
nevoilor atunci cnd i desfoar activitatea n
mod volitiv, cnd se simt parte dintr-o echip i
consider c i pot atinge n mod eficient
obiectivele (Van den Broeck, 2012).
Conceptul de competen este relaionat cu
cel de auto-eficien, dar acestea difer n puncte
eseniale. Auto-eficacitatea se refer la
ateptrile individuale dobndite social de a
iniia aciunile necesare atingerii unui scop
(Bandura, 1997). Satisfacerea nevoii nnscute
de competen reprezint mai degrab
sentimentele de eficacitate prezente, dect cele
din viitor, precum i sentimentele generale, i
mai puin cele specifice. ns, n timp ce autoeficacitatea stimuleaz un comportament prin
care individul se simte eficient, satisfacerea
nevoii de competen este de natur s stimuleze
55
funcionarea indivizilor i bunstarea la un nivel

mai general (Van den Broeck i colab., 2008a).
n ceea ce privete studiile anterioare, n
conformitate cu teoria auto-determinrii, acestea
au artat c satisfacerea nevoilor de baz
funcioneaz ca un mediator ce se interpune ntre
mediul social i funcionarea angajailor (Van den
Broeck, 2012). ntr-un studiu realizat de Van der
Broeck i colab. (2008a) s-a analizat relaia dintre
solicitrile i resursele postului cu epuizarea
profesional i implicarea n munc, avnd ca
variabil mediatoare - nevoile personale.
Rezultatele arat c angajaii care sunt nconjurai
de resurse ale locului de munc experimenteaz n
mai mare msur un sentiment general de libertate
n munc (autonomie), conectare interpersonal
(relaionare) i eficien (competen). Astfel,
nevoile psihologice funcioneaz ca o resurs
personal, ajutnd angajaii s se adapteze i s-i
utilizeze optim sursele motivaionale n mediul de
lucru (Van den Broeck, 2012). Pe baza celor
prezentate mai sus i innd cont de obiectivele
urmrite, au fost formulate urmtoarele ipoteze:
H3. Nevoile psihologice sunt asociate pozitiv cu
implicarea n munc.
H4. Nevoile psihologice sunt asociate n sens
negativ cu epuizarea profesional.
Metod
Procedur i participanii
Studiul de fa a fost realizat n cadrul unei

companii cu profil industrial, de producie, unde
am aplicat o serie de chestionare pentru 320 de
angajai. Au fost utilizate doar 221 din testele
distribuite (69%), deoarece restul bateriilor nu au
fost returnate sau aveau rspunsuri incomplete.
Testarea s-a fcut individual, prin aplicarea
chestionarelor prin metoda creion-hrtie. Mediul
n care s-au completat chestionarele a fost unul
adecvat (far factori perturbatori).
Prin urmare, eantionului de convenien
este format din 221 de participani (82.1%
femei), cu o medie a vrstei de 35 ani.
Participanii la studiu au o medie a vechimii n
munc pe postul ocupat de 35.7 luni, iar 85.4%
dintre ei au contract de munc permanent i
14.6% au contract de munc temporar.
Anonimatul i confidenialitatea datelor au fost
garantate participanilor, conform normelor
deontologice specifice legislaiei romneti.
Instrumentele de cercetare
Auto-eficiena a fost msurat cu Scala autoeficienei generale (The General Self-Efficacy
56
Scale - GSE, Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995) ce

conine 10 itemi. Un item tipic este: "Cnd m
confrunt cu o problem, am capacitatea s
gsesc cteva soluii". Rspunsurile pentru itemi
sunt de tip Likert n 4 trepte de la 1 Dezacord
total, la 4 Acord total. Coeficientul de
consisten intern alpha Cronbach este .88,
pentru eantionul investigat.
Implicarea n munc a fost msurat cu
Scala Utrecht de implicare n munc (Utrech
Work Engagement Scale - UWES, 2002)
dezvoltat de Schaufeli, Bakker, & Salanova
(2006). Instrumentul msoar acest aspect ca
dimesiune global (suma scorurilor de la fiecare
dimensiune), i prin trei sub - dimensiuni ale
acesteia: vigoarea - 6 itemi (exemplu item: "La
munc, m simt plin de energie''), dedicarea - 5
itemi (exemplu item: ''Slujba mea m inspir''),
i absorbia - 6 itemi (exemplu item: ''Cnd am
de lucru, uit tot ce este in jurul meu''). Itemii sunt
evaluai pe o scal de tip Likert cu 7 variante de
la: 0 - Niciodat la 6 - Zilnic. Aceast scal a fost
validat pe populaia romneasc de Vrg,
Zaboril, Maricuoiu & Sulea (2009). n aceea
cercetare s-a demonstrat c cele trei scale ale
implicrii n munc au consisten intern bun,
mai exact, valorile coeficientului alpha Cronbach
sunt situate ntre .70 i .80 (vezi Tabelul 1).
Coeficientul de consisten intern alpha
Cronbach pentru scorul global este .87, pentru
eantionul nostru.
Epuizarea profesional a fost msurat cu
Utrecht Burnout Scale (Schaufeli & Van
Dierendonck, 2001). Scala msoar epuizarea
profesional, ca dimensiune general (prin
nsumarea tuturor itemilor) i faetele acesteia:
epuizare emoional (exemplu item M simt
epuizat() profesional din cauza muncii mele) 5 itemi i cinismul/depersonalizarea (exemplu
item M ndoiesc de semnificaia muncii mele)
- 4 itemi. Fiecare item se coteaz pe o scal
Likert n 7 trepte: de la 0 -Niciodat pn la 6 ntotdeauna. Coeficientul de consisten intern
alpha Cronbach pentru dimensiunea global este
.89, pentru eantionul investigat.
Nevoile psihologice legate de munc au fost
msurate cu Scala satisfacerii nevoilor
psihologice legate de munc (Work- related
basic needs satisfaction scale, Van den Broeck,
Vansteenkiste, De Witte, Lens i Soenens,
2011). Scala msoar: nevoia de autonomie
(M simt liber() s mi realizez munca n
modul cel mai potrivit din punctul meu de
vedere) - 6 itemi, nevoia de competen (Am
abilitile necesare pentru a fi un bun angajat)
-6 itemi i nevoia de relaionare (La serviciu,
simt c fac parte dintr-un grup) - 6

Fiecare item se coteaz pe o scal: de
Dezacord total pn la 5 - Acord
Coeficientul de consisten intern
Cronbach pentru ntreaga scal este .85.
Tabelul 1 prezint media, abaterea standard,

consistena intern, dar i corelaiile stabilite
ntre variabilele introduse n studiu.
Dup cum se poate observa din Tabelul 1,
auto-eficiena se asociaz semnificativ i pozitiv
cu implicarea n munc, att ca i scor total (r =
.39, p <.01), dar i cu dimensiunile acesteia:
vigoare (r = .34, p < .01); dedicare (r = .35, p <
.01); absorbie (r = .29, p < .01). n ceea ce
privete asocierea dinte auto-eficien i
epuizarea profesional, aceasta este una
semnificativ dar negativ, att cu dimensiunile
acestuia: cinism (r = -.33, p <.01); epuizare
emoional (r = -.28, p <.01), ct i cu scorul
total (r = -.34, p < .01).
Nevoile psihologice, respectiv autonomia,
competena i relaionarea, se asociaz
semnificativ i pozitiv cu implicarea n munc,
ca i construct global, dar i cu faetele acesteia:
vigoare, dedicare, absorbie. Asocierea dintre
nevoia de autonomie i dedicare (r = .29, p <
.01) este cea mai puternic, pe cnd asocierea
dintre nevoia de relaionare i absorbie (r = .10,
p < .05) este una mai puin puternic. n ceea ce
privete relaia dintre nevoile personale i
epuizarea profesional, ca i construct global, i
cu faetele sale: cinism i epuizare, aceasta este
una semnificativ negativ. Nevoia de
competena i cinismul se asociaz cel mai
puternic (r = -.39, p < .01), pe cnd nevoia de
competena i epuizarea se asociaz cel mai slab
(r = -.18, p < .05).
itemi.
la 1 total.
alpha
Variabile controlate: n prima etap a

analizei de regresie, vrsta i sexul au fost
introduse ca variabile de control, deoarece unele
studii anterioare au descoperit diferene bazate
pe vrst / sex ntre niveluri ale strii de bine. De
exemplu, Maslach, Schaufeli i Leiter (2001) au
constatat c nivelul de epuizare a angajailor mai
tineri tinde s fie mai mare dect la cei cu vrsta
de peste 30 sau 40 de ani iar brbaii adesea
obin un punctaj mai mare la cinism. Prieto,
Salanova, Martinez, Schaufeli (2008) au
identificat i ei diferene ntre brbai i femei n
raport cu epuizarea profesional, n sensul c
femeile au manifestat niveluri ridicate de
epuizare i de cinism n comparaie cu brbaii,
probabil i pentru c femeile sunt mai
vulnerabile la impactul unor solicitri percepute
dect brbaii.
n ceea ce privete implicarea n munc,
Salanova i Schaufeli (2004) afirm c
persoanele mai n vrst i brbaii prezint
niveluri mai ridicate de angajament.
Rezultate
Statistici descriptive
Tabelul 1. Medii, abateri standard, coeficieni alpha Cronbach i coeficieni de corelaie ntre variabile
Variabile
1. Auto-eficienta
2. Vigoare
3. Dedicatie
4. Absorbtie
5. Implicare in munca
6.Cinism
7. Epuizare emotional
8. Epuizare profes.
9. N. de Autonomie
10. N. de Competenta
11. N. de Relationare
SD
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
34.75
12.54
13.46
13.54
39.55
5.89
9.67
15.37
19.20
22.49
19.52
4.61
5.08
5.14
4.44
12.65
5.79
7.31
12.04
3.59
4.80
4.63
(.88)
.34**
.35**
.29**
.39**
-.33**
-.28**
-.34**
.22**
.26**
.13*
(.78)
.71**
.57**
.87**
-.34**
-.40**
-.44**
.21**
.16*
.16*
(.73)
.59**
.89**
-.47**
-.44**
-.50**
.29**
.20**
.15*
(.69)
.81**
-.34**
-.31**
-.35**
.26**
.16*
.10*
(.87)
-.43**
-.43**
-.49**
.29**
.19**
.12*
(.75)
.75**
.91**
-.28**
-.39**
-.24**
(.83)
.95**
-.33**
-.18*
-.20**
(.89)
-.35**
-.31**
-.24**
(.73)
.44**
.48**
(.88)
.61**
(.76)
N=221; *p<0.05; **p<0.01
Analize de regresie ierarhic
ntrebarea central a acestui studiu a fost

dac resursele personale prezic implicarea n
munc, respectiv epuizarea profesional i
dimensiunile acestora. Am rulat iniial dou
analize de regresie multiliniare ierarhice, unde
implicarea n munc i epuizarea profesional au

fost tratate ca variabile dependente. Pentru
ambele variabile dependente am parcurs acelai
algoritm: n primul pas, am introdus doua
variabile demografice (vrst, gen). Dup ce am
controlat influena variabilelor vrst i gen, am
introdus auto-eficien (ca resurs personal). n
57
pasul trei, am introdus nevoile psihologice:

nevoia de autonomie, competen i relaionare
(respectiv nevoile personale ca resurse).
conform Tabelului 2, variabilele demografice nu
au contribuit la variana variabilei dependente. n
pasul al doilea, auto-eficiena explic 14% din
variana criteriului, respectiv a implicrii n
munc (R = .14, p < .01). n a doua ecuaie,
auto-eficiena este un predictor semnificativ ( =
.38, p < .01) i este n relaie pozitiv cu
implicarea n munc. Tot n acest pas, variabila
vrst devine predictor semnificativ ( = .17, p
< .05) . Introducerea nevoilor psihologice n
pasul trei duce la o cretere a varianei de 6% (p
< .01) n explicarea variabilei dependente. n al
treilea pas, nevoia de autonomie este un
predictor semnificativ ( = .22, p <.01) i este n
relaie pozitiv cu implicarea n munc.
Variabila vrsta rmne un predictor
semnificativ ( = .19, p < .05) i n pasul trei.
Astfel, lund n considerare toate datele,
conluzionm c implicarea n munc, este
explicat de ctre varibilele auto-eficien i
nevoia de autonomie n proporie de 21%, unde
nevoile psihologice au o contribuie important.
Aceste date sprijin ipoteza H1 conform
creia auto-eficiena este asociat pozitiv cu
implicarea in munc, aceasta fiind un predictor
semnificativ pentru implicarea n munc. De
asemenea, datele susin parial ipoteza H3
deoarece doar nevoia de autonomie este

predictor pentru implicarea n munc.
n ceea ce privete epuizarea profesional,
conform datelor din Tabelul 2, variabilele
demografice nu au prezis variabila dependent,
deci vrsta i genul nu sunt predictori
semnificativi pentru epuizarea profesional. n
pasul doi, auto-eficiena explic 11% din
variana criteriului (R = .11, p <.01). n a doua
ecuaie, auto-eficiena este un predictor
semnificativ ( =-.34, p <.01) i este n relaie
negativ cu epuizarea profesional. Adugarea
nevoilor personale n pasul trei duce la o cretere
a varianei de 9% (p < .01) n explicarea
epuizrii profesionale. n a treia ecuaie, nevoia
de autonomie este un predictor semnificativ ( =
-.22, p < .01) i este n relaie negativ cu
epuizarea profesional. Astfel, lund n
considerare toate datele, conluzionm c
epuizarea profesional este explicat de ctre
varibilele auto-eficien i nevoia de autonomie
n proporie de 23%, unde nevoile psihologice au
o contribuie important. Aceste date vin n
sprijinul ipotezei H2, conform creia autoeficiena este asociat negativ cu epuizarea
profesional, aceasta fiind un predictor
semnificativ pentru epuizarea profesional. De
asemenea, aceste date susin parial H4 deoarece
doar nevoia de autonomie este predictor pentru
Tabelul 2. Analizele de regresie ierarhica care prezic implicarea n munc i epuizarea profesional
Variabile independente
Pasul 1
Vrsta
Gen
Pasul 2
Vrsta
Gen
Auto-eficiena
Pasul 3
Vrst
Gen
Auto-eficien
N. de Autonomie
N. de Competen
N. de Relaionare
Variabile dependente
Implicare n munca
R
.01
-.01
.12
.14**
.17*
.03
.38**
.06**
.19*
.03
.31**
.22**
.03
.03
Epuizare profesionalb
R
.01
.10
.05
.11**
.03
.04
-.34**
.09**
.02
.04
-.23**
-.22**
-.15
-.01
F
Total R
Adjusted R
5.70**
.21
.19
7.39**
.23
.20
N=221; *p < .05; **p < .01 a Scor total Implicare in munc; b Scor total Epuizare profesional
Pentru o analiz mai detaliat, am apelat la o

58
a doua serie de analize de regresie n care am
tratat separat, ca variabile dependente,

dimensiunile implicrii n munc (vigoare,
dedicare, absorbie) i ale epuizrii profesionale
(cinism, epuizare) (vezi Tabelul 3). Astfel, n
ceea ce privete vigoarea, ca variabil
dependent, variabilele demografice nu au
contribuit la variana rezultatelor. n pasul doi,
auto-eficiena contribuie cu 13% la variana
variabilei vigoare (p < .01). n a doua ecuaie,
auto-eficiena este un predictor semnificativ
( = .36, p < .01) i este n relaie pozitiv cu
vigoarea. Vrsta devine predictor semnificativ
( = .17, p < .05) n pasul 2. Introducerea
nevoilor psihologice n pasul trei duce la o
cretere a varianei cu 3% (p < .01) n
variabilitatea vigorii, ca variabil dependent. n
a treia ecuaie, nici una dintre nevoile
psihologice nu sunt predictori semnificativi. n
ceea ce privete vigoarea, datele ofer dovezi
empirice pentru a susine ipoteza H1.a. ce afirm
c auto-eficiena este n asociere pozitiv cu
aceasta.
Pentru dedicare, ca variabil dependent, n
pasul 1, se observ n Tabelul 3 c variabilele
demografice nu au contribuit la variana acesteia.
n pasul doi, auto-eficiena contribuie cu 12% la
variana variabilei dependente (R = .12, p <
.01). n a doua ecuaie, auto-eficiena este un
predictor semnificativ ( = .35, p < .01) i este n
relaie pozitiv cu dedicarea. Vrsta devine
predictor semnificativ ( = .17, p < .05).
Adugarea nevoilor psihologice n pasul al
treilea aduce o contribuie de 6% (p < .01) la
variana dedicrii. n a treia ecuaie, nevoia de
autonomie este un predictor semnificativ ( =
.23, p < .01) pentru dedicare. De asemenea, autoeficiena este un predictor semnificativ pentru
dedicare. Astfel, avem dovezi empirice ce acord
suport pentru ipoteza H1.b. ce menioneaz o
relaie de asociere pozitiv ntre auto-eficien i
dedicare i parial pentru H3, pentru ca doar
nevoia de autonomie este predictor pentru
dedicare.
n ceea ce privete absorbia, variabilele
demografice au contribuit la dispersia
rezultatelor cu 3% (R = .03, p < .05). Vrsta
este un predictor semnificativ i se asociaz n
sens pozitiv cu absorbia ( = .16, p < .05). n
pasul doi, auto-eficiena contribuie cu 7% din
variana absorbiei (p < .01). n a doua ecuaie,
absorbia. Vrsta rmne predictor semnificativ
( = .20, p < .05). Adugarea nevoilor
psihologice n pasul trei aduce o contribuiie de

5% (p < .01) la variana variabilei dependente. n
a treia ecuaie, nevoia de autonomie este un
predictor semnificativ ( = .22, p < .01). Autoeficiena i vrsta rmn predictori semnificativi.
concluzionm c absorbia, ca dimensiune a
implicrii n munc, este explicat de ctre
variabila vrst, auto-eficien i nevoia de
autonomie n proporie de 18%, unde nevoile
psihologice au o contribuie important.
Rezultatele obinute sprijin ipoteza conform
creia resursele personale (n special autoeficiena i nevoia de autonomie) sunt predictori
semnificativ pentru implicarea n munc. Astfel,
avem date empirice care s sprijine ipoteza H1.c.
i parial pentru H3, pentru c doar nevoia de
autonomie e predictor pentru absorbie.
n ceea ce privete cinismul, variabilele
demografice nu au contribuit la dispersia
rezultatelor. n pasul doi, auto-eficiena
contribuie cu 11% din varian cinismului (p <
predictor semnificativ ( = -.34, p < .01) i este
n relaie negativ cu cinismul. Introducerea
nevoilor psihologice n pasul trei aduce o
contribuie de 11% ( R = .011, p <.01) la
variana variabilei dependente. n a treia ecuaie,
nevoia de competena este un predictor
semnificativ i se asociaz n sens negativ cu
variabila cinism ( = -.32, p < .01). Autoeficiena rmne un predictor semnificativ i n
pasul trei. Astfel, cinismul este explicat de ctre
nevoile personale (auto-eficien i nevoia de
competen) n proporie de 24%, iar nevoia de
competen aduce o contribuie semnificativ.
Aceste rezultate aduc dovezi empirice pentru a
sprijini ipoteza H2.b i parial pentru H4, pentru
ca numai nevoia de competen este predictor
pentru cinism.
Pentru epuizarea emoional, variabilele
contribuie cu 8% din varian (R = .08, p <
n relaie negativ cu epuizarea emoional. n
pasul trei, adugarea nevoilor personale aduce o
contribuiie de 8% (R = .08, p < .01) la
nevoia de autonomie este un predictor
variabila epuizare ( = -.28, p < .01). Autoeficiena rmne un predictor semnificativ i n
59
pasul trei. Astfel, epuizarea emoional este

explicat de nevoile psihologice n proporie de
16%, iar nevoile psihologice i mpart egal
contribuia cu auto-eficiena. Datele obinute n
urma analizei sprijin ipoteza H2.b. i parial

pentru H4, pentru c doar nevoia de autonomie
este predictor pentru epuizarea emoional.
Tabelul 3 Analizele de regresie ierarhica care prezic dimensiunile implicarii n munc (vigoare, dedicare i absorbie) i ale
epuizarii profesionale (epuizarea i cinismul)
Implicare n munc
Vigoare
Pasul 1
Vrsta
Gen
Pasul 2
Vrst
Gen
Auto-eficiena
Pasul 3
Vrst
Gen
Auto-eficien
N. de Autonomie
N. de Competen
N. de Relaionare
F
Total R
Adjusted R
Dedicare
.02
.02
.13*
Absorbie
.00
.13**
.12**
.03*
.06**
3.03*
.18
.1
.08**
.05
.10
-.28**
.11**
.04
.10
-.21**
-.09
-.32**
.02
10.44**
.24
.22
R
.02
.11**
.05*
4.70*
.12
.08
.05
.09
-.34**
.21**
-.02
.20**
.22*
.04
-.02
5.72**
.15
.13
R
.01
.07**
.20*
-.01
.27**
.10
.01
.28**
.23**
.05
.00
Epuizare
.09
.07
.16*
-.05
.08
.02
.35**
.20*
.08
.32**
.11
-.01
.12
Cinism
.03*
-.02
.04
.18*
.07
.36**
.18
.16
Epuizare profesional
.08**
.04
.10
-.21
-.28**
.04
-.07
6.21**
.18
.16
N=221; *p<.05; **p<.01
Discuii
resursele personale (respectiv, auto-eficien i
explicarea implicrii n munc i a epuizrii
profesionale. n urma rezultatelor obinute,
obiectivele acestui studiu au fost atinse, astfel c
auto-eficiena i nevoile psihologice, n special
nevoia de autonomie i de competen, explic o
parte din variana implicrii n munc i epuizrii
profesionale, precum i a dimensiunilor acestora.
Rezultatele studiului nostru relev faptul c
auto-eficiena este un predictor pentru implicarea
n munc, dar i pentru fiecare dintre
dimensiunile sale: vigoare, dedicare i absorbie.
Astfel, cu ct angajatul i percepe capacitile ca
fiind n concordan cu sarcina, cu att el devine
mai implicat i investete efort n munca sa.
Acest rezultat se afl n concordan cu alte
studii anterioare, precum cele realizate de
Xanthopoulou i colab. (2007 i 2009) care au
60
identificat o relaie ntre implicarea n munc i

resursele persoanale (respectiv, auto-eficiena),
dar i cu cele realizate de Salanova, Llorens i
Schaufeli (2011) care prezint auto-eficiena ca
un element important n apariia implicrii n
munc. Lund aceste aspecte n considerare,
putem afirma c, pe msur ce un angajat crede
c rezultatele sale vor fi pozitive, cu att acesta
va fi mai dedicat muncii sale, experimentnd
sentimente de entuziasm i inspiraie. Aceasta
nseamn c, dac angajaii sunt auto-eficieni,
acetia se simt bine la locul de munc i pot s
manifeste un interes crescut pentru munca lor,
fiind mai implicai.
Dac un nivel crescut al auto-eficienei duce
la implicare n munc, un nivel sczut al
acesteia, face ca energia s se transforme n
epuizare i implicarea n cinism, acestea din
urm fiind dimensiuni ale epuizrii profesionale
(Maslach i Leiter, 1997).
Studiile anterioare realizate, precum cel al
lui Gunduz (2012) i Brown (2012), indic o
relaie ntre auto-eficien i dimensiunile

epuizrii profesionale (epuizare emoional i
depersonalizare). Astfel c, un nivel al autoeficienei sczut ajut angajatul s experimenteze
sentimente de incompeten, nesiguran, de
nencredere n capacitile proprii i, implicit, s
ajung n stare de epuizare emoional, fizic i
detaare, cu alte cuvinte s experimenteze
epuizarea profesional. n acelai sens, alte
studii, precum cel al lui Sundin din 2007 (apud.
Makoniene & Norvile, 2012) susin c un nivel
ridicat al auto-eficienei i al satisfaciei la locul
de munc coreleaz negativ cu epuizarea
profesional. n concluzie, studiul nostru relev
rolul de predictor al auto-eficienei n raport cu
epuizarea profesional (ca i construct global,
dar i cu dimensiunile acesteia: epuizarea
emoional i depersonalizarea).
Trecnd dincolo de auto-eficien, nevoile
psihologice au un rol semnificativ n starea de
bine a angajailor. Rezultatele studiului de fa
au confirmat puterea predictiv a nevoii de
autonomie, ca resurs personal, pentru
implicarea n munc (global), dar i pentru
absorbie i dedicare, ca dimensiuni ale acesteia.
Astfel, angajaii cu o nevoie ridicat de
autonomie pot manifesta un comportament
volitiv i auto-aprobator, caracterizat de
ncredere n capacitile proprii. Un astfel de
comportament poate genera un grad ridicat de
concentrare, detaare de factorii perturbatori,
entuziasm i, implicit, dedicare i absorbie n
sarcinile de lucru. Replicarea unei asocieri dintre
nevoia de autonomie i implicarea n munc este
cu att mai important, cu ct n studiile
anterioare s-a artat c nevoile psihologice, ca
resurse personale, mediaz efectul altor variabile
asupra implicrii i epuizrii, cum ar fi
insecuritatea postului, ca i solicitare a postului
(Elst, Van den Broeck, De Witte i De Cuyper,
2012). Acest lucru sugereaz c resursele
personale pot fi elemente tampon care pot s
atenueze impactul scolicitrilor postului asupra
strii de bine a angajailor.
Astfel se explic de ce angajaii se simt mai
puin epuizai i mai viguroi la locul de munc.
ndeplinirea nevoilor personale duce la o
energizare a angajatului i la scderea nivelului
de epuizare profesional.
Pe de alt parte, n studiul de fa, ne-am
propus s identificm n ce msur resursele
personale explic direct variana epuizrii
profesionale i a dimensiunilor acesteia. Dintre
resursele personale, n studiul nostru, am
identificat faptul c, pe lng auto-eficien,

nevoia de autonomie este un predictor pentru
dimensiunea epuizare emoional, iar nevoia de
competen este un predictor pentru cinism. n
ceea ce privete satisfacerea nevoii de
autonomie, aceste rezultate sunt conforme cu
cele obinute n studiu realizat de Fernet, Austin,
Trepanier & Dussault (2012) ce analizeaz
relaia ntre cele trei nevoi psihologice i
dimensiunile epuizrii profesionale. Rezultatele
obinute relev faptul c nevoia de autonomie
contribuie semnificativ n apariia epuizrii
emoionale, n timp ce nevoia de competena i
de relaionare explic cinismul i lipsa eficienei
profesionale. n plus, studiul realizat de Fernet i
colab. (2012) a subliniat importana nevoii de
autonomie n apariia epuizrii profesionale,
existnd o relaie negativ ntre aceste variabile.
Acest lucru sugereaz faptul c angajaii simt c
locul lor de munc le "fur" oportunitatea de a
face parte din procesul de decizie i libertatea de
munc, iar acest lucru face ca ei s
experimenteze tensiune, frustrare, iritabilitate i
epuizare emoional. Astfel, studiul nostru relev
rolul de predictor al nevoii de autonomie n
apariia epuizrii profesionale i a dimensiuni
epuizare emoional a acesteia.
De asemenea, studiul nostru a identificat
nevoia de competen ca fiind asociat cu
dimensiunea cinism sau depersonalizare a
epuizrii profesionale. Acest rezultat este diferit
de alte studii realizate, ce sugereaz c nevoia de
relaionare este un predictor pentru cinism,
deoarece
cinismul
este
componenta
interpersonal a epuizrii profesionale care
implic o atitudine indiferent sau negativ fa
de alte persoane (colegii de la locul de munc)
(Leiter, 1991; Maslach & Leiter, 2008 apud.
Fernet i colab., 2012). O posibil explicaie
pentru rezultatul nostru este faptul c
nesatisfacerea nevoii de competen poate genera
sentimente de nencredere n propriile capaciti
de gestionare, rezolvare a sarcinilor i la un
randament sczut al muncii prestate n
discordan cu efortul depus. n plus, aceste
aspecte pot determina atitudini negative sau de
detaare fa de propria munc i colegi.
Astfel, angajaii care au o nevoie de
competen n mic msur satisfcut
experimenteaz trirea strii de depersonalizare,
manifestnd indiferen fa de colegi i detaare
fa de munc. Iar, angajaii care au nesatisfcut
nevoia de autonomie la locul de munc pot
ajunge la epuizare emoional mult mai frecvent.
61
La nivel conceptual, auto-eficiena se

suprapune parial (dar nu in toate situaiile) peste
nevoia de competen, ceea ce poate produce un
efect de mascare al efectului variabilei nevoie de
competen generat de prezena anterioar a
auto-eficienei. Dar, nu trebuie s neglijam n
interpretare nici semnificaia conceptelor. Autoeficiena se refer la credina individului c va
reui n diferite activiti viitoare, pe cnd
satisfacerea nevoii de competen se refer la
eficiena n activiti concrete, prezente. Ar fi de
interes, pe viitor, cercetarea mai aprofundat a
relaiei dintre cele dou concept, chiar n termeni
cauzali, n sensul c o auto-eficacitate sczut
este asociat unui nivel mai sczut al nevoii de
competen, deoarece o atitudine de nencredere
n propriile fore generalizat poate determina
satisfacerea sczut a nevoii de competen.
Rezultatele studiului nostru nu au identificat
variabilele gen i vrst ca fiind predictori
semnificativi pentru implicare n munc i
epuizarea profesional, cu o singur excepie.
Acest excepie a fost dimensiunea absorbie a
implicrii n munc, unde vrsta a fost predictor
semnificativ. Eantionul nostru majoritar feminin
poate s ne ofere o posibil explicaie a acestei
situaii atipice, fa de rezultatele obiunute n
alte studii. De asemenea, n acest studiu, nevoia
de relaionare nu este asociat cu epuizarea
profesional sau cu implicarea n munc
(inclusiv cu dimensiunile acestora). Acest
rezultat se poate datora faptului c aceast
nevoie a angajailor este satisfcut: angajaii,
lucrnd de mai muli ani ntr-un colectiv mare,
au satisfcut aceast nevoie i, astfel, aceasta nu
se asociaz semnificativ nici cu apariia epuizrii
profesionale, dar nici cu apariia implicrii n
munc.
Limite i direcii viitoare de

cercetare
Trebuie s lum n considerare cteva limite
importante ale studiului. n primul rnd,
aspectele studiate au fost msurate prin
chestionare de tip auto-raportare, fapt ce duce la
creterea riscului de dezirabilitate social a
rspunsurilor. n ceea ce privete participanii
studiului, putem identifica o limit important, i
anume: participanii acestui studiu provin dintr-o
singur companie, neexistnd o heterogenitate
ocupaional, ceea ce limiteaz generalizarea
rezultatelor acestui studiu.
De asemenea, studiul este corelaional i nu
62
ne ofer indicii solide pentru a susine

cauzalitatea relaiilor dintre variabile. Realizarea
unui studiu longitudinal poate fi o direcie de
cercetare viitoare care ar putea ajuta i la
generalizarea rezultatelor, i la identificarea cu
certitudine a relaiilor cauzale ntre variabilele
investigate, cum ar fi relaia cauzal dintre autoeficien i nevoia de competen.
n plus, n acest studiu nu am inut cont de
influenele din afara organizaiei, i anume de
impactul vieii familiale asupra angajatului.
Studierea interfeei dintre familie i organizaie,
n special aspecte legate de rolul resurselor
familiale n creterea implicrii n munc i
reducerea epuizrii profesionale, pot fi direcii
viitoare de cercetare, n explicarea relaiei dintre
resursele personale i implicarea n munc,
respectiv epuizarea profesional.
n ceea ce privete resursele personale, am
analizat doar dou dintre acestea, nelund n
considerare alte resurse personale care ar putea
explica o alt parte a varianei implicrii n
munc i a epuizrii profesionale. O posibil
limitare a cercetrii s-ar regsi i n faptul c am
folosit un instrument de evaluare a autoeficienei generalizate i nu o scal care s
msoare auto-eficiena specific activitii
profesionale. Luarea n considerare a altor
resurse personale (precum capitalul psihologic i
personalitatea) poate fi o alt direcie viitoare de
cercetare n acest domeniu.
Implicaii practice
Rezultatele studiului nostru au pus n lumin
importana direct a resurselor personale ale
angajatului, n special auto-eficiena i nevoile
psihologice, n apariia implicrii n munc i a
epuizrii profesionale. Astfel, ca implicaie
practic, organizaia poate ine cont de resursele
personale ale angajailor, pentru a implementa
modaliti de cretere i dezvoltare a acestora iar,
n cele din urm, att organizaia, ct i angajatul
vor beneficia de o mbuntire a strii de bine i,
implicit, la o cretere a performanei n munc.
De asemenea, angajarea persoanelor din
organizaie n activiti ce satisfac nevoile lor
psihologice, n special nevoia de autonomie,
duce la creterea implicrii n munc i se
asociz cu stri pozitive legate de munc.
Concluzionnd, n urma rezultatelor
obinute, exceptnd anumite limite ce pot fi
controlate pe viitor, putem infera c studiul de
fa aduce contribuii semnificative pentru a
pune n valoare aportul angajatului, prin

resursele personale, la dinamica i dezvoltarea
organizaiei.
Bibliografie
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A Review of Empirical Studies Investigating Antecedents and Consequences

of Collective Learning Behaviors in Hospitals
Florina D. Spnu1, Adriana S. Bban
Abstract
This study is a systematic review of the field research conducted in medical settings investigating collective
learning behaviors. The review was driven by several research foci. Our main interest was in identifying
antecedents and consequences of collective learning in hospitals. We also report results on the types of research
questions addressed, research designs used, and types of medical teams investigated. Twelve studies met our
inclusion criteria. Our findings revealed that highly contextualized studies that use different ways of measuring
learning, different ways of conceptualizing medical teams, and different research methodologies, discuss similar
antecedents. Variables like leadership behaviors, unit interpersonal climate, and hierarchical position were found
to play a role in explaining organizational learning in hospitals across studies. We also found that despite an
intense public discourse on the link between collective learning processes and patients safety and medical
organizations performance, few studies actually report empirical data supporting this relationship.
Keywords: organizational learning, team learning, collective learning, hospitals, systematic review
Rsum
Cette tude est un review systmatique de la littrature qui examine les antcdents et les consquences de
lapprentissage collectif dans les hpitaux. De mme, nous rapportons des rsultats concernant le type de
questions de recherche adresss, des designs de recherche utiliss et les types dquipes mdicales examines.
Douze tudes ont rempli les critres dinclusion. Une srie dantcdents communs sont discuts par des tudes
bien contextuelles qui utilisent diverses modalits doprationnalisation de lapprentissage, de conceptualisation
des quipes mdicales, mais aussi des mthodologies diffrentes de recherche. Des variables comme le style de
leadership, le climat interpersonnel de lquipe et la position hirarchique ont un rle important pour expliquer
lapprentissage collectif dans les hpitaux. Lanalyse des tudes prouve que, malgr un discours public intense
sur la relation entre lapprentissage collectif et la sret des patients ou la performance des hpitaux, il y a peu de
donnes empiriques qui soutiennent cette relation.
Mots-cls: Apprentissage organisationnel, apprentissage en quipe, apprentissage collectif, hpitaux,
review systmatique.
Rezumat
Acest studiu este un review sistematic al literaturii care investigheaz comportamente de nvare colectiv
n organizaii medicale. Review-ul a avut mai multe obiective. Obiectivul principal a fost de a identifica
antecedeni i consecine nvrii colective n spitale. De asemenea, raportm rezultate cu privire la tipul de
ntrebri de cercetare adresate, design-uri de cercetare utilizate, i tipuri de echipe medicale investigate.
Doisprezece studii au ntrunit criteriile de includere. O serie de antecedeni comuni sunt discutai de studii foarte
contextualizate, care utilizeaz modaliti diferite de operaionalizare a nvrii, de conceptualizare a echipelor
medicale, dar i metodologii de cercetare diferite. Variabile precum stilul de leadership, climatul interpersonal al
echipei i poziia ierarhic au un rol important n explicarea nvrii colective n spitale. Analiza studiilor relev
faptul c, n ciuda unui discurs public intens despre legtura dintre nvarea colectiv i sigurana pacienilor sau
performana spitalelor, exist puine date empirice care s susin aceast relaie.
Cuvinte cheie: nvare organizaional, nvare n echip, nvare colectiv, spitale, review sistematic
1
Department of Psychology, Babe-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Adresa de corespondenta: florinaspanu@psychology.ro
65
A Review of Empirical Studies Investigating Antecedents and Consequences of Collective Learning Behaviors in Hospitals
Introduction
Mistakes and mishaps are a reality in
healthcare as in any other industry. In the UK,
10% of the patients admitted to hospitals every
year suffer some kind of harm due to adverse
medical events (NHS, An Organization with a
Memory, 2000). In the US, about 7,000 patients
die annually as a result of medication errors only
(Kohn, Corrigan & Donaldson, 2000). Half of
the adverse events that happen in hospitals are
preventable (NHS, 2000), provided that hospitals
develop their capacity to learn from their past
experiences (Aspden, Corrigan, Wolcott &
Erikson, 2004; Aspden, Wolcott, Bootman &
Cronenwett, 2006; Woodward, Randall, Hoey &
Bishop, 2004; Edwards, 2012).
Learning from medical failures and
mishaps
Although organizations can learn from
positive experiences, most often they learn by
reflecting on what went wrong in a particular
situation (Argyris, 2000). This implies that a key
step in facilitating collective learning is detecting
failures - the mismatch between an intended
outcome and the actual outcome. One important
progress in exploiting failures as learning
opportunities in healthcare was made through
implementing anonymous error reporting
systems (Mahajan, 2010; Cohen, 2000), but this
kinds of formal collective learning instruments
are not easily accepted by health professionals
(Iedema, Allen, Sorensen & Gallagher, 2011;
Waring, 2005). A qualitative study investigating
why doctors do not use centralized error
reporting systems found that fear of being
blamed, a busy agenda, doubts about the utility
of it, and also the believe that completing reports
is the job of nurses and administrative personnel,
were among the most common themes in
doctors discourses (Waring, 2005). Thus formal
error reporting systems might not always work
as expected in medical organizations. At the
same time, field research suggests that collective
learning tends to be a rather social, informal
process (Edmondson, 1999; 2002), in which a
key ingredient is the willingness to openly
address the causes leading to failure, so that they
would be avoided in the future.
Collective learning implies that people are
ready to engage in interpersonally risky
behaviors (Edmondson, 2002; 2004a). Admitting
ones own failure might be interpreted as
66
incompetence, unprofessionalism or even

laziness (Edmondson, 2004b), while discussing
someone elses failure might be interpreted as
lack of collegiality or even a way of bringing
discredit on someone (Leape, 2006). Collective
learning is difficult to achieve in any kind of
organizations (Singer & Edmondson, 2008), but
even more difficult in organizations in which the
main objective is to provide medical assistance,
and in which patients lives are at stake (Caroll
& Edmondson, 2002). Committing a medical
error can have very serious consequences for
patients health and their families well-being. At
the same time, admitting a medical error can
have very serious implications for health
professionals careers, and hospitals reputation.
Medical organizations have often been
described as working environments dominated
by a culture of fear and defensiveness (Leape,
1994; Waring, 2005; Leape et al., 2009; FirthCozens, 2001). Although health professionals
often have to team-up in order to perform highly
complex tasks that require intensive coordination
and teamwork (Rosen et al., 2008; Salas, Rosen
& King, 2007), it was found that engaging in
effective communication, even in matters
relevant to patients well-being, is rather
problematic (Reeves et al., 2009; Leape et al.,
2009). In a study investigating communication
patterns among health professionals, Reeves et
al. (2009) found that it is very common for
doctors to directly address residents and nurses,
but that it is less likely for residents and nurses to
speak openly when interacting with doctors.
These characteristics of medical organizations
set the premises of a professional context that is
more likely to block, rather than nurture
collective learning, and suggests that collective
learning might have different characteristics in
hospitals, in comparison with other professional
cultures that are less hierarchical, and in which
fear and blame are less of a stigma.
Collective learning processes in
organizations
The interest in how organizations capitalize
on their own and other organizations experience
in order to improve performance or to innovate
was initiated in the late 60s and early 70s
(Edmondson, 1996a; Edmondson & Moingeon,
1998). Driven by organizational consultants
interested in designing learning organizations,
early theoretical perspectives on organizational
learning described it as a macro-level,
organization-wide phenomenon (Fiol & Lyles,

1985; Levitt & March, 1988; Edmondson &
Moingeon, 1998). Recent field research found
evidence that different units (e.g. teams,
departments) within the same organization have
different learning rates and display different
learning behaviors and processes (Edmondson,
1996b; 1999; 2002; 2003; Sole & Edmondson,
2002; Wong, 2004), supporting the hypothesis
that collective learning in organizations is a
local, group-level phenomenon (Edmondson,
2002). Recent studies refer to organizational
learning when conceptualized as unit-level
phenomenon as collective learning, group
learning or team learning (Edmondson, 1999;
2002; Knapp, 2012).
Collective learning in real work groups has
been defined as the process through which team
members reflect upon their actions, and use
experience to improve future performance
(Edmondon, 1999; 2002; Wong, 2004;
Edmondson, Dillon & Roloff, 2007). Evidence
from different organizational settings suggest
that variables such as leaders values and
behaviors (Edmondson, 1999; Wong, Tjosvold,
& Lu, 2010), team interpersonal climate
(Edmondson, 1999; Carmeli & Gittell, 2009;
Kostopoulos & Bozionelos, 2011; Post, 2012),
team characteristics (Gibson & Vermeulen,
2003), or task characteristics (Edmondson, 1999;
Edmondson, 2002) are related to team learning
in work groups. Edmondson (1999) investigated
the relationship between a supportive, coachingoriented leadership style and collective learning
in work groups from a manufacturing company.
The author found that leaders coaching
behaviors were associated with members
willingness to engage in collective learning
behaviors such as asking questions, asking for
feedback, sharing information or experimenting.
The relationship was found to be mediated by
team psychological safety the shared belief that
one can engage in interpersonal risky behaviors
such as admitting mistakes or asking for help,
without being judged and rejected by coworkers
(Edmondson, 1999; 2004a). Psychological safety
was also found to mediate the relationship
between leadership style and team learning in a
sample of 101 teams from multiple industries in
China (Wong et al., 2010). Carmeli and Gittell
(2009) investigated the link between
psychological safety and collective learning
operationalized as learning from failures in
finance, electronic and software companies, and
found evidence that psychological safety predicts

learning. In a study of 156 work teams from the
pharmaceutical and medical products industries,
Gibson and Vermeulen (2003) found that team
diversity impacts collective learning, and
Edmondson (1999; 2002) reported results of
qualitative data suggesting that tasks
characteristics might also influence the types of
learning behaviors most frequently adopted in
real work teams.
Several field research studies found
evidence for the link between team learning and
team performance (Edmondson, 1999; Wong,
2004; Van der Vengt & Bunderson, 2005). In a
study of 57 teams in the oil and gas industry,
Van der Vengt and Bunderson (2005) found that
collective learning practices predict teams
performance. Similar results were found by
Wong (2004) studying 78 teams working in a
variety of industries, and Edmondson (1999)
investing team learning in 53 units in a
manufacturing company.
Aims and New Contributions

Our aim was to integrate the results of the
existing field research conducted in hospitals and
investigating organizational learning as a unitlevel, collective process. The final purpose was
to capitalize on the findings of the existing data,
and develop a conceptual framework that would
further inform field research on the topic. Our
initial research focus was on identifying
antecedents and consequences of organizational
learning in hospitals, and possible explanatory
mechanisms. When engaged in the review
process, it became evident that integrating the
findings of such diverse literature would be very
difficult without simultaneously considering
conceptual and methodological aspects of the
papers reviewed. We therefore decided to report
and reflect also on aspects such as: the types of
research questions addressed, the types of
research methods used, the ways of
operationalizing collective learning behaviors
and processes, and the types of medical teams
investigated.
Although other review papers have been
published on organizational learning or team
learning, they reflect on conceptual aspects (Fiol
& Lyles, 1985; Huber, 1991; Edmondson &
Moingeon, 1998; Knapp, 2010; Kozlowski,
Chao & Jensen, 2010), they integrate research
conducted on work groups from a variety of
67
professional domains (Kayes & Burnett, 2006;

Edmondson et al., 2007), or they take a different
perspective and report on collective learning as
an output instead of a process (Argote & MironSpector, 2011).
Our main contribution resides in the fact
that we capitalize on the results of a highly
contextualized and descriptive literature, and
develop a framework that is meant to inform a
more positivistic, hypotheses testing approach.
Our work is also relevant for organizational
development in hospitals, as we identify
variables that were found to facilitate
organizational learning across different studies,
in different types of medical teams.
Working Definition and Inclusion

Criteria
We define collective learning behaviors as
practices or actions taken by team members,
through which they share information and reflect
on their collective and individual behaviors
within the team, and develop new knowledge
and understandings in order to improve teams
performance. This definition is consistent with
Fiol and Lyles (1985) definition of
organizational learning, but sets the target of
analysis at the team level, as suggested by the
meso-level approach to collective learning in
organizations (Edmondon, 1999; 2002). The
definition informed the inclusion criteria that we
have used in analyzing and selecting the papers
reviewed. Given the diverse terminology used
when referring to collective learning in
organizations in recent research (Knapp, 2010),
we decided to include in the analysis studies
investigating organizational learning, team
learning, group learning and collective learning.
We selected papers that investigate collective
learning as a process as opposed to an output
of it (Fiol & Lyles, 1985; Huber, 1991; Argyris,
2000; Edmondson, 1999), and also as a grouplevel
phenomenon
(Edmondson,
1999;
Edmondson, 2002), having a clear interpersonal
component that distinguishes organizational
learning from individual learning (Fiol & Lyles,
1985; Senge, 1994; Edmondson et al., 2007,
Knapp, 2010). For example, we rejected the
study by Pisano, Bohmer and Edmondson (2001)
investigating the link between organizational
learning and performance in minimally invasive
cardiac surgical teams. Although both the
68
medical setting, and the working definition of

organizational learning used in the study
qualified it for inclusion, the authors
operationalize collective learning as reduction in
the procedure time which we consider to be an
output of the learning process, and an indicator
of unit performance. The same authors, reported
on the same set of data in a different study
(Edmondson, Bohmer & Pisano, 2001) focusing
on engaging in open communication, collective
reflection practices, and experimenting as
indicators of team learning. This second study
was included in the review. Another example of
a study that we excluded is the paper by Waring
(2005) investigating why physicians do not use
error reporting systems. The author interviewed
28 doctors from different departments, focusing
on individual believes and perceptions. Error
reporting is described as an isolated, individual
behavior, and no investigation or reference is
made to how health professionals interact and
collectively reflect on how to exploit this in
order to improve future performance the
distinctive feature of collective learning in
organizations (Fiol & Lyles, 1985; Argyris,
2000; Edmondson, 1999; Edmondson et al.,
2007).
Method
A systematic review methodology was used.
Systematic reviews are particularly appropriate
when the research field is still young, and the
existing data need to be integrated in order to
inform about the theoretical and methodological
issues that should be addressed in the future
(Pettigrew & Roberts, 2006).
We used a two steps strategy to identify
papers. First, we conducted a systematic search
of abstracts published in seven electronic
databases: PsycARTICLES, PubMeD, Sage
Journals, Taylor & Francis, Science Direct
(Psychology, Medicine & Dentistry, Nursing and
Health Professions), Emerald, and SpringerLink.
We used eight combinations of key words
resulted
from
mixing
organizational/team/group/collective
learning
AND hospital/medicine. The search included
papers that were electronically published before
May 2012. Whenever the search engine offered
this possibility, we restricted the search to
articles published in English.
A total number of 1397 titles resulted in the

search. After removing the duplicates, 1118
single titles were analyzed using the list of
predetermined inclusion criteria. The journal
articles considered for review had to: 1) be
written in English, 2) be published in peerreviewed journals, 3) report empirical data, 4) be
collected in hospital settings, 5) have exclusively
health professionals as study participants or use
sources of data (e.g. document analysis) that
would
allow
inferences
about
health
professionals learning behaviors, and 6) identify
or describe learning at group level and refer to it
as a process, as opposed to an output. We
included studies that used qualitative,
quantitative and mixed-methods research.
We excluded papers published in other

language except English, papers reporting on the
efficiency of medical procedures or treatments,
theoretical papers, syntheses or commentary
papers on collective learning in organizations,
papers presenting empirical data on individual
learning and teaching, or on training and
professional development of health professionals
as
individuals,
empirical
studies
on
organizational or team learning conducted in
other kinds of organizations except hospitals,
and papers presenting empirical results of studies
conducted in hospitals on other research topics
(e.g. health behavior, social work, economy).
The selection process is sequenced in Figure 1.
Combined (non-duplicate)
1118
Discarded after title review (1026)
Non- English (53)
Not related to the medical field (71)
Retained for abstract

review (92)
Reporting research on medical

procedures and treatment (238)
Discarded after
abstract review: not
conducted in hospitals
or theoretical papers
(50)
Medical school curriculum and teaching

(325)
Medical personnel professional training
and development (75)
Retained for full-text

review (42)
Reviews or theoretical papers on medical

issues (35)
Reporting results in other research areas
(psychology, education, social work,
economy, nutrition) (229)
Retained after full-text
review (6)
Titles added based on

the reference lists of
the full-text reviewed
articles (6)
Discarded after fulltext review: not peerreviewed, not reporting

empirical data, not
conceptualizing
learning as an
interpersonal
phenomenon (36)
Total number of articles

reviewed (12)
Figure 1. Description of the steps followed in selecting the articles reviewed.
69
After title review, 92 papers were selected

for abstract review. Fifty of them were
discarded based on the information provided in
the abstracts. The vast majority of papers
rejected at this step were theoretical papers or
they were presenting empirical data collected in
other organizational settings. Forty-two papers
were retained for full text analysis, 36 of which
were also rejected because they were not
reporting empirical data although this was not
clear from the abstract they were not
investigating collective learning activities but
individual learning, or they were not published
in peer-review journals. Six articles were
retained for review at this stage.
Second, we used the reference lists of the 6
articles selected in order to identify additional
articles that might have met our predefined
criteria and were not identified in the search we
conducted in the seven databases mentioned.
Forty-eight single titles were identified this
way. Twenty-eight of them were rejected after
abstract review. The rejected articles were
commentary papers, were not studying
collective learning as a process, or they were
not published in peer reviewed journals.
Another 14 titles were rejected after full text
review. In the end, 6 papers were selected as
meeting our inclusion criteria and were added
to the final list. The complete list of the 12
articles, in chronological order, and our
findings are presented in Table 1.
Results
Research methods used
Out of the 12 studies that met our inclusion

criteria, 2 used exclusively qualitative data
collection and analysis methods (Lipshitz &
Popper, 2000; Waring, Harrison, & McDonald,
2007), 6 used mixed methods designs
(Edmondson, 1996b; Edmondson et al., 2001;
Tucker et al., 2002; Edmondson, 2003; Tucker
& Edmondson, 2003; Drach-Zahary & Pud,
2010), and 4 used quantitative designs
(Nembhard & Edmondson, 2006; Tucker, 2007;
Tucker et al., 2007; Hirak et al., 2012). Many of
the studies are predominantly exploratory and
highly descriptive (e.g. Lipshitz & Popper,
2000; Waring et al., 2007; Tucker et al., 2002;
Edmondson, 2003; 1996; Edmondson et al.,
2001).
70
Operationalization of Medical Teams
Seven of the studies report results on mixed

medical units, and 5 report results on nurse units.
None of them report results on doctors only.
When they report results based on data collected
in mixed medical units, some studies investigate
whole departments (e.g. Lipshitz & Popper,
2000; Drach-Zahary & Pud, 2010), while others
report results on long-term, stable teams with
very few members. For example Edmondson et
al. (2001) and Edmondson (2003) report results
from cardiac surgical teams with only five
members. Some studies report data on one or
two medical departments (Waring et al., 2007;
Lipshitz & Popper, 2000), while others report
data on multiple teams. For example,
Edmondson (2003) reports data on 16 medical
departments, while Hirak et al., (2012) report
data on 55 medical units. In most cases the
medical teams that were investigated were
selected based on availability criteria, which also
influenced the way collective learning processes
were operationalized and measured.
Operationalization of Collective Learning
The number of ways in which

organizational learning is measured almost
equals the number of studies included in the
review. In some cases organizational learning is
measured as error communication and analysis
(Edmondson, 1996b). Other studies report on
collective learning as engaging in second-order
problem solving behaviors (Tucker et al, 2002;
Tucker & Edmondson, 2003). In some cases,
engaging in behaviors like experimenting new
methods/ ways of doing things, engaging in
open communication, and reflection on current
practices are used as main indicators of learning
(Edmondson, 2003; Tucker et al., 2007).
Overall, most studies select either one or
several behaviors and processes previously
described in the literature as indicating
collective learning. A rather new and interesting
perspective is taken by Drach-Zahary and Pud
(2010) who describe the efficiency of collective
learning in terms of the chain of continuity
from the people reporting errors, to those
analyzing them, and further on to the people
implementing the results of the analysis.
Predictors of Collective Learning
Despite the diversity of methodological

approaches and conceptualizations of collective
learning and medical teams, there are several
antecedents of organizational learning that have
been identified and described across multiple
studies,
such
as
leadership
behavior
(Edmondson, 1996b; Lipshitz & Popper, 2000;
Edmondson, Bohmer & Pisano, 2001;
Edmondson, 2003; Nembhard & Edmondson,
2006; Hirak et al., 2012), unit interpersonal
climate (Edmondson, 1996b; Lipshitz & Popper,
2000; Edmondson et al., 2001; Edmondson,
2003; Nembhard & Edmondson, 2006; Tucker,
2007; Hirak et al., 2012), hierarchical status
(Edmondson et al., 2001; Tucker et al., 2002;
2006; Waring et al., 2007), and work and task
characteristics (Lipshitz & Popper, 2000, Tucker
et al., 2002; Tucker & Edmondson, 2003;
Nembhard & Edmondson, 2006; Tucker, 2007).
Leadership Behaviors
Half of the studies reported on the role of

leadership behaviors in facilitating or blocking
collective learning processes. Edmondson
(1996b) conducted a mixed methods study
investigating factors influencing error reporting
rates in 8 nurses units. She found a high
association between unit error rates and coaching
behaviors displayed by the head nurse (r = .74),
and also the quality of the interpersonal climate
within the unit (r = .74). When exploring the
causes of these surprising results using
ethnographic interviews and observation, she
found that error reporting varied based on actual
error rates, but also based on the willingness to
report errors. Nurses were more likely to
acknowledge errors and report them in the units
in which the head nurse was working side by
side with all the other nurses, focused on
identifying solutions to problems, as opposed to
finding someone to blame, was perceived as part
of a team and someone who is willing to help if
addressed with a problem. This kind of
leadership behavior helped creating a work
climate in which nurses felt safe to report errors.
Lipshitz and Popper (2000) used
ethnographic methods to explore the types of
learning mechanisms used in two hospital
departments. They suggest that collective

learning was facilitated when the head physician
was using behaviors through which he invited
department members to communicate openly,
was receptive to suggestions from them, and was
open to discuss his owns doubts and errors.
Edmondson et al. (2001) also used
ethnographic methods to explore the factors that
lead to the long-term success of a new minimally
invasive cardiac surgery procedure. The authors
investigated 16 mixed medical units and found
that team members were more likely to engage
in open communication during the procedure,
experiment with new ways of doing things, and
were more willing to openly reflect on their
performance in the teams in which the head
surgeons got involved in selecting team
members, communicated the reasons why the
team members were selected and the roles and
responsibility of each of them, initiated dry runs,
asked for feedback and help from team
members, encouraged them to experiment new
things, and modeled reflection on teams
performance. In a different study, Edmondson
(2003) found that these kind of behaviors
displayed by the head surgeon were highly
correlated (r = .70) with easiness to speak up
reported by the team members (Edmondson,
2003).
Nembhard
&
Edmondson
(2006)
investigated the link between leaders
inclusiveness and members willingness to
engage in quality improvement efforts in 44
neonatal intensive care units. Leaders
inclusiveness defined as behaviors displayed
by the physician-in-charge through which he or
she invites and appreciates all team members
contributions
was found to predict
engagement in quality improvement work
defined as the willingness to participate in efforts
to improve units performance , at team level (
= .41). The relationship was found to be totally
mediated by psychological safety.
Similar
results were found by Hirak et al. (2012) in a
longitudinal study. The authors investigated the
impact of leaders inclusiveness on learning from
failures in 55 work units in an Israelian hospital,
and showed that leaders inclusiveness impacts
psychological safety, which in turn predicts
learning from failures measured four months
later.
71
Table 1. Results of the review conducted on 12 papers investigating collective learning processes in medical
settings.
Paper
Research
Questions
Research
Design
Mixed
1. Edmondson What unit
(1996b)
properties are
methods
associated with
design
differences in
error rates in nurse
units?
Is there an
association
between perceived
unit performance
and error rates?
2. Lipshitz
Popper
(2000)
Unit of
Analysis
Operationaliza
tion of
Collective
Learning
Findings
nurse units error

communication
and error
analysis
Observed error rates vary across units of the

same hospital.
Reported error rates depend on actual error
rates, but mostly on the willingness to engage
in error reporting.
Willingness to engage in error reporting is
facilitated by a climate of mutual trust among
unit members.
Coaching behaviors displayed by the head
nurse facilitates a working climate in which
nurses are not afraid to acknowledge problems
and errors.
Units that reported higher error rates perceived
themselves as having higher performance.
& What kinds of

Ethnograp department analysis of, and
organizational
hic study
reflection on
learning
practices
mechanisms do
embedded into
medical
day to day
departments use?
activities (e.g.
What kind of
rounds,
organizational
meetings,
culture
periodic
characteristics
reviews)
sustain these
learning
mechanisms?
Different learning practices are used with

different intensity and frequency in different
departments.
Task interdependence seems to be related to
engaging in learning practices, especially in
surgical departments.
Learning practices are facilitated by a climate
of transparency and issue orientation. Heads of
the units help create such a climate.
New knowledge created rarely crosses
departments boundaries, and it is rarely
formally documented.
New knowledge is embedded in the practices
and routines of the department.
3. Edmondson,
Bohmer &
Pisano
(2001)
What group and Mixed

organizational
methods
factors influence design
the process of
adoption and
implementation of
a new technology
in surgical cardiac
units?
mixed
surgical
teams
open
communication,
experimenting,
and reflection
Engaging in collective learning behaviors

contributes to the long-term success in adopting
and implementing a new surgical procedure;
Open
communication
among
health
professionals
occupying
different
organizational positions is facilitated by an
interpersonal climate of psychological safety.
The head surgeon facilitates the development of
psychological safe climate,
Organizational support is not related to the
teams success.
4. Tucker,
Edmondson
&
Spear
(2002)
What kind of
Mixed
problem solving methods
behaviors do
design
nurses use?
Why do nurses
use the problem
solving strategies
that they use?
nurse units displaying

second order
problem solving
strategies (e.g.
signaling
problems to the
persons in
charge of
solving them in
order to prevent
them in the
future)
Nurses engage in first order problem solving in

90% of cases.
Nurses adopt two kinds of first order problem
solving strategies: 1. do whatever it takes to
solve the problem on the spot. 2. ask for help
from people you trust, even if they might not be
able to/ in charge with providing assistance.
Nurses engage in on the spot problem solving
strategies due to lack of time, due to the
relunctancy to address colleagues with higher
organizational status, and due to the feeling of
competency that it provides.
72
Paper
Research
Questions
Research
Design
Unit of
Analysis
Operationaliza
tion of
Collective
Learning
Findings
Mixed
5. Edmondson What team and
(2003)
organizational
methods
factors facilitate design
the adoption of a
new surgical
procedure in
multidisciplinary
surgical teams?
What leadership
behaviors
facilitate open
communication in
surgical teams?
mixed
surgical
teams
open
communication,
experimenting,
and reflection
leadership
behaviors
Non-threatening
(acknowledges his/her own mistakes, uses selfdisclosure, does not overreact when others
make mistakes, values members contribution
regardless of position, gives explanations for
decisions, praises team effort, helps coping
with power differences) contribute to success in
adoption and implementation of a new surgical
procedure.
Boundary spanning is highly correlated with
implementation success.
Interpersonal factors (social and emotional) are
more important than technical abilities and
organizational support and resources in
predicting implementation success.
& Under what

Mixed
6. Tucker
Edmondson conditions do
methods
(2003)
nurses respond to design
system failures by
actively seeking to
prevent them in
the future?

second order
problem solving
strategies (e.g.
signaling
problems to the
persons in
charge of
solving them in
order to prevent
them in the
future)
Nurses do not engage in second order problem

solving behaviors due to three main factors:
emphasis on individual vigilance and
responsibility in hospital settings, time urgency
and concerns about units efficiency, the feeling
of empowerment that one has when she/he
manages to solve a problem on the spot.
Correlation department open

Tenure and professionals status were associated
7. Nembhard & How do
Edmondson professional
al design
communication, with psychological safety, but not gender and
(2006)
status, leader
reflection on
worked hours.
inclusiveness, unit
past experience The level of psychological safety varies across
membership, and
units, but also across professional status. Health
professionals that hold higher organizational
psychological
positions report higher levels of psychological
safety influence
safety.
health
Leaders inclusiveness is associated with
professionals
psychological safety and it moderates the
engagement in
relationship between professional status and
quality
psychological safety.
improvement?
Psychological safety mediates the relationship
between leaders inclusiveness and engagement
in quality improvement.
8. Waring,
Harrison, &
McDonald
(2007)
What patterns of Ethnograp department sharing

Doctors prefer adopting single-loop learning
behaviors related hic study
information and solutions due to a culture characterized by high
tolerance for risk, and appraisal of those who
to patients safety
reflection
manage to find on the spot and unorthodox
and organizational
solutions in unusual situations.
learning do
Finding on the spot solutions is perceived as an
surgeons and
indicator of high professionalism. It is
anesthetists from
considered implicit that doctors take decisions
surgical
on their own, without consulting other health
departments use?
professionals.
73
Paper
Research
Questions
Research
Design
Unit of
Analysis
Operationaliza
tion of
Collective
Learning
Findings
9. Tucker
(2007)
How does
Correlation nurse units
psychological
al design
safety, problem
solving efficacy
and felt
responsibility
influence nurses
involvement in
system
improvement?
open
communication,
reflection,
experimenting
Hours worked/week is positively associated

with engagement in system improvement
(communicating errors to people in position to
fix them, suggesting potential solutions,
experimenting solutions) by nurses.
Organizational support is negatively associated
with system improvement.
Psychological safety and problem solving
efficacy are positively related with system
improvement, while felt responsibility is
negatively associated.
10. Tucker,
Nembhard,
&
Edmondson
(2007)
How do
Know-what learning activities (distributing
improvement
al design
communication, scientific articles to staff, exchange of
project teams help
reflection,
information with other neonatal intensive care
implementing new
experimenting
units, reviews of the literature, site visits to
practices in the
other neonatal intensive care units, using
departments they
workbook with best-practices) were not
work in?
associated with implementation success.
Know-how activities (offering feedback before
actual implementation, inviting staff to
contribute with ideas, pilot runs, dry runs,
project team meetings, and problem-solving
cycles) was associated with implementation
success.
Know-how learning activities mediate between
psychological safety and implementation
success.
What kind of
Mixed
11. DrachZahary
& learning
methods
Pud (2010) mechanisms do
design
nurse units use?
How does type of
learning
mechanisms used
impact medication
administration
errors?
12. Hirak, Peng,

Carmeli &
Schaubroeck
(2012)
74
Does leadership
inclusiveness and
psychological
safety facilitate
learning from
failures in medical
teams?
Does learning
from failures
predict unit
performance?
nurse units data collection

and analysis,
generating
solutions,
implementing
solutions
Correlation department
al Design
(longitudin
al)
open discussion
of failure;
reflection on
failure;
correcting the
causes that led
to failure
Integrated learning mechanisms (data reporting,

analysis, generating solutions and applying
them are done by all members of the unit) are
negatively associated with medication
administration errors (MAE).
Non-integrated learning mechanism (error
reporting, analysis, generation solutions and
implementation are done by different agents
within the unit) are highly associate with MAE.
Supervisory learning mechanisms (head nurses
identify solutions that are further implemented
by the unit) is not associated to MAE.
Patchy learning mechanisms (unstructured and
inconsistent mechanisms) are positively
associated with MAE.
The relationship between leader inclusiveness
and learning from failure is mediated by
Leadership
inclusiveness
facilitates
psychological safety, which in turn impacts unit
performance. This relationship is stronger in
groups with low performance.
Interpersonal climate
The quality of the unit interpersonal climate

was also found to be associated with collective
learning across multiple studies. Climate refers
to the norms, atmosphere, practices,
interpersonal relationships, enacted rituals and
ways of working developed by a team
(Anderson & West, 1994, p. 81). Edmondson
(1996) found that nurses learn from the way
error reporting was handled in the past by the
unit, and mostly by the head nurse. These
experiences led either to a climate of fear and
defensiveness, or a climate of safety. The rates of
error reported were found to be higher in units in
which members perceived that they share a safe
interpersonal climate.
Lipshitz and Popper (2000) found that a
work atmosphere characterized by openness,
integrity and issue orientation was more likely to
facilitate asking questions and admitting
problems, in opposition to a climate that was
perceived as formal and distant.
Edmondson et al. (2001) also found that
health professionals were more likely to censure
themselves and be afraid to speak openly in
surgical units that were lacking a climate of
psychological safety. Similar findings are
reported by Edmondson (2003). Psychological
safety was found to predict members
willingness to engage in quality improvement
work in neonatal care units ( = .62), to mediate
the effect of leader inclusiveness, and to
moderate the impact of organizational position
on quality improvement efforts (Nembhard &
Edmondson, 2006). Hirak et al., (2012) also
found that psychological safety mediates
between leaders inclusiveness and learning from
failures measured at a four months distance.
Tucker (2007) investigated the impact of
psychological safety on nurses willingness to
engage in system improvement tasks. Using only
one item to measure psychological safety, she
found a positive relationship between the two
variables.
Hierarchical Position
Hierarchical position was also found to

impact learning behaviors across several studies.
Studies reporting on this matter suggest that low
status employees, such as nurses and residents
are more reluctant to engage in open
communication
and
collective
learning
behaviors. Nurses and perfusionists were more
reserved in communicating openly in mixed
surgical units (Edmondson, et al., 2001;
Edmondson, 2003). A supportive leadership
style was found to reduce the perception of
power differences and increase the chance that
low status health professionals would feel safe in
displaying learning behaviors within the team
(Edmondson, 2003). Similar results were
reported by Nembhard and Edmondson (2006)
who found that leaders inclusiveness moderates
the effect of professional status on psychological
safety, which in turn leads to engagement in
work improvement in neonatal care units.
In an ethnographic study using interviews
and observation with 80 members of a surgical
department, Waring et al. (2007) suggest that
there might be differences in how different
categories of health professionals engage in
sharing information activities and reflection on
practice activities. The authors found that there is
a shared belief among health professionals that
certified doctors are more entitled to speak their
mind, as opposed to residents and nurses in
matters related to patients care, and that there is
little
communication
between
different
professional groups which leads to undetected
errors. They also found that it is more common
for doctors to use reflection on adverse events as
an individual practice, while residents are more
used to rely on their supervisors as partners in
this process. Nurses are more likely to participate
in collective practices such as incident reporting
and briefings.
Reluctance to address doctors, as a result of
perceived low professional status, was also
suggested as an explanation for why nurses tend
to engage almost excursively in on the spot, first
level problem solving behaviors and not escalade
problems to other high status health
professionals that were more likely to be able to
help (Tucker et al., 2002).
Work and Task Characteristics
Evidence of the impact of workload and

work volume on collective learning behaviors in
real medical teams seems to indicate
contradictory results. Nembhard and Edmondson
(2006) found no relationship between workload
measured as ratio of staff to hospital beds
and engagement in quality improvement efforts
in neonatal intensive care units. Similar results
75
were obtained by Tucker (2007) who found no

relationship between perceived workload and
nurses involvement in system improvement in
37 nurse units, but a positive significant
relationship between hours worked and system
improvement efforts.
Tucker et al. (2002) suggest that one of the
reasons why nurses adopt first-order problem
solving behaviors over second-order problem
solving behaviors is lack of time due to work
volume. The same argument is defended also by
Tucker and Edmondson (2003).
Although no substantial evidence was found
linking task interdependence and learning
behaviors, Lipshitz and Popper (2000) suggest,
based on qualitative analysis of ethnographic
interviews and observation, that task
interdependence might play a role in health
professionals willingness to participate in
collective learning activities, especially in
Consequences of Organizational
Learning
Few studies investigated organization
learning as an antecedent for organizational
outcomes (Edmondson, 1996; 2003; Edmondson
et al., 2001; Hirak, Peng, Carmeli &
Schaubroeck; 2012). Edmondson (1996b) found
a positive association between detected error
rates and perceived unit performance (r = .76).
Edmondson et al. (2001) and Edmondson (2003)
report on data collected in surgical units,
suggesting that collective learning behaviors are
related to long time success in adoption and
implementation of a new minimally invasive
cardiac procedure. Using a longitudinal design,
Hirak et al. (2012) also found that self reported
data on learning from failures is positively
related to perceived department performance
three months later.
Discussion
The aim of this study was to identify papers
investigating organizational learning as a mesolevel phenomenon (Edmondson, 2002) in
hospitals settings. Twelve studies met our
predefined criteria. The findings revealed a very
diverse literature both from a conceptual, and a
methodological point of view. We have
organized our discussion section in two distinct
parts. Firstly, we reflect on the methodological
76
aspects of the papers reviewed and discuss them

considering the current state of the field research
on the topic of organizational learning in general.
Secondly, we discuss our results comparing them
to the findings of other studies conducted in
different organizational settings. We end this
part by integrating our results in a model
explaining collective learning in healthcare
organizations.
Overview of the Methodological Aspects
To summarize our findings, studies

investigating collective learning in work groups
in hospitals address a variety of research
questions, use a wide range of research methods,
and operationalize learning processes and
medical teams in very different ways. Despite
the differences, and the contextualized
understanding of collective learning from one
study to the other, three conclusions can be
drawn based on the literature we reviewed.
The first conclusion concerns the increasing
number of empirical studies that are conducted
on the topic of collective learning. One of the
most important critiques brought to the
construct, next to the lack of conceptual clarity,
is the scarcity of empirical data (Lipshitz &
Poper, 2000; Pawlowski, 2001; Kozlowski et al.,
2010). Our search of the literature identified 12
studies conducted exclusively in hospital
settings. In 2006, Kayes and Burnetts review of
team learning processes in real work groups
from different organizational settings also
reported on 12 studies. Only one of the studies
(Edmondson, 2003) that met our criteria of
having health professionals as participants and
being conducted in hospitals was also included
in their review. This indicates that there are more
and more studies investigating collective
learning in real organizations which might help
clarify some of the conceptual issues, and
contribute to the development of an evidencebased theoretical model of organizational
learning.
The second conclusion is that field studies
are switching from an exploratory, qualitative
research into testing precise relationships among
variables. When analyzing the papers we
reviewed in a chronological fashion, one can
easily notice how the studies have evolved from
open inquiry approach (e.g. Edmondson, 1996b;
Lipshitz & Popper, 2000; Edmondson, 2003),
into a more positivistic approach, using
quantitative designs to test hypotheses

Tucker et al., 2007; Hirak et al., 2012).
According to Edmondson and McManus (2007)
this indicates the maturation process through
which theory advances in management and
organizational research.
The third conclusion is that recent studies
(Hirak et al., 2012) take a cross-level approach
on collective learning in organizations (Klein &
Kozlowski, 2000). Kozlowski et al. (2010) argue
that the tedious progress that the theoretical and
empirical work on organizational learning has
had over the years, despite the interest from
different disciplines, is due to a conceptual error.
The authors posit that the macro-level
conceptualization of collective learning which
has dominated the field since the 60s brought
little contribution to understanding the
phenomenon. They draw on the meso-level
perspective on organizational learning (House et
al., 1995; Edmonson, 1999; 2002) and the cross
level approach to organizational behavior
(Kozlowski & Klein, 2000; Klein & Kozlowski,
2000) and propose a framework that
simultaneously considers individual and group
level inputs and processes, in conceptualizing
organizational learning.
Overall, although we took a picture of the
research field through the lens of only one
professional domain, our findings clearly
describes the methodological progress in the
field of organizational learning as a result of the
meso-level paradigm, and the empirical work
initiated in the mid 90s.
A Conceptual Framework of Collective
Learning Processes in Medical Settings
Across different studies, several variables

were found to be consistently associated with
collective learning: leadership style, unit
interpersonal climate, and hierarchical position.
Some studies suggested that work and task
characteristics such as number of hours worked
or task interdependence are also related to
collective learning. Few studies reported on the
relationship between collective learning and
healthcare medical teams performance. Figure 2
presents a framework that integrates the
relationships suggested by the studies we have
reviewed.
Both qualitative and quantitative data
support the role of leaders in facilitating
collective learning in hospitals (Edmondson,

1996b; Lipshitz & Popper, 2000; Edmondson et
al. 2001; Edmondson, 2003; Nembhard &
Edmondson, 2006; Hirak et al., 2012). These
results are consistent with data reported in other
industries also (Edmondson, 1999; Cannon &
Edmondson, 2001; Edmondson, 2002; Wong et
al., 2010). Leaders facilitate collective learning
through creating an interpersonal climate in
which members feel comfortable to speak
openly. This mechanisms seems to be consistent
in the medical field (Nembhard & Edmondson,
2006; Hirak et al., 2012), and in other
organizational settings (Edmondson, 1999). A
supportive, coaching-oriented leadership style
seems to be particularly relevant in medical
organizations, especially concerning the
employees who occupy low positions in the
hierarchy. As Kish-Gephart, Detert, Trevino and
Edmondson (2009) argue, there is natural
tendency of low status employee to fear
engaging in open communication when
interacting with a person holding a higher
organizational position. Some of the studies we
reviewed found that leaders who behave as if
they are part of the team and appreciate the
contributions of all teams members can reduce
the perception of status differences, increase the
feeling of safety within the team, and facilitate
members willingness to engage in collective
learning
behaviors
(Edmondson,
2003;
Nembhard & Edmondson, 2006).
The relationships are not as clear when it
comes to work and task characteristics and
collective learning. Some of the studies we
reviewed (Tucker & Edmondson, 2003; Tucker,
2007) suggest that work volume or workload
might impact collective learning. Although the
link is barely mentioned in literature on
organizational learning in general, it might be
relevant in the medical field. The literature on
job demands shows that health professionals are
among the employees experiencing the highest
levels of workload (Wood & Killion, 2007;
Carayon & Grses, 2005), and it appears
plausible that time constraints might prevent
them from engaging in collective learning
practices.
Studies conducted in different industries
suggest that variables such as task complexity
(Kayes & Burnett, 2006), or task routineness
(Wong, 2004) impact collective learning. Only
one study included in our review (Lipshitz &
Popper, 2000) identified task related variables
77
task interdependence as possible relevant in

understanding learning behaviors in medical
teams. One possible explanation for this is the
fact that studies conducted in the medical field
investigate either very specialized medical teams
performing the same specific surgical task
(Edmondson, 2003; Edmondson et al., 2001), or
medical departments as a whole performing
approximately the same wide range of tasks. In
either case, the groups were rather homogenous
in terms of task characteristics.
All of the studies that report data on the
relation between collective learning and team
performance found evidence supporting it
(Edmondson, 1996b; Edmondson, 2003;
Edmondson et al., 2001; Hirak et al. 2012),
which appears to be consistent with findings
from organizations performing in other domains
(Edmondson, 1999; Cannon & Edmondson,
2001; Wong, 2004). Although organizational
learning has often been described as an
antecedent of increased patients safety and
quality of care (NHS, 2000; Kohn et al., 2000;
Aspden et al., 2004; Aspden et al., 2006;
Woodward et al., 2004; Edwards, 2012), only
two of the studies reviewed report on the
Learning -prone
leadership
Behavior
implications of collective learning for patients

directly. Edmondson et al. (2001) and
Edmondson (2003), show that collective learning
is associated with success in adoption and
implementation of a new surgical procedure
number of successful procedures done over a six
months period after the first experience with
using the new procedure in the hospital. The
other two studies (Edmondson, 1996; Hirak et al.
2012) use self reported data to measure team
performance. Patients safety and quality of care,
similar to organizational learning, are constructs
that are rather difficult to operationalize and
measure. Conry et al. (2012) conducted a
systematic review of studies describing
interventions meant to improve quality of care in
hospitals. The authors reviewed 20 papers
published between 2000 and 2010, and
concluded that programs use very different
theoretical backgrounds and different ways of
measuring intervention success. Thus the
difficulty in capturing complex and multifaceted
constructs such as collective learning and quality
of care might be an important reason for the lack
of empirical data linking the two.
Interpersonal
Climate
Perception of
Status
Professional Status
Work Characteristics
(workload, work
volume)
Collective
Learning
Behaviors
Unit
Performance
Task Characteristics
(task interdependence)
Figure 2. Conceptual Framework of Organizational Learning in Hospitals.
Final Remarks
Several of the antecedents of collective
learning are well understood and supported by
findings of studies in many industries. Empirical
data from work groups in various organizational
settings found evidence for the relationship
between leadership style or the quality of the
78
interpersonal climate and collective learning.

Studies investigating these relationships in
hospitals are mostly qualitative, reflecting the
early stages of development of field research in
organizational learning in general, and further
testing of these relationship using quantitative
design are needed in order to refine an
evidenced-based model of organizational
learning (Edmondson & McManus, 2007). The

impact of professional status seems to be
especially relevant in the medical context, but
whether its impact can be reduced through the
contribution of the leader requires additional
exploration. Also, several other work
characteristics, task characteristics, and unit
characteristics are rather unexplored in medical
organizations, although some qualitative data
suggests that they might influence learning in
medical teams.
Support was found for the link between
learning and team performance in a variety of
industries, although it is still rather unclear how
collective learning impacts the quality of medical
services. Another aspect that requires additional
exploration is the type of learning behaviors and
their relevance for performance. In most cases,
learning was used as a global construct and
operationalized as a conglomerate of different
collective practices: error communication, error
analysis, asking for feedback, sharing
information,
reflecting
on
actions,
experimenting. It is not clear how different
learning behaviors considered separately might
influence performance.
Our work is not without limitations.
Although we conducted a systematic search of
several international databases that cover
publications with a wide spectrum: psychology,
organizational studies, and medicine, our initial
selection of papers resulted in only a small
number of papers that met our criteria. The
papers we selected based on our first strategy
made references to other studies that did not
result in our initial systematic search of
databases. For this reason we decided to apply
the second strategy of identifying papers by
using the references lists of the studies initially
selected. This led us to identifying half the
studies we reviewed supporting the hypothesis
that there are studies that might have met our
criteria that were not listed in the databases we
used.
Acknowledgement:
This work was possible with the financial
support of: Investing in people! PhD scholarship,
Project co-financed by the European Social
Fund,
SECTORAL
OPERATIONAL
PROGRAMME
HUMAN
RESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT 2007 2013. Babe-Bolyai
University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
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Mtiers, caractristiques et valeurs sociales attribues a la masculinit

et a la fminit
Crisanta-Alina Mazilescu1, Bernard Gangloff2
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to study, on a population of students of technical universities, the representation of
masculinity and femininity, and assignments made for these representations in terms of social value and jobs.
We observe, on the one hand, the characteristics associated with femininity, characteristics that are generally
oriented to emotional support, and on the other hand the characteristics of masculinity that have to do with power
and aggression. In terms of social value, characteristics associated with femininity are considered more desirable
than socially useful, while the characteristics associated to masculinity are assessed at the same time useful and
socially desirable. Finally, the attribution of jobs to gender characteristics obtained in previous stages, confirm
the link between male professions and characteristics of masculinity and female professions and femininity
characteristics.
Keywords: gender, femininity, masculinity, social value, trades
Rsum
Lobjectif de cet article est dtudier, sur une population dtudiants/es en sciences techniques, les
reprsentations de la masculinit et de la fminit ainsi que la valeur sociale et les mtiers attribus la
masculinit et la fminit. Les rsultats montrent que les caractristiques associes la fminit sont
gnralement orientes vers le soutien motionnel, la masculinit tant davantage lie au pouvoir et
lagression. Pour la valeur sociale, les caractristiques associes la fminit sont considres comme davantage
dsirables que comme socialement utiles, alors que les caractristiques associes la masculinit sont tout autant
values comme utiles que comme dsirables. Enfin, en ce qui concerne lattributions des mtiers aux
caractristiques de genre, les rsultats confirment la mise en relation des mtiers masculins avec les
caractristiques masculines et des mtiers fminins avec les caractristiques fminines.
Mots-cls: genre, fminit, masculinit, valeur sociale, mtiers
Rezumat
n aceast lucrare ne-am propus s studiem, pe o populaie de studeni ai unei universiti tehnice,
reprezentrile privind masculinitatea i feminitatea i atribuirile ftcute acestor reprezenttri n termeni de valoare
social i de locuri de munc. Rezultatele obinute evideniaz, pe de o parte, caracteristicile asociate feminitii,
caracteristici care, n general, sunt orientate catre un suport emoional, si pe de alta parte pe cele ale
masculinitii care au o legatur cu puterea i agresivitatea. n ceea ce privete valoarea social, caracteristicile
asociate feminitii sunt considerate mai mult dezirabile dect utile social, n timp ce caracteristicile asociate
masculinitii sunt apreciate n acelai timp i utile i dezirabile social. n final, n privina atribuirii de meserii
caracteristicilor de gen obinute n etapele precedente, rezultatele confirm legtura dintre meseriile masculine i
caracteristici de sex masculin, i meseriile feminine i caracteristicile de sex feminin..
Cuvinte cheie: gen, feminitate, masculinitate, valoarea social, meserii
1
2
Dpartement de Formation Didactique de lUniversit Polytechnique de Timisoara, alina.mazilescu@gmail.com

Laboratoire Parisien de Psychologie Sociale Universit Paris 10, bernard.gangloff@univ-rouen.fr
83
Mtiers, caractristiques et valeurs sociales attribues a la masculinit et a la fminit
Introduction
Les strotypes rpondent un besoin de
simplification
dans
le
traitement
des
informations: lhomme se centre sur certaines
caractristiques, le regroupent en catgories et
ralise des gnralisations qui conduisent aux
strotypes (Poulin-Dubois & Serbin, 2006). Les
strotypes lis la nature fminine ou
masculine des individus sont des plus frquents.
Cette diffrence de nature conduit attribuer aux
hommes et aux femmes des comportements,
aptitudes, prfrences ou des personnalits qui
leur sont spcifiques et qui servent de point de
dpart pour les strotypes de genre (Wiggins &
Holzmuller, 1981).
Parmi les premires grandes tudes sur les
diffrences des traits de personnalit selon le
genre, on peut citer les recherches de Maccoby et
Jacklin (1974) qui tentent montrer que les
hommes seraient plus assertifs et moins anxieux
que les femmes; ou encore les travaux de
Feingold (1994), travaux selon lesquels les
femmes seraient moins assertives que les
hommes, mais plus grgaires, plus anxieuses,
plus confiantes et plus maternelles que leurs
homologues masculins. Plusieurs auteurs ont
aussi mis en vidence des diffrences de genre
bass sur les traits du Big Five, notamment en ce
qui concerne le Neuroticisme, avec des scores
plus levs chez les femmes que chez les
hommes (Lynn & Martin, 1997; Kling, Hyde,
Showers & Buswell, 1999), mais aussi en ce qui
concerne
lExtraversion,
le
Caractre
Consciencieux et lOuverture aux expriences
(McCrae & Costa, 1989; Feingold 1994 ;
McClure, 2000).
Costa, Terracino et McCrae (2001)
considrent cependant que ces diffrences
proviennent davantage de lintriorisation de
strotypes que de facteurs proprement
biologiques. Et il est effectivement mis en
vidence que les reprsentations sur la
masculinit
et
fminit
refltent
des
changements historiques et des influences
socioculturelles. Dans une mta-analyse Twenge
(1997) observe ainsi que sur la priode 19701995, soit en seulement 25 ans, le score de
masculinit a augment pour les femmes (r=.74
pour les scores du Bem Sex Rol Inventory -M),
alors que le score de fminit est rest inchang.
Les strotypes de genre ont une influence dans
de nombreux domaines. Et parmi ceux-ci, on
peut citer lorientation professionnelle. Mme si
84
la libert de choisir une carrire et une activit

professionnelle existe aussi bien pour les garons
que pour les filles, les strotypes associs la
division au travail influencent en effet les
orientations de carrire. Les parents et
lensemble de la socit entretiennent les
strotypes de genre et encouragent les
orientations de leurs enfants vers les professions
considres
caractristiques
dun
genre
(Fontayne, Sarrazin & Famose, 2000). Aussi les
orientations vers des mtiers atypiques, c'est-dire non traditionnels du point du genre sontelles quantitativement rs limites (cf. Cameron,
2001 ; Charrier, 2004; Guichard-Caudic, Kergoat
et Vilbrod, 2008; Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs et
Tamkins, 2004; Ott, 1989; Williams, 1995).
Ces strotypes proviennent souvent dune
liaison qui est tablie entre les mtiers et les
qualits ncessaires pour y russir: russir dans
un mtier dit masculin ncessiterait des qualits
masculines, et russir dans un mtier dit
fminin ncessiterait des qualits fminines.
Ainsi, des caractristiques comme tendre, doux,
affectueux, caractristiques habituellement
considres comme lies la fminit, seraient
ncessaires, cest--dire utiles (nous faisons ici
rfrence la thorie de la valeur), pour russir
dans les mtiers dits fminins.
Linterprtations des traits fminins et
masculins en terme dutilit sociale renvoie la
thorie de la valeur sociale des personnes
(Beauvois, 1995; Beauvois, Dubois et Peeters,
1999; Dubois, 2005; Dubois et Beauvois, 2001;
Cambon, 2002; Le Barbenchon, Cambon et
Lavigne, 2005). Les traits dcrivent ce que sont
les gens, mais surtout parlent de la valeur des
gens dans des rapports sociaux donns. La valeur
a deux formes: la dsirabilit sociale (affects que
lon ressent) et lutilit sociale (la valeur des
gens dans le fonctionnement social).
Notre tude se propose danalyser les
reprsentations sur la masculinit et fminit
dun groupe dtudiants/es en sciences
techniques, la valeur sociale et les mtiers quils
attribuent la masculinit et la fminit.
Mthode
Notre chantillon fut constitue dtudiants
et tudiantes inscrits en premire et deuxime
anne d'universit technique et rpartis en trois
groupes: 45 tudiants dans le premier
(17 hommes et 28 femmes), 30 tudiants dans le
2me (14 hommes et 16 femmes) et 40 tudiants
le troisime (20 hommes et 20 femmes). Ils ont

particip cette tude sur la base du volontariat,
dans le cadre d'un module optionnel
d'enseignement destin leur apprendre
enseigner les matires techniques l'cole.
Les membres du premier groupe ont tabli
une liste des 5 caractristiques quils associaient
la fminit et 5 caractristiques quils
associaient la masculinit. Ces caractristiques
ont t regroupes en catgories en fonction des
traits synonymes identifis et les participants du
deuxime groupe ont alors indiqu, sur une
chelle de 7 points, la dsirabilit et lutilit
sociale des personnes caractrises par chacune
des catgories labores. Quant aux participants
du troisime groupe, ils ont mis en rapport les
caractristiques associes la fminit et la
masculinit avec des mtiers: la consigne qui
leur fut donne a alors t dindiquer, pour des
listes de caractristiques donnes, 3 5 mtiers
pour lesquels ils considraient que ces
caractristiques taient valoriss.
Rsultats
Caractristiques associes la fminit
et masculinit
La premire analyse fut centre sur les

caractristiques que les tudiants d'une universit
technique associaient la fminit et la
masculinit. Elle a conduit deux hirarchies,
l'une pour la fminit, la seconde pour la
masculinit. Ces hirarchies ont t ralises sur
la base de la frquence des caractristiques que
les participants avaient indique respectivement
pour la fminit et la masculinit. En raison du
grand nombre de termes synonymes, les
caractristiques (N = 205) ont t regroupes en
catgories et les catgories ont t hirarchises
par frquence dapparition.
Nous prsentons ci-dessous les principales
catgories obtenues, dune part globalement (sur
l'ensemble des participants), dautre part en
fonction du genre des participants.
Analyses globales
Lanalyse des caractristiques associes la

fminit (tableau 1) met en vidence un set de
caractristiques renvoyant essentiellement au
domaine du soutien motionnel (affectueuse,
aimante, attentionne, maternelle, protectrice) et

aux interactions avec les autres (agrable,
plaisante, charmante, gentille, aimable, sociable).
La fminit est considre par les tudiants en
sciences techniques comme une mlange des
caractristiques
psychologiques
traditionnellement considres comme fminines
(par exemple affectueuse, tendre, dlicate), mais
aussi des caractristiques physiques (belle). Les
catgories les plus frquentes sont composes
tant de caractristiques positives (des qualits),
que de caractristiques ngatives (comme
linstabilit, lmotivit ou la fragilit).
En ce qui concerne la masculinit
(tableau 2), il est observ que les tudiants/es
indiquent gnralement des caractristiques
traditionnellement
considres
comme
masculines. Comme pour les attributions
fminines, filles, on observe, dune part une
mlange de caractristiques psychologiques
(dtermin, insensible, intelligent) et physiques
(robuste, athltique), et dautre part une mlange
des caractristiques positives (intelligent) et
ngatives (dur, cruel). Comme on le voit, les
caractristiques associes la masculinit
renvoient au pouvoir et lagression, ce qui va
dans le sens des strotypes du genre sur la
masculinit.
En ce qui concerne la proportion qualits
dfauts associes respectivement la fminit et
masculinit, on observe une rpartition presque
identique avec, tant pour la fminit que pour la
masculinit, des qualits hauteur de 90% et des
dfauts pour 10%. Il ny a donc pas de
dvalorisation des caractristiques fminines par
rapport aux caractristiques lies la
masculinit.
Influence du genre sur la reprsentation
de la fminit et de la masculinit
Les reprsentations de la fminit et de la

masculinit diffrent selon le genre des
participants:
- en ce qui concerne la fminit (tableau 3),
il y a une diffrence significative entre filles et
garons (2 = 4.73 ; p<.05), dans le sens o les
filles (12.14%) considrent la beaut comme
lune caractristique de la fminit alors que
seulement 3.53% des garons partagent cette
apprciation.
85
Tableau 1. Exemples de catgories des traits associes la fminit

Rang
Catgories
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Etc.
Total
dlicate, fine
fragile, faible, sensible
belle
tendre, douce, chaude
affectueuse, aimante, attentionne, maternelle, protectrice
agrable, charmante, gentille, aimable, sociable
attractive, sductrice, sensuelle, voluptueuse
soigne, lgante, arrange
intelligente
leve, polie, instruite
souriante, heureuse
calme, quilibre
patiente, comprhensive
motive, timide, motionnellement instable
mnagre, travailleuse
spontane
dpendante
sre delle
incertaine
bavarde
ferme, inflexible
Forte
instinctive, intuitive
86
%
16.09%
10.73%
9.75%
6.83%
6.83%
6.34%
4.39%
3.90%
2.44%
2.44%
1.95%
1.95%
1.95%
1.95%
1.46%
1.46%
0.98%
0.98%
0.98%
0,98%
0,98%
0,98%
0,98%
100%
Tableau 2. Exemples de catgories des traits associes la masculinit

Rang
Catgories
1
puissant
2
athltique, bien fait, grand, imposant, robuste, solide
3
intelligent, dbrouillard, sage
4
dur, cruel, froce, insensible, indiffrent, froid, autoritaire
5
dtermin, ferme, non influenable, tenace
6
protecteur, affectueux, tendre, attentionn
7
responsable, fiable
8
fier, orgueilleux
9
confiant, optimiste
10
digne
11
courageux
12
heureux, blagueur
13
objectif, raliste
14
beau
15
diligent, travailleur
Etc.
Total
- en ce qui concerne la masculinit (tableau

4), on observe que 6.15% des garons y
associent le courage et la dignit alors quaucune
fille ny voient le courage et que seulement
0.71% y associent la dignit (2 = 6.15;
Nombre
d'apparition
33
22
20
14
14
13
9
8
5
5
4
4
4
4
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Nombre d'apparition
30
13
21
22
26
14
7
6
6
5
4
4
3
3
2
%
14.63
6.34
10.24
10.73
12.68
6.83
3.41
2.93
2.93
2.44
1.95
1.95
1.46
1.46
0.98
100%
p<.05 pour courageux; 2 = 4.13, p<.05 pour

digne). Mais les filles considrent que la
confiance en lavenir et loptimisme est une
caractristique de la masculinit, ce qui nest pas
le cas des garons (0%).
Tableau 3. Catgories associes la fminit selon les garons et les filles

indiqu par les
Catgories
garons
dlicate, fine
15.29%
10.59%
Belle
3.53%
4.71%
8.24%
15.29%
5.88%
2.35%
Intelligente
0.00%
0.00%
Tableau 4. Catgories associes la masculinit selon les garons et les filles
indiqu par les
Catgories
garons
Puissant
10.77%
3.08%
12.31%
9.23%
10.77%
3.08%
responsable, fiable
1.54%
fier, orgueilleux
3.08%
confiant, optimiste
0.00%
Digne
6.15%
Courageux
6.15%
Caractristiques auto-centrs et
caractristiques lis aux interactions
avec les autres
Partant du strotype selon lequel que la

fminit serait oriente vers les besoins des
indiqu par les

filles
14.29%
9.29%
12.14%
7.14%
5.00%
8.57%
2.86%
4.29%
3.57%
3.57%
indiqu par les

filles
16.43%
7.86%
9.29%
11.43%
12.86%
8.57%
3.57%
4.29%
4.29%
0.71%
0.00%
autres (besoins motionnels/psychologiques ou

physiologiques), nous avons rparti en deux
dimensions les caractristiques initiales que nous
avions obtenues: caractristiques auto-centres et
caractristiques lies aux interactions avec les
autres (cf. tableau 5).
Tableau 5. Rpartition dimensionnelle des caractristiques associes la fminit et masculinit

Associes la
Associes la masculinit
Diffrences
fminit (nbr et %)
(nbr et %)
Auto- centr
83 (40.5%)
140 (68.29%)
2 = 7.10 ; p<.05
Li aux interactions avec les
122 (59.5%)
65 (31.7%)
2 = 8.47 ; p<.05
autres
Diffrences
(2 = 3.61; n.s.)
2 = 13.39 ; p<.05
inter-dimensions
La diffrence entre les deux dimensions

montre que pour la fminit, le nombre de
caractristiques auto-centres ne diffre donc pas
du nombre de caractristiques lies aux
interactions avec les autres. Par contre, pour la
masculinit, les caractristiques auto-centres
sont plus nombreuses que les caractristiques
orientes vers les autres (p<.05).
Par ailleurs, lintrieur de chaque

dimension (auto-centre vs lie aux interactions),
les diffrences entre caractristiques fminines et
caractristiques masculines sont dans les deux
cas significatives: pour la fminit, ce sont les
caractristiques lies aux interactions qui
prdominent (2 = 8.47 ; p<.05), linverse tant
observ pour la masculinit (2 = 7.10 ; p<.05).
87
Dsirabilit et utilit sociale des

caractristiques associes la
fminit et la masculinit
Pour valuer la valeur sociale des
caractristiques associes la masculinit et la
fminit nous avons utilis les 4 chelles
employes par Le Barbenchon, Cambon et
Lavigne (2005) pour oprationnaliser l'utilit et
la dsirabilit sociales, soit deux items faisant
rfrence la russite dans la vie professionnelle
et au salaire (pour valuer lutilit sociale), et
deux items faisant rfrence la capacit davoir
des amis et celle dtre aim (pour valuer la
dsirabilit sociale). Lvaluation sur ces 4 items
a t ralise sur des chelles en 7 points.
Nous avons, partir des rponses obtenues,
ralis deux hirarchies, lune pour lutilit,
lautre pour la dsirabilit, afin daboutir trois
niveaux dutilit (utilit +, utilit 0 et utilit -) et
trois niveaux de dsirabilit (dsirabilit +,
dsirabilit 0 et dsirabilit -). Nous avons, pour

cela, calcul la valeur centre-reduite (les scores
z de la valeur de moyenne des rponses), puis
tabli les bornes + 0.25 et 0.25. Les traits
avec les scores z infrieurs -0.25 ont ainsi t
catgoriss dans la zone polarit ngative (soit
utilit - et dsirabilit -), ceux avec les scores z
situs entre -0.25 et +0.25 dans la zone polarit
neutre et les traits avec les scores z suprieurs
+0.25 dans la zone de polarit positive.
Comme on le voit sur les exemples du
tableau 6, les caractristiques associes la
fminit sont gnralement considres comme
socialement dsirables, mais comme peu utiles
(dun point de vue utilit sociale, les
caractristiques
fminines
sont
plus
frquemment classes comme neutres que
comme positives). Par contre, les caractristiques
associes la masculinit (vois les exemples du
tableau 7) sont juges tout la fois dsirables et
utiles.
Tableau 6. Dsirabilit et utilit sociale des caractristiques associes la fminit

Classe de
Moyenne D dsirabilit
Exemples de caractristiques associes la fminit
dlicate, fine
5.76
D+
5.03
D+
belle
5.00
D+
6.32
D+
6.35
D+
6.08
D+
Moyenne
U
4.45
4.27
4.82
4.42
4.44
5.03
Classe
dutilit
U0
U0
U+
U0
U0
U+
D = dsirabilit sociale; U = utilit sociale; (D+, D0, D-) = (dsirabilit +, dsirabilit 0 et dsirabilit -); (U+, U0, U-) =
(utilit +, utilit 0 et utilit -).
Tableau 7. Dsirabilit et utilit sociale des caractristiques associes la masculinit

Classe de
Exemples de caractristiques associes la
masculinit
Puissant
5.22
D+
dur, cruel, froce, insensible, indiffrent, froid,
autoritaire
3.83
Ddtermin, ferme, non influenable, tenace
5.66
D+
5.63
D+
5.03
D+
Moyenne U
5.43
Classe
dutilit
U+
5.37
5.82
6.18
4.72
U+
U+
U+
U+
D = dsirabilit sociale; U = utilit sociale ; (D+, D0, D-) = (dsirabilit +, dsirabilit 0 et dsirabilit -) ; (U+, U0, U-) =
Attribution des mtiers en fonction des

caractristiques associs a la fminit et
masculinit
En ce qui concerne lattribution des mtiers

aux caractristiques fminines et masculines, on
88
observe que les caractristiques considres

traditionnellement comme fminines sont
gnralement associes des mtiers fminins
(tableau 8), et inversement que les
caractristiques considres traditionnellement
comme masculines sont gnralement associes
des mtiers masculins (tableau 9).
Si lon met alors en rapport ces associations

avec la valeur sociale des caractristiques
associes la fminit et la masculinit, on
peut dire que les caractristiques attribues aux
mtiers masculins sont socialement dsirables et

utiles, alors que les caractristiques attribues
aux mtiers fminins sont dsirables, mais sans
utilit sociale.
Tableau 8. Pourcentage des mtiers associs aux caractristiques de la fminit

Caractristiques de la fminit
dlicate, fine
belle
% des mtiers
associes
83.7% mF
100% mF
100% mF
97.22% mF
100% mF
100% mF
100% mF
71.05% mF
(mF = mtier fminin).
Tableau 9. Pourcentage des mtiers associs aux caractristiques de la masculinit
puissant
% des mtiers
associes
100% mM
92.15% mM
92.86% mM
61,70% mM

courageux
digne
confiant, optimiste
fier, orgueilleux
responsable, fiable
100% mM
100% mM
86.67% mM
74.07% mM
74.2% mM
84.85% mM
Caractristiques de la masculinit
(mM= mtier masculin).
Conclusion
Lobjectif de cet article tait dtudier, sur
une population dtudiants/es en sciences
techniques, les reprsentations de la masculinit
et de la fminit ainsi que la valeur sociale et les
mtiers associs la masculinit et la fminit.
Les tudiants/es en sciences technique
prsentent la particularit dtre orients et
engags dans une filire universitaire de mtiers
considrs comme masculins. Sur cette
population de futur ingnieurs compose de filles
et de garons, nous avons tudi les
reprsentations de la masculinit et de la
fminit. Notre objectif tait didentifier les
strotypes de genre et de trouver des solutions
susceptibles de diminuer leurs effets sur
lintgration des filles dans les mtiers masculins
choisis.
Comme Spence (1984), qui a dfini le

phnomne de genre comme multifactoriel, nous
avons pris en tude plusieurs facteurs associs
la masculinit et la fminit: traits de
personnalit, attributs physiques, valeurs sociales
et orientations occupationnelles.
En ce qui concerne les traits de personnalit,
les rsultats nous montrent des reprsentations
strotypes de la masculinit et de la fminit.
On observe que les caractristiques de la
fminit sont lies aux soutien motionnel alors
que les caractristiques de la masculinit sont
lies au pouvoir et lagression.
En ce qui concerne les attributs physiques,
les reprsentations sur la masculinit et fminit
diffrent selon le genre des participants: les filles
considrent la beaut comme une
caractristique de la fminit, mais peu des
garons partagent cette apprciation. Par contre
les garons associent le courage et la dignit la
89
masculinit, alors que les filles mettent laccent

sur loptimisme et sur la confiance en lavenir.
Par rapport au strotype selon lequel la
autres nos rsultats montrent, pour la fminit,
un quilibre de rpartition entre les traits autocentrs et les traits orients vers les autres.
Ainsi, limage de la fminit oriente vers les
besoins des autres existe mais elle est issue de
la comparaison avec la masculinit pour qui
dominent les traits auto-centrs.
Sur la question de la dvalorisation du
fminin par rapport au masculin, plusieurs
tudes se rejoignent sur le constat quil y aurait
une dvalorisation du fminin, qui a
probablement ses racines au sein de la socit,
dans la famille, lcole, avec les pairs
(Fontanini, 2009, p.170). Pour autant, dans
notre tude, les diffrences entre les qualits
et les dfauts associes la masculinit et
la fminit ne sont pas significatives. De ce
point de vue, on ne trouve donc pas de
dvalorisation du fminin.
Les rsultats sur les reprsentations des
activits circonscrites la fminit et la
masculinit mettent en vidence que les
caractristiques de la fminit sont mises en
rapport avec des professions comme employe
de maison, serveuse, institutrice, infirmire,
coiffeuse, activits dducation et de la sant,
alors que pour la masculinit sont indiques des
professions prestigieuses comme chirurgien,
juge, directeur dentreprise, mtiers qui sont
lapanage des hommes et confirment aussi le
strotype dassociation des caractristiques
fminines avec des mtiers moins valoriss que
ceux rservs aux hommes.
Lanalyse des caractristiques associes
la masculinit et la fminit, du point de vue
de leur valeur sociale (dsirabilit et utilit
sociale), montre aussi que les caractristiques
de la fminit sont gnralement considres
comme dsirables, celles de la masculinit tant
apprcis en mme temps comme dsirables et
comme utiles.
Tous les rsultats que nous avons obtenus
dans cet tude soutiennent ainsi les approches
normatives lies aux strotypes masculins et
fminins,
o
ce
qui
est
masculin
(caractristiques ou mtiers) a davantage de
valeur sociale que ce qui est fminin.
90
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91
O poveste despre pasiune: Copilul meu sau locul meu de munc?

Studiu comparativ privind antreprenorii i angajaii
Alena Todorov1
Abstract
This study explores comparisons between entrepreneurs (N = 25) and employees (N = 25), in terms of work
motivation, adult attachment styles and burnout. The results showed that among entrepreneurs secure attachment
style is dominant, work motivation is supported by integrated regulation and the level of burnout is kept
balanced by focusing on their personal accomplishments. Among employees the fearful attachment style is
dominant, work motivation is manifested by amotivation, and burnout takes the form of emotional exhaustion.
The results are discussed in terms of theoretical and practical implications, according to the metaphor: the
company - "my child" or just a job.
Keywords: entrepreneurs, employees, adult attachment styles, work motivation, burnout
Rsum
Cette tude explore les comparaisons entre les entrepreneurs (N = 25) et les employs (N = 25), -propos de
la motivation au travail, style d'attachement adulte et burnout. Les rsultats ont montr que chez les
entrepreneurs l'attachement scuritaire est dominant, la motivation au travail est supporte via la rgulation
intgre et le niveau de burnout est maintenu en se concentrant sur des accomplissements personnels. Chez les
employs l'attachement la peur est dominant, la motivation au travail est montre par la non-motivation, et le
burnout prend la forme de fatigues motionnelles. Les rsultats sont discuts en termes d'implication thorique et
pratique, en accord avec le mtaphore : l'entreprise - "mon enfant" ou juste un boulot.
Mots-cls: entrepreneurs, employs, styles dattachement chez ladulte, motivation du travail, puisement
professionnel
Rezumat
Acest studiu exploreaz comparaiile dintre antreprenori (N = 25) i angajai (N = 25), n privina stilurilor
de ataament la adult, motivaiei n munc i nivelul de epuizare profesional. Rezultatele arat c, n rndul
antreprenorilor predomin stilul de ataament securizant, motivaia n munc este susinut prin reglare integrat,
iar nivelul epuizrii profesionale este meninut echilibrat prin centrarea spre realizrile profesionale. n rndul
angajailor predominant este stilul de ataament temtor, motivaia n munc este manifestat prin amotivaie, iar
epuizarea profesional ia forma epuizrii emoionale. Rezultatele sunt discutate n termeni de implicaii teoretice
i practice, potrivit metaforei: firma copilul meu sau doar un loc de munc.
Cuvinte cheie: antreprenori, angajai, stiluri de ataament la adult, motivaie n munc, epuizare
profesional
Antreprenoriatul este un subiect popular att

n rndul studenilor din cadrul facultilor de
afaceri, ct i n cadrul departamentelor de
management i cercetare. Cursurile universitare,
1

Corresponding address: alena.todorov@gmail.com
92
crile i revistele academice abund de subiecte

pe tema antreprenoriatului. Multe guverne din
ntreaga lume consider c antreprenoriatul
reprezint cheia spre dezvoltarea economic.
O poveste despre pasiune: Copilul meu sau locul meu de munc? Studiu comparativ privind antreprenorii i angajaii
Dei de multe ori antreprenorii manifest o

form de ataament fa de propria afacere sau
idee de afacere, pe care o descriu ca fiind
copilul lor, exprimnd conexiunea personal i
chiar identificndu-se cu aceasta (Cardon i
colab., 2005), marea majoritate a definiilor
privind antreprenoriatul evideniaz doar
aspectul economic: activitatea antreprenorial
const sintetic n identificarea i valorificarea
unei oportuniti economice de ctre un
ntreprinztor, n vederea obinerii de profit
Ursu (nd., p. 6) sau cu alte cuvinte
antreprenoriatul const n crearea de noi afaceri
(Lafuente i Driga, 2007).
Prin aceast lucrare, vom ncerca s
reducem aspectul misterios al antreprenoriatului
printr-o perspectiv care coincide cu experiena
noastr de zi cu zi utiliznd o metafora
relaional afacerea mea copilul meu.
Metaforele mbin conceptele noi cu structurile
cognitive familiare. Cu ajutorul metaforelor
putem vedea paralelele i aspectele pe care le-am
omis (Cardon, Zietsma, Saparito, Matherne i
Davis, 2005, p. 27). Astfel, cu ajutorul acestei
metafore relaionale vom evidenia importana
sentimentelor n procesele antreprenoriale pentru
a obine o perspectiv auxiliar asupra teoriei
dezvoltrii antreprenoriatului.
Pentru a evidenia ct mai clar rolul pe care
l joac ataamentul n lumea antreprenoriatului,
vom realiza un studiu comparativ privind
antreprenorii i angajaii. Astfel, potrivit
metaforei prezentate anterior, antreprenorii sunt
persoanele care i definesc propria afacere ca
fiind copilul lor, iar angajaii sunt persoanele
care consider c firma n care lucreaz este doar
un loc de munc.
Pentru investigarea ataamentului att n
rndul antreprenorilor, ct i n rndul angajailor
vom utiliza elemente ale teoriei ataamentului.
Originile teoriei ataamentului sunt asociate cu
extinsele publicaii i cercetri ale lui Bowlby
(1969, 1973, 1980 citat de Lyddon i Sherry,
2001), teorie rafinat de Ainsworth (Ainsworth,
1989; Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters i Walls, 1978;
Ainsworth i Bowlby, 1989 citai de Siegert,
Ward i Hudson, 1995). Conform teoriei
ataamentului (Bowlby, 1969; Ainsworth,
Blehar, Waters i Wall, 1978 citai de Manning,
2003) sentimentele de securitate sau de
insecuritate apar din tendina nnscut a copiilor
de a se uita dup persoanele care i ngrijesc (de
obicei prinii) pentru satisfacerea nevoilor de
baz, de refugiu n timp de primejdie i ca baz
sigur pentru explorare. Experienele pe care

copiii le-au avut cu prinii lor vor rezulta n
modele de lucru sau patternuri de ataament care
vor continua s influeneze experienele
interpersonale pe parcursul vieii individului
(Harms, 2011). Aceste modele sunt bazate pe
schemele internalizate, cognitive, emoionale i
comportamentale cunoscute sub denumirea
modele interne de lucru. Aceste modele de lucru
sunt auto-percepute, au un caracter modificabil
n timp, iar astfel se poate ajunge la un mod de
lucru sntos, definit printr-un stil de ataament
securizant (Meredith, 2009).
Pornind de la teorii anterioare, Griffin i
Bartholomew (1994) au definit patru patternuri
ale ataamentului adulilor i ale ateptrilor pe
care adulii le construiesc n termeni de imagini
pozitive sau negative asupra propriei persoane i
asupra celorlali. Cele patru stiluri de ataament
sunt: stilul securizant, stilul preocupant, stilul
evitant i stilul temtor.
Dei multe cercetri privind ataamentul la
aduli i centreaz atenia asupra relaiilor
intime, n ultimul deceniu, cercettorii au artat
c ataamentul poate fi investigat i n cazul
sarcinilor de lucru. Spre exemplu, Pietromonaco
i Barrett (1997 citai de Manning, 2003) au
constatat c stilul de ataament influeneaz
modul n care o persoan se percepe pe sine i pe
ceilali, emoiile negative i pozitive i
sentimentul de apropriere n toate tipurile de
interaciuni interpersonale de zi cu zi.
Multe alte cercetri (Caldwell, 1995; Hahn,
1995; Mcclain, 1996; Neuson, 1998; Kummel,
1999; Corcoran i Mallinckrodt, 2000 citai de
Manning, 2003; Waight, 2006) asupra
ataamentului la aduli au artat conexiunea
dintre stilurile de ataament, atitudinile fa de
munc i comportamentul de la locul de munc.
Astfel, indivizii cu stiluri de ataament diferite
au caracteristici comportamentale diverse la
locul de munc. Spre exemplu, adulii cu
ataament securizant sunt mai sociabili i mai
competeni social, utilizeaz cu precdere
comunicarea de tip colaborativ, sunt mai puin
anxioi i mai deschii la primirea unui feedback
negativ. Persoanele cu un stil de ataament
evitant au un nivel ridicat al satisfaciei n
munc, similar cu cel al persoanelor cu un stil de
ataament securizant (Hazan i Shaver, 1990;
Hardy i Barkham, 1994; Manning, 2001;
Toepfer, 1996 citai de Manning, 2003).
Persoanele cu un stil de ataament evitant
prioritizeaz munca mai mult dect relaiile
93
interpersonale, att la locul de munc, ct i n

afara lui (Hazan i Shaver, 1990), fiind mai puin
satisfcui de ntreaga lor via, fa de cei cu un
stil de ataament securizant (Toepfer, 1996 citat
de Manning, 2003; Waight, 2006). Cei cu stilul
de ataament preocupant i temtor sunt cel mai
puin satisfcui de munca lor i de relaiile
interpresonale (Hazan i Shaver, 1990).
Persoanele preocupante raporteaz mai multe
boli fizice i psihice, anxietate i tensiune
crescut, mai puin persisten n sarcin i mai
puin satisfacie fa de suportul social pe care l
primesc, n comparaie cu cei cu un stil de
ataament securizant (Caldwell, 1995 citat de
Manning, 2003; Manning, 2001). Cei cu un stil
de ataament temtor lucreaz mai puin i sunt
supra-ncrcai n munc, fa de cei cu un stil de
ataament securizant (Vasquez, Durik i Hyde,
2002 citai de Manning, 2003).
Prin urmare, ataamentul se dezvolt nc
din copilrie, urmnd ca patternurile de
ataament s se menin n viaa adult,
manifestate prin diferite comportamente
observabile n relaiile interpersonale. Prin
identificarea i cunoaterea stilului de ataament
dominant se poate interveni la nivelul schimbrii
acestui stil pentru a ajunge la relaii sntoase
att cu propria persoan i cu persoanele din jur,
ct i n relaiile fa de munc. Conform
metaforei prezentate la nceputul lucrrii,
antreprenorii i iubesc afaceriile ca pe proprii
copii, nc din perioada de concepere, pn la
momentul n care acetia i iau zborul maturitate. Antreprenorii manifest fa de
companiile lor un ataament diferit de cel al
angajailor, nc de la ideea de afacere, la
punerea pe picioare a ideii i pn la maturizarea
companiei, momentul de exit. Cu alte cuvinte,
primul obiectiv al cercetrii este de a investiga
stilurile de ataament fa de locul de munc,
ceea ce semnific relaia emoional n legtur
cu munca n rndul celor dou categorii de
subieci. Pentru a atinge acest obiectiv propunem
urmtoarea ipotez de cercetare: 1. Exist
diferene ntre antreprenori i angajai privind
stilurile de ataament: n rndul antreprenorilor
va predomina stilul de ataament securizant, iar
n rndul angajailor va predomina un stil de
ataament de insecuritate.
Cuvintele pasiune i succes sunt nelipsite
din orice articol publicat pe subiectul
antreprenoriatului. Dac n cazul antreprenorilor
vorbim despre pasiunea, pe care unii cercettori
(Baron i Hannan, 2002; Branzei i Zietsma,
94
2003 citai de Cardon, Wincent, Singh i

Drnovsek, 2009) o numesc chiar iubire, n cazul
angajailor putem vorbi cel mult despre
angajament organizaional. Pasiunea este poate,
cel mai observat fenomen n procesul
antreprenorial i o caracteristic definitorie a
multor antreprenori de succes (Cardon i colab.,
2009, p. 511). Pasiunea a fost de multe ori pus
n legtur cu unitate, tenacitate, dorina de a
lucra ore suplimentare i persisten n faa
obstacolelor (Bierly, Kessler i Christensen,
2000; Bird, 1989 citai de Cardon i colab.,
2009). Chiar mai mult pasiunea poate alimenta
motivaia n munc, poate spori activitatea
mental i poate furniza sensul muncii de zi cu
zi (Brannback, Carsrud, Elfving i Krueger,
2006, p. 4).
Fiecare antreprenor, pe lng pasiune are
propriile motive pentru care dorete s iniieze o
afacere. Conform lui Marian (2007), principalele
motivaii n antreprenoriat sunt: dorina de
succes, dorina de a fi independent, dorina de
afirmare personal i profesional, insatisfacia
rezultatelor anterioare, dorina de a avea avere,
lipsa unei ocupaii sau a unui loc de munc.
Motivaia n munc a devenit un subiect
clieu n studiile de psihologie organizaional i
a muncii, fiind dezvoltate cele mai multe teorii
dect pe oricare alt subiect, i totui, motivaia n
munc reprezint piatra de temelie n dezvoltarea
teoriei eficienei (Baron, 1991; Steers, Mowday
i Shapiro, 2004 citai de Tremblay, Blanchard,
Taylor, Pelletier i Villeneuve, 2009).
Marea majoritate a teoriilor contemporane
asupra motivaiei susin faptul c oamenii
iniiaz i persist comportamente, n msura n
care consider c aceste comportamente le vor
aduce rezultatele dorite sau obiectivele scontate
(Deci i Ryan, 2000). Una dintre aceste teorii
este teoria autodeterminrii dezvoltat de Deci
i Ryan n anul 1980. Teoria autodeterminrii
este o teorie a dezvoltrii personalitii i a
schimbrii comportamentale auto-motivate
(Gavreliuc, 2011). Cercettorii au fost interesai
de modul n care oamenii integreaz i
internalizeaz motivaia extrinsec, ajungnd si regleze comportamentul, pentru a se angaja
autonom n activitile cotidiene. Teoria
autodeterminrii se centreaz pe natura
motivaiei,
care
reprezint
de
ce-ul
comportamentului (Ryan, Deci i Grolnick,
1995). Diferitele valene ale motivaiei se
regsesc pe un continuum motivaional de la
amotivaie, la motivaia extrinsec, ajungnd la
motivaia intrinsec (Deci i Ryan, 2000). La

captul extrem se afl amotivaia, n care
indivizii nu au nici mcar intenia de a aciona
sau
acioneaz
pasiv.
n
continuarea
continuumului motivaional se afl motivaia
extrinsec care se refer la prestarea unei
activiti doar pentru a obine rezultatele sau
recompensa
acelei
activitii.
Motivaia
extrinsec este subdivizat n patru tipuri diferite
de motivaie, ce poate fi relativ controlat de
diferii factori externi sau poate fi relativ
autonom. Aceste subdiviziuni ale motivaiei
extrinseci sunt: reglare extern (realizarea unei
activiti doar pentru a obine o recompens);
reglare introiectat (reglarea comportamentului
prin auto-valorizare neprevzut, de exemplu
stima de sine sau sentimentul de vin); reglare
identificat (realizarea unei activiti deoarece
persoana se identific cu valoarea sau
semnificaia activitii i o accept ca fiind
activitatea proprie) i reglare integrat
(identificarea cu valoarea unei activiti pn n
acel punct n care devine sensul vieii persoanei
respective). La captul extrem opus al
intrinsec denumit i motivaia optim ce
const n interesul pentru o anumit aciune,
exaltare i ncredere ce duce la creterea
performanei, perseverenei n munc i o stare
general de bine a individului (Tremblay i
colab., 2009).
Succesul poate fi definit prin obinerea
rezultatelor dorite n urma aciunilor sau
atingerea obiectivelor scontate (Deci i Ryan,
2000). Cu alte cuvinte, succesul unei persoane
depinde de dorina sa de a avea succes i de
modurile prin care obine acest succes. La locul
de munc succesul este msurat prin atitudinea
pozitiv fa de munc i performan
profesional sporit, ambele fiind constituite i
influenate de diferitele aspecte ale motivaiei n
munc att n rndul angajailor, ct i n rndul
antreprenorilor. Aadar, motivaia este o surs de
schimbare ce poate fi modificat. Conform
acestei perspective, motivaia reprezint un
element important n educaia antreprenorial n
rndul tinerilor, n modificarea atitudinii fa de
locul de munc i fa de profesie n rndul
angajailor i n mbuntirea performanelor
profesionale. Aadar, al doilea obiectiv al
cercetrii este de a investiga motivaia n munc
pentru a putea determina valoarea atribuit
obiectivelor i rezultatelor dorite n rndul
antreprenorilor i angajailor. Pentru atingerea
acestui obiectiv propunem urmtoare ipotez de

cercetare: 2. Exist diferene ntre antreprenori
i angajai privind motivaia n munc: motivaia
n munc a antreprenorilor va avea un nivel mai
ridicat, fa de cea a angajailor.
Dei exist cazul persoanelor care lucreaz
din pasiune, care se identific cu munca lor, fiind
motivate de atingerea succesului, la polul opus se
afl cazul persoanelor care simt c au euat,
considernd c munca lor este fr valoare, c nu
pot face nici o diferen n lume i astfel ncep s
se simt neajutorate, pierznd sperana obinerii
succesului. n cele mai multe cazuri, aceast
perspectiv asupra muncii i vieii duce la
epuizare profesional (engl. burnout) deoarece la
baza epuizrii st nevoia oamenilor de a crede c
viaa lor are semnificaie sau valoare, c lucrurile
pe care le fac sunt utile i importante (Pines,
2004).
Epuizarea profesional reprezint o stare
de epuizare, n care persoana devine cinic cu
privire la valoarea ocupaional i nesigur de
capacitatea de a executa sarcinile (p. 2)
(Maslach, Jackson i Leiter, 1996, citai de
Perry, Penney i Witt, 2008). De asemenea, este
descris ca rezultatul final al eroziunii
emoionale, exprimat printr-o stare de epuizare
la nivel fizic, emoional i mental, i un
sentiment de realizare redus (Pines, 2004). nc
din anii 1970, Maslach i colaboratorii au studiat
ndeaproape conceptul de epuizare profesional
pe care au divizat-o n trei faze: epuizare
emoional,
depersonalizare
i
realizri
profesionale. Epuizarea emoional este descris
ca oboseal sau lips de energie i sentimentul c
resursele emoionale sunt epuizate (Asuncin
Buzzetti Bravo, 2005). Aceast faz poate aprea
mpreun cu frustrare i tensiune n msura n
care persoana nu mai e motivat s i fac
munca (Cordes i Dougherty, 1993). Persoana se
simte epuizat i incapabil de a se recupera
(Maslach, Leiter i Schaufeli, 2001). Aceast
imagine ar fi prima reacie la cerinele stresante
de la locul de munc. Depersonalizarea sau
cinismul se refer la dezvoltarea unei atitudini
negative i insensibilitate fa de oamenii cu care
interacioneaz i fa de colegii de lucru
(Asuncin Buzzetti Bravo, 2005). Acest
comportament duce la conflicte interpersonale i
izolare. La baza depersonalizrii se afl
generalizarea, etichetarea i desconsiderarea
celorlali pentru a evita orice fel de apropiere
care poate fi epuizant (Cordes i Dougherty,
1993; Maslach, Leiter i Schaufeli, 2001). Lipsa
95
realizrilor profesionale se refer la senzaia c

nu se obin rezultatele dorite n urma muncii,
incapacitatea de a realiza munca i tendina de a
se autoevalua ntr-un mod negativ. Astfel se
ajunge la dificulatea de a obine performa n
munc (Cordes i Dougherty, 1993; Maslach,
Leiter i Schaufeli, 2001). Cu alte cuvinte,
angajaii simt c nu funcioneaz la fel de bine
cum au fcut-o la nceputul perioadei de munc
pe acel post, resimind un sentiment constant de
lips de progres, iar persoana se simte
ineficient, astfel crete sentimentul de
inadaptare i inadecvare, iar fiecare proiect nou
este considerat suprasolicitant, copleitor
(Asuncin Buzzetti Bravo, 2005).
Multe dintre cerinele locului de munc i
insuficientele resurse pot fi sumarizate n termeni
de constrngeri. Constrngerile sunt obstacolele
care interfereaz cu realizarea cu succes a
sarcinile de la locul de munc. Aceste
constrngeri coreleaz pozitiv cu rezultatele
nedorite la locul de munc, precum creterea
predispoziiei spre epuizare profesional i
reducerea nivelului de performan i satisfacie
ntr-o gam larg de ocupaii (Penney i Spector,
2005; Taylor i Barling, 2004 citai de Perry,
Penny i Witt, 2008). Antreprenorii se confrunt
cu o serie de constrngeri suplimentare n
comparaie cu angajaii n cadrul unei
organizaii. Ei se bazeaz pe propriile aptitudini,
abiliti i motivaie pentru ca afacerea lor s fie
una de succes. Adesea sunt nevoii s mai aib
nc un loc de munc, n plus fa de munca
pentru propria afacere, astfel ajung s extind la
maxim ziua lor de lucru, s lucreze n izolare,
fr prea mult sprijin din partea colegilor (Jamal,
2007).
Pornind de la aceast perspectiv, al treilea
obiectiv al lucrrii este de a investiga nivelul de
epuizare profesional al antreprenorilor i al
angajailor, pornind de la ipoteza conform creia:
3. Exist diferene ntre antreprenori i angajai
privind nivelul de epuizare profesional: n
rndul antreprenorilor nivelul de epuizare
profesional va fi mai sczut dect n rndul
angajailor.
Metod
Participani
Eantionul. La acest studiu a luat parte un
total de 50 de subieci selectai n funcie de
statutul profesional: angajai (N=25) i
antreprenori (N=25). Pentru a explica ct mai
96
specific repartizarea subiecilor n cele dou

grupuri, este necesar definirea celor dou
categorii profesionale. Conform DEX (1998),
angajatul a fost definit ca persoana care ocup un
post de munc n cadrul unei organizaii, firme
sau cabinet particular, iar antreprenorul sau
ntreprinztorul a fost definit ca persoana care
deine o firm sau un IMM, un cabinet particular
etc. Eantionul este format din participani cu
vrsta cuprins ntre un minim 25 i un maxim
de 40 de ani (M = 30, AS = 5.48), din care 33
persoane sunt femei (66%) i 17 brbai, cu
vechime n munc de minim 3 ani i vechime pe
postul actual ocupat de minim 2 ani. Toi
subiecii ne-au acordat consimmntul de a
participa voluntar la studiul de fa prin citirea i
completarea Formularului de consimire.
Instrumente
Stiluri de ataament au fost investigate prin
varianta tradus i adaptat pentru acest studiu a
instrumentului Relationship Scale Questionnaire
- RSQ (Griffin i Bartholomew, 1994). Pornind
de la clasificri anterioare ale stilurilor de
ataament, Griffin i Bartholomew (1994 citai de
Gavreliuc, 2006), au nuanat abordrile
anterioare, definind patru patternuri ale
ataamentului adulilor. Cei doi autori consider
c adulii i construiesc anumite ateptri,
pornind de la imaginea pozitiv sau negativ fa
de propria persoan i fa de cellalt. Stilul de
ataament se refer la tiparul unei legturi
fuzionate, legtur constituit cel mai adesea prin
modalitile de relaionare cu ceilali, dobndite
n socializarea primar (Gavreliuc, 2006). RSQ
este obinut prin mbinarea a trei instrumente de
investigare a ataamentului: Dimensiunile
Ataamentului (engl. Attachment Measure Hazan i Shaver, 1987), Chestionarul Relaiilor
(engl. Relationship Questionnaire - Bartholomew
i Horowitz, 1991) i Scala Ataamentului la
Adult (engl. Adult Attachment Scale - Collins i
Read, 1990). Instrumentul de cercetare conine 30
de afirmaii cu referire la relaiile apropiate.
Participanii au trebuit s citeasc cu atenie
afirmaiile i s noteze gradul de potrivire al
afirmaie cu sentimentele lor fa de relaiile
apropiate. Scala de notare a rspunsurilor este de
tip Likert de la 1 la 5 (unde 1 = nu mi se
potrivete deloc iar 5 = mi se potrivete total).
Chestionarul RSQ investigheaz 4 dimensiuni
stiluri sau patternuri de ataament: stilul
securizant (5 itemi, ex. Mi se pare uor s m
apropii afectiv de alte persoane), stilul temtor

(5 itemi, ex. mi este greu s depind de ali
oameni), stilul preocupant (4 itemi, ex. mi fac
griji c alii nu m apreciaz n msura n care i
apreciez eu pe ei) i stilul evitant (5 itemi, Este
foarte important pentru mine s m simt
independent/.). Scorurile pentru fiecare pattern
de ataament sunt obinute prin media celor patru
sau cinci itemi, reprezentnd fiecare prototip de
ataament. Pentru a clasifica participanii n
modele de ataament trebuie utilizate scoruri
standard. Aceste scoruri se obin, n primul rnd,
calculnd media pentru fiecare din cele patru
subscale, apoi aceste medii vor fi transformate n
scoruri standard. Coeficienii alfa Cronbach (vezi
Tabelul 1) pentru fiecare subscal ating
urmtoarele valori: ataament securizant ( =
.19); ataament temtor ( = .65); ataament
preocupant ( = .37) i ataament evitant
( = .60).
Motivaia n munc a fost investigat prin
instrumentului Work Extrinsic and Intrinsic
Motivation Scale WEIMS (Tremblay,
Blanchard, Taylor, Pelletier i Villeneuve, 2009).
La baza acestui instrument de cercetare st teoria
autodeterminrii a lui Deci i Ryan (2000 citai de
Tremblay i colab., 2009). Conform definiiei
oferite de Pinder (1998 citat de Tremblay i
colab., 2009), motivaia n munc reprezint un
set de fore de energie care provin att din
interiorul individului, ct i din afara sa, ce
iniiaz comportamente relaionate cu munca i i
determin forma, direcia, intensitatea i durata
(p. 217). Chestionarul conine 18 afirmaii
referitoare la motivul pentru care un individ a ales
s lucreze n actualul locul de munc. WEIMS
este divizat n ase subscale. Fiecrei subscale i
corespund trei itemi din cadrul chestionarului.
Participanii au fost rugai s indice msura n care
fiecare afirmaie corespunde cu motivul pentru
care lucreaz n actualul loc de munc pe o scal
Likert de la 1 la 7 (unde 1 = nu corespunde deloc,
iar 7 = corespunde exact). Cele ase dimensiuni
ale motivaiei n munc, msurat prin
chestionarul WEIMS sunt: motivaia intrinsec (3
itemi, ex. Deoarece mi face mare plcere s
nv lucruri noi), motivaia extrinsec msurat
prin patru dimensiuni: reglare integrat (3 itemi,
ex. Din cauz c acest loc de munc este parte
din viaa mea), identificat (3 itemi, ex.
Deoarece am ales acest gen de munc pentru ami atinge elurile n carier), introiectat (3
itemi, ex. Deoarece doresc s fiu ctigtor n
via) i extren (3 itemi, ex. Pentru venitul pe

care mi-l asigur) i amotivaia (3 itemi, ex. Nu
tiu de ce, ni se ofer condiii de lucru ireale).
Sistemul de scorare al WEIMS se realizeaz
pentru fiecare dimensiune prin suma scorurilor la
itemii aparinnd fiecrei dimensiuni. Coeficienii
alfa Cronbach (vezi Tabelul 1) pentru fiecare
subscal ating urmtoarele valori: motivaie
intrinsec ( = .86), reglare integrat ( = .87),
reglare identificat ( = .76), reglare introiectat
( = .82), reglare extern ( = .79) i amotivaie (
= .69).
Epuizarea emoional a fost investigat prin
varianta tradus a instrumentul de cercetare
Maslach Burnout Inventory MBI (Maslach,
Jackson i Leiter, 1996). Acest chestionar
investigheaz sentimentele i gndurile implicate
n interaciunea persoanelor la locul de munc.
Prima variant a MBI a avut 47 de itemi i
msura 10 tipuri ale epuizrii profesionale,
varianta a doua cu 27 de itemi care msura 4
tipuri de burnout, iar n cele din urm s-a ajuns la
varianta final cu cei 22 de itemi care msoar 3
tipuri de burnout (Cordes i Dougherty, 1993).
Acest instrument a generat un volum mare de
studii i cercetri cu privire la burnout sau
epuizare profesional, fiind primul instrument
validat tiinific pe aceast tem (Maslach,
2003). Participanii au trebuit s citeasc cu
atenie cele 22 de afirmai i s indice frecvena
de potrivire sau ct de des se manifest fiecare
dintre afirmaii. Scala de notare a rspunsurilor
este de tip Likert (de frecven, nu de preferin)
de la 1 la 7 (1 = niciodat pn la 7 = zilnic).
Chestionarul MBI investigheaz 3 dimensiuni
ale epuizrii profesionale: epuizare emoional
(9 itemi, ex. M simt epuizat/ din cauza
muncii), depersonalizare (5 itemi, ex. De cnd
lucrez n acest post am devenit mai nepsator
fa de ceilali) i realizrile profesionale (8
itemi, ex. 9. De cnd lucrez n acest post simt
c i influenez pozitiv pe ceilali). La fiecare
item subiectul poate s obin un scor ntre 1 i 7
puncte (1 niciodat, 2 - de cteva ori pe an sau
mai puin, 3 - o dat pe lun sau mai puin, 4
de cteva ori pe lun, 5 o dat pe sptmn, 6
- de cteva ori pe sptmn, 7 zilnic). Cota
final pentru fiecare dimensiune n parte se
obine prin nsumarea cifrelor corespunztoare
bifate de subiect. Coeficienii alfa Cronbach
(vezi Tabelul 1) pentru fiecare subscal ating
urmtoarele valori: epuizare emoional ( =
.82), depersonalizare ( = .73) i realizri
profesionale ( = .65).
97
Tabelul 1. Statistici descriptive, Valori consisten intren a probelor (alfa Cronbach) i coeficienii de corelaie
r Pearson pentru subdimensiunile variabilelor studiate
Statistici
Variabile
AS
Stiluri de ataament
Securizant (S)
16.58 2.03
Temtor (T)
Preocupant (P)
Evitant (E)
10.96 3.24
11.68 2.58
15.80 3.61
Motivaia n munc
Intrinsec (I)
Reglare integrat (RInte)
Reglare identificat (RId)
Reglare introiectat (RIntr)
Reglare extern (RExt)
Amotivaie (Am)
15.04
13.24
13.06
10.74
12.22
5.72
Subdimensiuni Stiluri
de ataament
(.19)
- -.02 -.44
.43**
(.65) .14 .61**
(.37) -.07
(.60)
4.33
5.06
4.92
5.23
4.94
2.87
.20
Subdimensiuni Motivaia
n munc
Subdimensiuni
Epuizare
profesional
RInte RId RIntr RExt AM
EE
.15
-.00 -.08
.10 .12
.11 -.03
.17
.05
.09
-.37
RP
-.17 -.24 .30*
.50 .21 .11 .52** .55* .64** -.14

.19 .40** .07 .16
.24 .23 -.20
.18 .17 .09 .44** .42** .41** -.45
(.86) .53** .77** .61**

(.87) .67** .45**
(.76) .66**
(.82)
Epuizare emoional (EE) 25.22 10.50
Depersonalizare (D)
9.68 4.71
Realizri profesionale (RP) 40.92 6.71
.28*
-.03
.22
.17
(.79)
-.09 -.12
-.23 -.22
-.08 -.04
.18
.14
.07
.20
(.69) .67**
-.25
-.17
-.19
.12
.08
.58**
.27
.31*
.19
-.01
-.04
.47**
(.82) .75** -.34*

(.73) -.30*
(.65)
Legend: N = 50.
* p < .05 ** p < .01
Procedur
Pentru a atinge obiectivele propuse, am
realizat un studiu non-experimental comparativ
privind antreprenorii i angajaii. Pentru a putea
colecta un numr ct mai mare de date, innd
cont de criteriile de selecie ale eantionului
(antreprenori i angajai), am utilizat metoda
chestionarelor online. Alturi de Formularul de
consimire, setul a coninut un numr de 4
chestionare: Chestionar Relaii apropiate
Stiluri de ataament (RSQ varianta tradus i
adaptat); Chestionar MBI (Maslach Burnout
Inventory varianta tradus); Chestionar De ce ai
ales acest loc de munc? (WEIMS varianta
tradus i adaptat) i Datele demografice. Acest
set de chestionare a fost distribuit online prin mai
multe canale de comunicare, precum: Linkedin;
98
Facebook i prin e-mail: grupurile de Yahoo ale

studenilor i masteranzilor la psihologie i emailuri personalizate ctre persoanele de contact
cu statutul de antreprenori (persoane care dein
cabinete individuale: psihologie, traduceri,
notariat). Completarea chestionarelor nu a
depit 20-25 de minute. n scop de recompens,
cei care i-au trecut adresa de e-mail, au primit
profilul psihologic rezultat din chestionarele
completate.
Rezultate
n vederea testrii celor trei ipoteze am
utilizat instrumentul de analiz comparativ:
testul t pentru eantioane independente.
Rezultatele testului t se regsec n Tabelul 1.
Tabelul 2. Statistici descriptive i rezultatele testului t independent ale antreprenorilor (N = 25) i angajailor
(N = 25)
Comparaii antreprenori i
angajai
Media (AS)
Variabile
Antreprenori
Angajai
t (d)
Ataament Securizant
Ataament Temtor
Ataament Preocupant
Ataament Evitant
17.44
9.92
12.00
15.08
(1.7)
(3.0)
(2.7)
(3.5)
15.72
12.00
11.36
16.52
(1.9)
(3.1)
(2.3)
(3.6)
3.27
-2.37
.87
-1.42
(.00)
(.02)
(.38)
(.16)
M. Intrinsec
Reglare integrat
Reglare identificat
Reglare introiectat
Reglare extern
Amotivaie
15.40
15.36
13.80
10.76
11.64
4.68
(3.7)
(3.8)
(4.5)
(5.3)
(5.3)
(1.7)
14.68
11.12
12.32
10.72
12.80
6.76
(4.9)
(5.3)
(5.2)
(5.2)
(4.5)
(3.4)
.58
3.23
1.06
.02
-.82
-2.72
(.56)
(.00)
(.29)
(.97)
(.41)
(.01)
Epuizare emoional
Depersonalizare
Realizri profesionale
21.92 (8.8)
8.96 (4.6)
43.04 (7.2)
28.52 (11.1)
10.40 (4.7)
38.80 (5.5)
1.15 (.02)
.11 (.28)
.98 (.02)
Not. df = 48.
Ipoteza 1. Exist diferene ntre

antreprenori i angajai privind stilurile de
ataament: n rndul antreprenorilor va
predomina stilul de ataament securizant, iar
Conform
rezultatelor,
n
rndul
antreprenorilor se regsesc mai multe persoane
cu un stil de ataament securizant (t(48) = 3.27,
p < .01). Acest aspect evideniaz o imagine
pozitiv a antreprenorilor att asupra propriei
persoane, ct i asupra celorlali. Potrivit stilului
de ataament securizant, n comparaie cu
angajaii, antreprenorii sunt mai sociabili i mai
negativ, avnd relaii apropiate cu ceilali.
n rndul angajailor, spre deosebire de
antreprenori se regsesc mai multe persoane cu
un stil de ataament temtor (t(48) = -2.37, p <
.05). Stilul de ataament temtor este la polul
opus fa de stilul de ataament securizant,
deoarece persoanele cu un stil de ataament
temtor nu au o prere pozitiv despre propria
persoan, dar nici despre ceilali i astfel se simt
ambivaleni fa de relaiile interpersonale.
Potrivit caracteristicilor stilul de ataament

temtor, putem afirma c angajaii, spre
deosebire de antreprenori, sunt considerai de
ceilali ca fiind reci i pasivi, au puin stim de
sine i ncredere n mediul social, sunt cel mai
interpresonale.
antreprenori i angajai privind motivaia n
munc: n rndul antreprenorilor motivaia
n munc va avea un nivel mai ridicat, fa de
cea a angajailor.
Potrivit rezultatelor prezentate n Tabelul 1,
antreprenorii, spre deosebire de angajai, i
susin motivaia n munc prin reglare integrat
(t(48) = 3.23, p < .01). Putem afirma c, n cazul
antreprenorilor, forma, direcia, intensitatea i
durata comportamentelor relaionate cu munca se
datoreaz identificrii personale cu valoarea unei
activiti ce poate deveni sensul vieii. Acest tip
de motivaie, dei este o motivaie extrinsec, e
profund internalizat, astfel sarcinile de lucru pot
fi evaluate i raportate la nevoile i valorile
individului.
Spre deosebire de antreprenori, angajaii i
exprim motivaia n munc prin amotivaie
99
(t(48) = -2.72, p < .01). Conform rezultatelor, se

poate afirma c, n sarcinile de munc, angajaii
acioneaz fr intenie sau nu acioneaz deloc,
iar n cazurile n care acioneaz, antrenarea n
sarcinile de lucru se produce ntr-un mod pasiv
executat automat.
antreprenori i angajai privind nivelul de
epuizare
profesional:
n
rndul
antreprenorilor
nivelul
de
epuizare
profesional va fi mai sczut, dect n rndul
angajailor.
Conform analizei rezultatelor, angajaii au
un nivel mai ridicat de epuizare emoional dect
antreprenorii (t(48) = -2.31, p < .05). Aadar,
putem afirma c angajaii sunt mai predispui la
pierderea resurselor emoionale, pierdere
resimit prin sentimente de saturaie i oboseal
emoional datorate muncii pe care o presteaz.
n privina antreprenorilor, pentru acest grup
profesional, realizrile profesionale au o
importan mai mare dect pentru angajai (t(48)
= 2.33, p < .05). Se poate afirma faptul c,
antreprenorii au tendina de a-i evalua pozitiv
activitatea n sarcinile de lucru, au un sentiment
de competen i eficien n munc i resimt
succes profesional.
Discuii
Conform teoriei ataamentului, interaciunile
timpurii dintre copil i ngrijitorul primar sunt
internalizate i encodate ca modele de lucru
interne, cu funcie de predicie a interaciunilor n
relaii apropiate (Kurdek, 2002). La vrsta adult,
aceste modele de lucru ale ataamentului
funcioneaz ca structuri interne pe baza crora
oamenii i organizeaz experienele lor de via
(Bartholomew i Horowitz, 1991). Aadar stilul
de ataament, respectiv modelele interne despre
sine i ceilali, formate n contextul relaiilor de
ataament timpurii, au influen semnificativ
asupra funcionrii intrapersonale: stima de sine
(perspectiva asupra propriei persoane) i
barometru social (perspectiva asupra celorlali);
autoreglare emoional; starea de bine (prin
satisfacerea nevoilor fundamentale de baz,
inclusiv nevoia de apartenen); sntatea
mental; i asupra funcionrii interpersonale a
adultului: singurtatea, n special cea emoional,
i problemele interpersonale (Kurdek, 2002).
Rezultatele primei ipoteze confirm faptul
c n cazul antreprenorilor, vorbim despre un stil
100
de ataament securizant, spre deosebire de

angajai care au un stil de ataament temtor.
Potrivit studiilor ntreprinse de Waight (2006),
90% dintre antreprenori au un stil de ataament
securizant, datorat perspectiva pozitiv asupra
propriei persoane provenit dintr-o stim de sine
ridicat i ncredere n forele i ideile proprii
puse n aplicare prin pasiune i dorin de succes.
De asemenea, conform metaforei prezentate la
nceputul lucrrii, antreprenorul este printele,
iar afacerea lui este copilul su. Att n lumea
antreprenoriatului, ct i n lumea prinilor,
pasiunea contribuie la identificarea i formarea
ataamentului. Astfel, n cazul unui ataament de
tip securizant, o dat cu creterea copilului,
printele i ofer treptat acestuia independen pe
care copilul o va folosi pentru o dezvoltare
sntoas i sigur, securizant (Cardon i
colab., 2005). Cu alte cuvinte, n rndul
antreprenorilor, stilul de ataament securizant
contribuie la succesul afacerii - de la idee, la
crearea i dezvoltarea acesteia, prin imaginea
pozitiv asupra propriei persoane care
favorizeaz asumarea responsabilitiilor ce apar
o dat cu maturizarea copilului- afacerii.
La polul opus al stilului de ataament
securizant, dominant n cazul antreprenorilor, se
afl stilul de ataament temtor, preponderent n
cazul angajailor. Stilul de ataament temtor se
refer la o imagine negativ asupra propriei
persoane i asupra celorlali, un sentiment de
inadaptabilitate i nencredere n propria
persoan i n relaiile cu ceilali, sentimente de
team i fric de respingere (Griffin i
Bartholomew, 1994; Hazan i Shaver, 1990).
Rezultatele studiului de fa sunt susinute de
cercetrile ntreprinse de Kurstedt (2002, citat de
Adams, 2004) care relev faptul c muli angajai
sunt foarte sensibili la sentimentele de team sau
fric ce pot fi provocate n urma aciunilor
supervizorilor, colegilor sau managerilor de nivel
superior. Organizaiile sunt adesea extrem de
competitive i iau frecvent msuri precum
concedierea angajailor sau mutarea angajailor,
care este contrat celor mai bune interese (p. 76).
Aadar, este lesne de neles c vor predomina
reaciile de team i fric n rndul angajailor, ce
vor influena n mod negativ ncrederea n
organizaii i n propria persoan de a face fa la
astfel de situaii i medii de lucru.
Potrivit celei de a doua ipoteze, n cazul
antreprenorilor, motivaia n munc este
susinut de identificarea cu valorile muncii
prestate, identificare ce poate deveni sensul
vieii. Acest lucru poate fi datorat rolului

fundamental pe care l joac pasiunea n
activitile antreprenoriale. Pasiunea poate
alimenta motivaia n munc, poate spori
activitatea mental i poate furniza sensul muncii
de zi cu zi (Brnnback i colab., 2006, p. 4),
antreprenorii ajungnd s considere profesia ca
fiind chemarea lor (Pines, 2004). Dei mult
asemntoare reglarea integrat cu motivaia
intrinsec, totui aceasta este o sudimensiune a
motivaiei extrinseci. Dac n cazul motivaiei
intrinseci, interesul pentru o anumit aciune este
manifestat prin exaltare i ncredere ce duce la
creterea performanei, perseverenei n munc i
o stare general de bine a individului,
comportamentul motivat de reglarea integrat se
realizeaz pentru valoarea sa instrumental
propus cu privire la rezultatele scontate, dei e
un comportament volitiv i valorizat (Ryan i
Deci, 2002). Cu alte cuvinte, n cazul
antreprenorilor, spre deosebire de angajai, pe
lng pasiunea depus n munca lor, intervin i
aciunile de atingere a rezultatelor dorite, mai
exact dezvoltarea i succesul firmei care fac
parte din sfera motivailor extrinseci.
Ryan, Deci i Grolnick (1995) susin c
amotivaia este rezultatul unei lipse de
satisfacere a nevoilor de baz. Aceasta nu
implic doar lipsa unei autonomii (precum n
cazul motivaiei controlate), ci de asemenea
implic lipsa competenei sau a altor factori
nrudii
(p.
627).
Potrivit
teoriei
autodeterminrii, indivizii sunt predispui spre
amotivaie atunci cnd simt lipsa sentimentului
de eficacitate sau control cu privire la rezultatele
dorite - incapacitatea de a regla comportamentul
dorit (Pelletier, Dion, Tuson i Green-Demers,
1990 citai de Deci i Ryan, 2000).
Desconsiderarea capacitii de a aciona duce la
un comportament pasiv la locul de munc.
Pasivitatea nu se refer doar la a nu aciona, ci
i la a aciona dar fr a face lucrurile cum
trebuie i a persista n a le face prost (De Graff
i Kunst, 2010, p.141). Conform lui De Graff i
Kunst (2010), pasivitatea se poate exprima prin
diferite tipuri de comportamente ce pot duce la
eroziunea sntii fizice i psihice: de la a nu
face nimic, la supra-adaptare, agitaie,
comportamente de neputin i chiar violen.
Aadar, putem afirma c n rndul angajailor
amotivaia poate provoca consecine dintre cele
mai negative: de la persisten sczut n sarcini,
la performan redus n munc, manifestat prin
comportamente contraproductive, pn la refuzul
de a aciona sau chiar pn la retragere,

demisionare (Tremblay i colab., 2009).
n ultimele decenii, organizaiile au suferit
schimbri majore datorate industrializrii,
progresului tehnologic i globalizrii ce au
condus la necesitatea organizaiilor de a deveni
mai competitive i mai eficiente prin promovarea
unor restructurri drastice la nivelul proceselor
de lucru, schimbri care au afectat, n principal,
sntatea angajailor (Raigosa Gallego i Marn
Londoo, 2010). Potrivit acestei afirmaii,
angajaii sunt nevoii n cazul schimbrilor de la
nivelul organizaiei s gseasc strategii i
metode noi de a face fa acestor schimbri sau
cerine. Atunci cnd angajatul nu reuete s fac
fa acestor cerine noi, ele se transform n
constrngeri care vin n opoziie cu realizarea cu
succes a sarcinilor de lucru (Perry, Penny i Witt,
2008). Persistena constrngerilor favorizeaz
eroziunea sntii angajatului ce poate lua
diferite forme ale epuizrii profesionale. Acesta
ar fi unul dintre argumentele care susin
rezultatele celei de a treia ipoteze.
Modurile n care antreprenorii fac fa
efectelor locului de munc i modurile de
aborade a sarcinilor i provocrilor depind de
diferitele caracteristici ale strategiilor de coping
cu care antreprenorii intr n lumea afacerilor
(Voltmer, Spahn, Schaarschmidt i Kieschke,
2011, p. 487). Cu alte cuvinte, hotrrea de a
alege cariera de antreprenor i de a dezvolta o
afacere este cel mai adesea n conformitate cu
criterii strict economice, consecinele posibile ale
sntii fiind de puine ori luate n considerare.
Potrivit cercetrilor anterioare (Tetrick, Slack,
Sinclair i DaSilva, 2000 citai de Voltmer i
colab., 2011) i a rezultatelor cercetrii de fa,
putem afirma c n situaiile stresante de la locul
de munc, antreprenorii spre deosebire de
angajai i centreaz atenia asupra realizrilor
profesionale deoarece ncrederea n sine i
ncrederea n cunotinele i abilitile
antreprenoriale reprezint combustibil pentru
succesul profesional al ntreprinztorilor
(Lafuente i Driga, 2009, p. 10).
Limite i sugestii de abordri

viitoare
Limitele studiului pot fi urmrite la nivelul
eantionului cercetat i la nivelul instrumentelor
de cercetare utilizate.
Eantionul a fost la limit din punct de
vedere al numrului de participani, doar 50 de
101
subieci, din care 25 antreprenori i 25 angajai.

O cercetare cu o populaie mai numeroas ar
putea duce la depirea pragului de semnificaie
sub .05, dar i n cazul acelor dimensiuni la care
pragul de semnificaie s-a nregistrat cu puin
deasupra. De asemenea, eantionul ar fi trebuit
s fie mai omogen din punct de vedere al
corelaiei dintre vrst, sex i vechime n munc
i vechimea pe post a subiecilor. O alt limit
ntmpinat la nivelul eantionului ar fi putut fi
depit prin investigarea i repartizarea
subiecilor n funcie de domeniul de activitate
sau specificaiile postului ocupat. Depind
aceast limit, am putea formula concluzii mai
reprezentative i generale att n cazul
antreprenorilor (care pot ocupa fie funcia de
ntreprinztor i/sau alte posturi n cadrul
propriei firme), ct i n cazul angajailor (care
pot ocupa diferite posturi n cadrul locului sau
chiar locurilor de munc). Sugerm ca n studii
viitoare s se in cont de aceste limite deoarece
ele constituie variabile care pot introduce
distorsiuni ale rezultatelor i limite ale
interpretrii lor.
Calitatea instrumentelor de cercetare
utilizate reprezint o alt limit a acestui studiu.
Conform Tabelului 1, n ceea ce privete stilurile
de ataament investigate prin chestionarul RSQ
(Realtionship Scale Questionnaire) consistena
intern a probei atinge valori n intervalul .65 i
.19. Aceste valori ale lui alfa Cronbach, la limita
unor valori adecvate, pot fi datorate att
eantionului foarte mic i a numrului de itemi
redus pentru fiecare subdimensiune, ct i a unor
limite la nivel teoretic privind stilurile de
ataament la adult i a poziiilor de via.
Griffin i Bartholomew (1994 citai de
Siegert, Ward i Hudson, 1995) au avut
incertitudini mari i o perspectiv pesimist
asupra anselor de a dezvolta un chestionar de tip
auto-completare care s fie capabil s msoare
cele patru modele de ataament. La baza
perspectivei lor pesimiste, au stat n primul rnd,
mecanismele psihologice de aprare. ns,
conform Siegert, Ward i Hudson (1995), cea
mai mare problem a scalei RSQ const n faptul
c aceast prob nu este capabil s msoare clar
cele patru stiluri de ataament, iar aceast
problem trebuie rezolvat dac se dorete
utilizarea acestui instrument n msurarea
stilurilor de ataament la adult. n prezentarea
scalei RSQ, Griffin i Bartholomew (1994 citai
de Bckstrm i Holmes, 2001) au sugerat c
fidelitatea destul de sczut a unor sub-
102
dimensiuni poate fi atribuit oglindirii unui item

n mai mult dect o dimensiune. n cercetarea de
fa ne-am asumat aceste minusuri ale scalei
RSQ, dar recomandm ca n studiile viitoare s
se realizeze analiza de itemi sau analiza structurii
factoriale a instrumentului pentru obinerea unor
rezultate acurate.
De asemenea, n investigarea stilului de
ataament recomandm s se in cont de
caracterul modificabil al stilului pe parcursul
vieii i de considerarea utilizrii mai multor
instrumente de cercetare a tipului de ataament:
chestionar cu auto-completare i metode bazate
pe interviu deoarece, conform Siegert, Ward i
Hudson (1995), interviurile sunt instrumente de
cercetare de mai mare ncredere, dect alte
metode de investigare a stilurilor de ataament.
Implicaii teoretice i practice

Privind implicaiile teoretice ale cercetrii
de fa, n primul rnd amintim importana
introducerii stilurilor de ataament la adult n
studiile de psihologie organizaional i a
muncii. Stilurile de ataament, definite ca
modele interne de lucru bazate pe scheme
internalizate,
cognitive,
emoionale
i
comportamentale au caracteristica fundamental
de a se modifica sau schimba (Meredith, 2009).
Astfel, investigarea stilurilor de ataament poate
conduce la intervenii ce promoveaz un mod
sntos de lucru, exprimat prin stilul de
ataament securizant. De asemenea, utilizarea
stilurilor de ataament poate fi util att n
educaia tinerilor antreprenori, ct i n rndul
angajailor cu scopul de a dezvolta i menine un
ataament de tip securizant n relaiile cu munca.
Cnd vorbim despre educarea sau formarea
adulilor, att n rndul antreprenorilor, ct i n
rndul angajailor, un aspect foarte important de
care inem cont este motivaia acestora. Pornind
de la ideea conform creia motivaia este o surs
de schimbare ce poate fi modificat se pot
propune programe de intervenie sau de formare
cu scopul de a identifica valoarea atribuit
obiectivelor i rezultatelor dorite. Potrivit
rezultatelor obinute, n rndul angajailor se poate
aciona la nivelul motivaiei, privind modificarea
atitudinii fa de locul de munc, fa de profesie
i n vederea mbuntirii performanelor
profesionale, iar n rndul tinerilor antreprenori se
poate interveni la nivelul identificrii personale cu
valoarea unei activiti ce poate deveni sensul
vieii sau pasiune ce nate succesul profesional.
Conform rezultatelor privind angajaii i

epuizarea profesional, acetia sunt mai
predispui dect antreprenorii spre primul stadiu
de burnout - epuizare emoional, probabil
datorate condiiilor de lucru suprasolicitante.
Aadar, putem propune unele sugestii de
prevenire a epuizrii profesionale ce pot fi
ntreprinse la nivelul organizaiilor angajatoare:
gsirea unei potriviri ntre caracteristicile
individuale ale angajailor, complexitatea
posturilor
i
caracteristicile
structurii
organizaiilor; dezvoltarea programelor de
mbuntire a strategiilor de a face fa stresului
(strategii de coping) ce poate duce la epuizare
profesional; ncurajarea i sprijinirea strategiilor
individuale de adaptare ca rspuns al
simptomelor de burnout (adaptare dup Glicken
i Janka, 1982). Totui, conform lui Maslach
(2003) cercetrile privind interveniile asupra
modurilor de a face fa epuizrii profesionale
sunt limitate. Motivul principal al numrului mic
de astfel de studii nu este datorat lipsei de
interes, ci dimpotriv dificultilor majore pe
care le implic construirea unui program de
intervenie eficient, gsirea oportunitii de a fi
implementat intervenia i capacitate limitat de
a realiza studii longitudinale de monitorizare
pentru a surprinde impactul avut i pentru a
oferii sugestii de mbuntire ale programelor de
intervenie.
Concluzii
Persoanele cu o perspectiv pozitiv asupra
propriei persoane i asupra celorlali tind s fie
proprietarii sau ntreprinztorii unei afaceri
(antreprenori) n timp ce persoanele cu o imagine
negativ asupra propriei persoane sunt mai puin
probabil s ntemeieze o afacere, devenind astfel
angajai n cadrul unei firme sau organizaii.
Pasiunea, dorina de dezvoltare i succes a
firmei, favorizeaz identificarea antreprenorilor
cu propria afacere, ceea ce susine un nivel
ridicat al motivaiei n munc. n ceea ce privete
angajaii, motivaia n munc ia forma unor
aciuni automate n sarcinile de lucru, ce poate
conduce la comportamente pasive la locul de
munc i sentimente de ineficacitate i lips de
control asupra rezultatelor dorite.
n rndul antreprenorilor, nivelul epuizrii
profesionale este meninut echilibrat deoarece
acetia se simt competeni i siguri pe abilitile i
cunotinele lor pentru a obine succesul dorit i
pentru a se realiza profesional. Eroziunea sntii
angajailor se produce datorit constrngerilor ce

apar n schimbrile organizaionale i a modurilor
ineficiente de a se adapta sau de a face fa acestor
schimbri i cerine noi. Astfel, n rndul
angajailor,
epuizarea
profesional
este
manifestat prin epuizare emoional, prin
pierderea resurselor emoionale, resimit prin
sentimente de saturaie i oboseal emoional
datorate muncii pe care o presteaz.
Considerm c prin utilizarea metaforei
relaionale afacerea mea copilul meu, am
ncercat s oferim o perspectiv nou att asupra
antreprenoriatului, ct i asupra angajatului.
Astfel, conform rezultatelor studiului putem
susine c pentru antreprenori, firma sau
organizaia reprezint copilul lor, n timp ce
pentru angajai aceasta reprezint doar un loc de
munc.
Cu
alte
cuvinte,
n
rndul
antreprenorilor, imaginea pozitiv att asupra
propriei persoane, ct i asupra celorlali
favorizeaz o relaie pozitiv i o conexiune
personal fa de locul de munc, motivaia n
munc favorizeaz identificarea cu propria
afacere, iar dorina realizrilor profesionale
confer ncredere n competenele i abilitile
necesare pentru a obine succes, sau cu alte
cuvinte, confer ncredere n creterea i
dezvoltarea propriului copil. n schimb, n rndul
angajailor, relaia fa de munc este una
negativ datorat de o perspectiv negativ att
asupra propriei persoane ct i asupra celorlali,
motivaia n munc se manifest prin lipsa
eficienei i controlului fa de rezultatele dorite
ce favorizeaz comportamente pasive la locul de
munc, iar constrngerile pe care le implic locul
de munc favorizeaz pierderea resurselor
emoionale, sau altfel spus, angajaii nu vd
firma n care lucreaz ca fiind copilul lor cu
toat implicarea pe care o presupune aceast
perpectiv, ci mai probabil vd firma ca oferind
doar un loc de munc i nimic mai mult.
Putem astfel ncheia cercetarea de fa,
susinnd existena diferenelor dintre cele dou
grupe profesionale studiate. Totui, datorit
limitelor cercetrii, aceste rezultate nu pot fi
generalizate pentru ntreaga populaie, dar ne pot
oferi o perspectiv de ansamblu i unele
elemente cheie att la nivel teoretic, ct i practic
n ceea ce privete antreprenorul i angajatul.
Not: Mulumesc conf. univ. dr. Delia Vrg
pentru suportul oferit n coordonarea cercetrii.
103
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105
Florin Alin Sava

Psihologia validat tiinific.
Ghid practic de cercetare n psihologie
2013, Polirom, 368 p.
Una dintre cele mai semnificative probleme

cu care se confrunt psihologia la ora actual
este aceea a confuziei n gndirea publicului (i,
din pcate, a unor practicieni) cu privire la gradul
de adevr al unor afirmaii conexe domeniului
psihologiei. De exemplu, aproape toat lumea a
auzit de mitul Oamenii utilizeaz doar 8% din
capacitatea creierului, o afirmaie pe ct de
scurt, pe att de fals. Desigur, aceast
problem nu este specific doar psihologiei, ci i
altor tiine. Astfel, tratamentele homeopatice au
din ce n ce mai mult popularitate n defavoarea
tratamentelor medicinale (Singh i Ernst, 2008),
iar aproape fiecare ziar conine o rubric
destinat astrologiei n timp ce foarte puine
reviste ofer mcar o rubric lunar destinat
astronomiei (Sagan, 2002).
Cu
toate
acestea,
demersurile
pseudotiinifice pot fi considerate mai pregnante
n domeniul psihologiei, parial datorit
mediatizrii distorsionate a unor rezultate
tiinifice, parial din lipsa unei abordri critice
sau a unor concepte i metode care se bazeaz pe
puine dovezi empirice. Aceast carte ncearc s
rspund nevoii de popularizare a ceea ce
nseamn cu adevrat un demers tiinific n
domeniul psihologiei, mai ales n rndul
practicienilor, n sperana de a-i ajuta s realizeze
msura n care rezultatele unui studiu pot fi
vzute ca avnd dovezi empirice n favoarea unei
abordri, dar i dac aceast abordare este sau nu
validat tiinific.
Nu ntmpltor domnul Sava a decis s
abordeze aceast tem, avnd n vedere
interesele sale pentru metodologia cercetrii n
psihologie, interese ce s-au materializat n 2004
n cartea Analiza datelor n cercetarea
psihologic, manual aflat acum la cea de-a doua
ediie.
Psihologia validat tiinific. Ghid
practic de cercetare n psihologie este
structurat n dou pri, avnd n total opt
capitole. Prima parte, intitulat Fundamentele
cercetrii tiinifice n psihologie, alctuit din
primele trei capitole, se axeaz, n prima faz, pe
educarea cititorilor cu privire la distinciile dintre
psihologia tiinific i cea pseudotiinific,
descriind n detaliu indicatorii unei abordri
pseudotiinifice, respectiv al unei abordri
tiinifice. Trebuie subliniat faptul c, dei
106
aceast carte este adresat persoanelor care au

deja un bagaj informaional din sfera psihologiei,
exprimarea suficient de laic i coninutul
deosebit de important al primului capitol fac ca
acesta s poat fi citit i de ctre persoane care
au o formare educaional conex domeniului.
Cel de-al doilea capitol vizeaz direct
practicienii, prin descrierea n detaliu a
informaiilor necesare pentru a evalua dovezile
unei intervenii, de la elaborarea unei piramide
de ncredere a dovezilor studiilor pn la a
descrie criteriile necesare pentru a evalua un
instrument psihologic. Un aspect plcut al
acestui capitol este c informaiile relevante sunt
trecute i n cadrul unor casete, astfel nct dac
o persoan dorete s gseasc rapid criteriile
minimale pentru a evalua dac o intervenie este
sau nu validat tiinific poate face asta, fr a
citi neaprat i restul capitolului.
Dac primele dou capitole aveau un grup
int mai larg, capitolul 3 este destinat n mare
parte persoanelor interesate n a desfura
activiti de cercetare n psihologie. Cu toate
acestea, acest capitol cuprinde informaii
eseniale cu privire la gradul de generalizare a
concluziilor n funcie de obiectivul studiului n
cauz, dar i la elementele de validitate ale
studiului. Acest fapt ar trebui s fie de interes i
pentru persoanele care nu doresc s se implice n
cercetare, dar care doresc s i dezvolte gndirea
critic pentru a discerne care afirmaii sunt
valide.
Tot n cadrul acestei pri, se aduc
argumente pentru utilizarea abordrii tiinifice
dar se discut i consecinele abordrii
pseudotiinifice. n timp ce autorul descrie
consecinele financiare i etice ale interveniilor
pseudotiinifice, cel mai important contraargument n opinia mea este cel al ptrii
reputaiei psihologiei ca domeniu tiinific. Atta
timp ct exist abordri pseudotiinifice ale
cror rezultate pot fi contestate pe bun dreptate,
psihologia risc s devin un domeniu
marginalizat. De exemplu, dintr-o simpl
cercetare pe un motor de cutare a termenilor
psihologie pseudotiin (engl. psychology
pseudoscience) se va descoperi c printre
primele rezultate apare ntrebarea este
psihologia o pseudotiin?, fapt ce nu se
ntmpl atunci cnd se altur cuvntul
medicin sau fizic pseudotiinei.
Partea a doua vine n completarea celui deal treilea capitol prin detalierea tipurilor de studii
care pot fi desfurate n cercetarea psihologic.
Recenzii
Ceea ce trebuie menionat este c, dei aceast

parte poate fi considerat un adevrat manual de
care un cercettor are nevoie pentru a-i
desfura activitatea, complexitatea ridicat a
temelor abordate este atenuat de abundana de
exemple, dar i a casetelor-sumative menionate
deja, care vin n ajutorul cititorului. Astfel, n
cadrul acestei pri, autorul descrie pas cu pas
aspectele care trebuie luate n considerare n
cercetare, pornind de la studiile experimentale i
non-experimentale (capitolul 4 i respectiv 5),
continund cu studiile de evaluare economic a
serviciilor psihologice (capitolul 6) i, n final,
descriind studiile meta-analitice (capitolul 7). De
remarcat este c ultimul capitol (capitolul 8) este
destinat, n principal, standardelor de publicare a
studiilor, ceea ce se dovedete a fi de foarte mare
utilitate, avnd n vedere faptul c pentru fiecare
seciune a unui articol care urmeaz a fi publicat
sunt descrise recomandrile autorului, dar sunt
date i exemple detaliate.
n cadrul acestei cri, Florin Alin Sava
demonstreaz faptul c, dei este mult mai facil
apelarea la practicile pseudotiinifice pentru a
argumenta c o intervenie este valid, singurul
mod de a atesta c aceasta are efecte benefice
reale este prin a avea o practic fundamentat n
dovezi validate tiinific, indiferent c este vorba
despre domeniul psihologiei clinice sau cel al
psihologiei organizaionale. Astfel, psihologii au
de ales ntre a fi un psiholog de fotoliu (engl.
armchair psychologist) care utilizeaz psihologia
de sim comun, apeleaz la impresii i la
autoritate sau un psiholog autentic ale crui
decizii se bazeaz pe dovezi documentate
tiinific. Un prim pas nspre cea de-a doua
opiune poate fi acela de a citi aceast carte.
Nastasia Slgean
Departamentul de Psihologie
Peter G. Northouse
Leadership: Theory and Practice
Sixth Edition
2013, Editura Sage , 481 p.
ncepnd cu anul 1900, leadership-ul sau

tiina conducerii ale crui rdcini pot fi
ntlnite pe vremea lui Aristotel, a captat
interesul cercettorilor. Astfel, pn n prezent au

fost dezvoltate pn la 200 de definiii ale
conceptului leadership, dar i diferite teorii.
Cartea Leadership: Theory and Practice
Sixth Edition, a crei tem este clar evideniat
nc din titlu, are ca scop s l ajute pe cititor s
neleag
aplicabilitatea
conceptului
de
leadership, dar i teoriile sale fie ele mai
simple sau mai complexe.
Peter G. Northouse, autorul acestei cri, ce
activeaz de 30 de ani n acest domeniu, a editat
i cartea Leadership: Concepts and Practice, dar
a fost i coautorul crii Health Communication:
Strategies for Health Professionals (3rd. Ed.).
Prin intermediul volumului Leadership: Theory
and Practice Sixth Edition se aduc n lumin
noi cercetri, descoperiri i informaii din
domeniul leadership-ului, dar i o imagine
despre cum poate fi leadership-ul aplicat n viaa
real.
Fiind a asea ediie a crii, aceasta se
difereniaz de celelalte prin informaii noi, dar
i printr-un capitol nou ,,Leadership-ul
Supuilor. Cartea este mprit n 16 capitole,
crora autorul le-a acordat acelai nivel de
atenie.
n primul capitol este analizat necesitatea
unei prezentri ample a leadership-ului, trasnd
anumite direcii cu privire la modul n care
prezentarea se va realiza. De exemplu, clarific
problema definirii conceptului leadership,
oferind definiia care elucideaz acest proces, dar
i difereniaz ntre liderii numii de ctre
conducere (engl. assigned leadership) i cei care
se remarc prin intermediul grupului (engl.
emerged leadership). Cu toate c realizeaz
aceast difereniere, teoriile prezentate n
continuare sunt specifice ambelor tipuri.
Capitolele 2, 3, 4 i 5 sunt dedicate
abordrilor
leadership-ului
abordarea
trsturilor, abordarea competenelor, abordarea
stilului, abordarea situaional. Fiecare dintre
aceste abordri prezint puncte tari i puncte
slabe, iar autorul are grij s le evidenieze. De
exemplu, abordarea trsturilor consider
trsturile definitorii pentru a fi lider ca fiind
nnscute, n timp ce abordarea competenelor
susine c orice om poate ajunge lider prin
dezvoltarea unor competene specifice, dar cu
toate acestea menioneaz i importana
atributelor individuale fapt care evideniaz
slbiciunea teoriei. Celelalte dou abordri, ns,
acord mai mare importan la ceea ce liderul
poate face pentru a reui abordarea stilului i
107
Recenzii
cum poate reui un lider n diferite medii

organizaionale cu solicitri ale postului ridicate
abordarea situaional.
Pe lng aceste abordri, au mai fost
dezvoltate i alte teorii, pe care autorul le include
n capitolele 6, 7, 8. Vorbim despre teorii precum
teoria contingenei, teoria atingerii scopului
(engl. path-goal) i teoria schimbului lider
membru. Fiecare dintre aceste teorii prezint
diferite modaliti prin care leadership-ul se
poate evidenia. Astfel, teoria contingenei se
concentreaz pe situaia n care liderul i
desfoar activitatea, teoria path-goal se
centreaz pe modul n care lideri i motiveaz
subordonaii, iar teoria schimbului lider-membru
acord atenie interaciunii dintre lideri i supui.
Urmtoarele cinci capitole au fost dedicate
unor teorii i tipuri de leadership care s-au
remarcat ncepnd cu anii `70 sau mai recent.
Acestea au impresionat prin ritmul rapid prin
care s-au dezvoltat i s-au fcut cunoscute. Cele
cinci capitole corespund urmtoarelor teorii:
leadership-ul transformaional, leadership-ul
supuilor, leadership-ul autentic, leadership-ul de
echip i abordarea psiho-dinamic. Leadershipul transformaional, de-a lungul timpului, s-a
dovedit a fi cel mai popular fiind un proces care
dezvolt i schimb oamenii, n timp ce
leadership-ul supuilor i prezint pe lideri n
ipostaza de supui. n capitolul 11, leadership-ul
autentic prezint un palier nou, care nu este, nc,
bine conturat, dar care prezint totui cteva
puncte tari informaii clare pentru indivizii care
vor s devin lideri autentici; capitolul 12
contureaz un alt tip de leadership, tot mai
popular datorit modului n care se desfoar,
leadership-ul de echip. Abordarea psihodinamic prezentat n capitolul 13, difer de
toate celelalte abordri i teorii prezentate,
deoarece prezint mai multe modaliti prin care
leadership-ul poate fi neles. Aceast abordare
se bazeaz cercetri precum cele ale lui Freud
sau Jung. Important de remarcat este faptul c
autorul nu este subiectiv n prezentarea teoriilor,
indicnd la fiecare dintre teorii att
caracteristicile sale, ct i criticile aduse.
Dar, aceast carte nu se limiteaz doar la a
prezenta teorii ale leadership-ului, ci acord dou
capitole pentru a prezenta relaia leadership-ului
cu genul, dar i cu mediul cultural. Dou idei
care se remarc din acele capitole sunt c
femeile, de exemplu, se evideniaz prin
utilizarea, n cele mai multe cazuri, a unui
leadership de tip transformaional, iar n ceea ce
108
privete cultura, liderii au neles importana

cunoaterii mediului cultural pentru a performa
n sarcini.
Ultimul capitol aduce n discuie o problem
serioas - etica leadership-ului. n cadrul
acestuia, autorul i-a propus s prezinte cteva
dintre problemele etice care pot aprea la nivelul
leadership-ului, dar i caracteristici prin care se
pot identifica liderii etici.
Cartea este foarte bine structurat, oferindu-i
cititorului o imagine ampl i clar despre
leadership i despre modul n care poate fi
aplicat. Capitolele au o structur unitar i un
format care se respect, ntru totul, la nivelul
celor 16 capitole. Astfel, ntr-o prim parte este
prezentat teoria cu punctele sale tari i exemple,
fiind urmat de critici aduse acelei teorii, pentru
ca apoi cititorul s parcurg o parte aplicativ
(exerciii) n urmtoarea parte a capitolului, dar
i exemple de instrumente specifice fiecrei
teorii i o prezentare succint a capitolului. Stilul
de prezentare, flexibilitatea informaiilor sunt
cele care susin faptul c aceast carte poate fi de
un real ajutor att pentru cei care sunt specialiti
n domeniul leadership-ului, ct i pentru cei care
vor s se iniieze n acest domeniu. De asemenea,
prin multitudinea cercetrilor exemplificate,
acest volum poate capta interesul cercettorilor.
Putem concluziona c aceast carte ofer
informaii importante att sub aspect teoretic, dar
mai ales pentru cel practic. Caracterul ei puternic
aplicativ, dar i multitudinea abordrilor
leadership-ului prezentate reprezint o adevrat
baz pentru cei care doresc s activeze n acest
domeniu sau s-l aprofundeze.
Srboiu Floriana
Dan Merzick
The Culture Game
A tool for Agile Managers, 2012,
FreeStandling Press, 314 p
The Culture Game este o carte promisiune, o provocare pentru companiile aflate
n cutarea unui nou tip de cultur
organizaional, avnd ca ax central nvarea
continu. Aceast abordare vine n continuarea
muncii unor pionieri i inovatori n domeniul
Recenzii
nvrii organizaionale. Pornind de la Chris

Argyris & Donald Schon (1978) i de la
conceptul de organizaie care nva (engl.
organizational learning), continund cu Peter
Senge (1994) n The fifth discipline i avnd
ca punct culminant lucrarea Tribal Leadership
scris de Dave Logan, John King i Halle
Fischer-Wright n anul 2008, autorul le mbin
armonios cu valorile i principiile promovate de
Agile Manifesto (2001) reprezentnd un ghid
pentru succesul proiectelor software n secolul
nostru.
Cartea The Culture Game reprezint un
debut pentru Dan Merzick, care aduce n atenie
conceptul de design al culturii unei organizaii,
propunnd utilizarea practicilor de culture
hacking. Merzick propune o paralel metaforic
ntre paradigma prozaic a dezvoltrii de
software i aspectele strict umane implicate n
dezvoltarea unei culturi organizaionale, punnd
alturi domenii aparent disjuncte. Aceast
abordare reprezint o provocare pentru cititorul
mai puin familiar cu aceast industrie, nu sub
aspectul nelegerii, ct, mai ales, sub aspectul
ineditului. Chiar dac tema abordat de autor i
are originea n industria de software, soluiile
oferite au aplicabilitate general, nefiind
caracteristice unei industrii sau unui domeniu de
activitate dintr-o companie. La baza revoluiei
industriei de software se afl conceptul de
software hacking aprut n anii 70, prin scrierea
primelor programe pe calculator pentru uz
personal.
Astfel, apare in mod firesc ntrebarea: dac
avem software hacking, de ce nu am avea culture
hacking? Autorul preia termenul de culture
hacking de la Jim Mc Carthy (2002), introdus n
cartea sa Software for your brain, pe care-l
definete ca fiind modificarea activ, intenionat
i iterativ a normelor culturale existente n
organizaie, cu intenia de a creea o puternic
cultur de nvare. Contribuia original a
autorului const n punerea la dispoziia
cititorului interesat a unui set de instrumente
pentru transformarea culturii organizaiei din
care face parte, oferind acestuia ansa de fi la
rndul lui hacker , indiferent de poziia sau
rolul su n organizaie.
Cartea este organizat n patru pri. Prima
parte reprezint o introducere n conceptele de
baz vehiculate, principiile i valorile Agile,
nvarea tribal, rolul i importana unui mediu
de siguran psihologic, fr de care nvarea
nu poate avea loc. Lectura crii genereaz
ntrebri de tipul: de ce joc (engl. game), ce este

jocul culturii (engl. culture game), care sunt
beneficiile utilizrii conceptului de joc intr-o
organizaie.
Nucleul crii se contureaz n partea a doua
a crii, n care sunt descrise cele 16 instrumente
propuse de autor pentru transformarea culturii
organizaionale. Din setul prezentat se pot alege
acele practici care se potrivesc contextului
organizaiei i abilitii de execuie a membrilor
ei. Nu e ins necesar punerea n practic a
ntregului set de instrumente. n principiu, ele
urmaresc crearea unui climat pozitiv, prin
conferirea unui sens al controlului, progresului i
apartenenei fiecrui individ la organizaia din
care face parte, precum i posibilitatea de a fi
parte a unei cauze sau idei ce transcede propria
persoan.
Instrumentele propuse pentru punerea n
practic sunt rezumate de practicile, cum ar fi:
{Defineste un scop}, {Anun intenie} i
{Gestioneaz vizual}. Modalitatea de nvare a
grupului este prin incercare-eroare, aceasta fiind
incurajat de practicile: {Experimenteaz des} i
{Inspecteaza frecvent}. Aceast modalitate se
bazeaz pe definirea unui set de interaciuni
intragrup, cum ar fi cele descrise de:
{Faciliteaz
edinele},
{Structureaz
interaciunile},
{Gestioneaz
visual}
i
{Deschide Spaiul}, precum i a unui set de
reguli, viznd excelenta date determinate de
{Examineaza normele}, {Fii atent} i {Foloseste
Coaching}. Utilizarea jocului este recomandat
pentru facilitarea procesului de nvare prin
practicile: {Fii jucu} i {Jocul edin}.
Nu ntmplator, setul de intrumente propuse
de autor ncepe cu {Definete un scop}. Grupul
sau organizaia ce are definit un scop i
pstreaza mai uor concentrarea n vederea
atingerii obiectivului, oferind un sens muncii.
Pentru obinerea angajamentului, Merzick
pledeaz pentru implicarea tuturor n definirea
scopului. Etapele, aa cum sunt ele descrise de
Merzick, sunt :
1. Intreab folosete toate formele de
comunicare pentru solicitarea feedbackului i
ideilor despre ce poate fi scopul grupului.
Asigur-te c toata lumea e inclus n discuie.
2. Ascult nu condu discuia; doar creaz
cadrul necesar. Ca manager prezent n sal i
deinnd autoritatea, poi s ncurajezi sau nu
discuia. Incearc s nu stai n calea lor.
3. Intlnii-v. Cteva edine sunt necesare
i asigur-te c ele au un facilitator. Cum scopul
109
Recenzii
unui departament sau grup mic depinde de

scopul i elurile organizaiei, ateapt-te s se
pun n discutie scopul larg [...].
4. Pstreaz obiectivitatea. Explorarea unui
scop clar definit poate fi declanator i poate
evoca emoii puternice potenial emoii
negative care exprim frustarea n organizaii.
Las loc pentru manifestare, dar pstreaz
obiectivitatea.
5. Jucai-v. De-a lungul edintelor folosii
jocuri care stimuleaz generarea ideilor,
micarea i acordul. Foloseste practica {Fii
jucu}
6. Realizeaz-l. Nu amna finalizarea.
7. Pstreaz-l scurt. Folosete practica
{Structureaz interaciunile} pentru a formula un
scop scurt i usor de reamintit. (pag. .87)
edinele sunt parte integrant a activitii
oricrei organizaii fiind n acelai timp sursa de
ineficien. Practica {Jocul edin} propune un
mod de a ine edine eficace, gndindu-le ca
jocuri, mai precis, ca avnd caracteristicile unui
joc : cu participare benevol, cu un scop i un set
de reguli clare i prevzute cu posibilitatea
vizual de a urmri progresul pe durata lui.
nvarea ntr-un grup e strns legat de
libertatea de experimentare permis de
organizaie. Prin practica {Experimenteaz des},
Merzick recomand managerilor s ncurajezeze
eecul ieftin i rapid, adic s ncurajeze teste
mici i s descurajeze nvinovirea, valoriznd
nvarea din rezultate.
Partea a treia extinde abordarea conceptual
i ofer informaii i direcii pentru rspndirea
ideii de nvare la nivelul ntregii organizaii
prin folosirea triadelor, plecnd din aproape n
aproape, de la grupuri mici spre cele mari.
La finalul crii, autorii au sintetizat ntr-o
anex materiale de referin. Aceasta conine o
scurt introducere n framework-ul Scrum, ca un
exemplu de game Agile, un interviu despre
experiena utilizrii practicii {Experimenteaza
des} la Zappos Insight, un interviu cu Michael
Margolis, consultant organizaional, despre
rezultatele aplicrii nvrii tribale observate n
cariera sa i descrierea jocului Viteza brcii
identific prile din produse sau servicii
dezagreate de clienii ti preluat de la Luke
Hohmann (2006).
Lectura este facil i autorul revine deseori
asupra conceptelor utilizate, dorind parc s se
asigure de nelegerea cititorului. Din acest punct
de vedere, nu necesit lecturi anterioare, fiind
auto-suficient i poate prea plictisitoare pe
110
alocuri pentru cunosctori.

The Culture Game este o carte pentru
manageri, i nu numai, care doresc mai mult
agilitate aceasta fiind capacitatea organizaiei
de a identifica i rspunde rapid la schimbare i angajament n echipele lor, i apoi, n
organizaia din care fac parte.
Promisiunea autorului este de a continua
ideea nceput n volumul de fa n volumul 2,
atacnd de data aceasta subiectul agilitii n
business, volum aflat in curs de apariie. Prin
aceast serie de cri, autorul aduce o nou
viziune asupra modului n care putem s
inducem nvarea ca factor central al culturii
organizaionale recomandat celor ce doresc s
fie la curent cu noile tendine.
Carmen Munteanu
Victoria V. Swisher
Becoming an agile leader,
2012, Korn/Ferry, Ed. LOMINGER,
Minneapolis, 175 p
Becoming an agile leader este prima

lucrare individual a Victoriei V. Swisher,
aceasta fiind co-autoare la mai multe cri ale
editurii Lomingers i, n acelai timp,directorul
departamentului de dezvoltare intelectual al
companiei Korn/Ferry International. Are o vast
experien n domeniul dezvoltrii resurselor
umane, cu un accent deosebit pe dezvoltarea
liderilor i managementul talentelor, n general.
Autoarea a scris mai multe articole referitoare la
subiecte precum, agilitatea nvrii i
dezvoltarea leadership-ului, iar nainte de a lucra
la Korn/Ferry, Victoria a deinut poziii de
conducere i de consultan n companii de top
care activeaz n domeniul serviciilor financiare i
n domeniul hotelier.
Primul capitol al crii exemplific ce
nseamn s fi un lider agil, explic riscurile de a
rmne prins n aceeai rutina (acesta fiind
familiar i n acelai timp comod, confortabil)
i beneficiile orientrii spre nvarea agil. De
asemenea, explic faptul c situaia n
managementul companiilor s-a schimbat, n
sensul c managerii de top sunt din ce n ce mai
tineri, ceea ce implic faptul c modalitile
Recenzii
clasice de educaie nu mai fac fa cerinelor,

cantitii i diversitii muncii actuale. Prin
urmare, trebuie aplicat o metod de
comportament profesional agil, dinamic, astfel
nct managerii s-i dezvolte capacitatea de a
face fa situaiilor profesionale, fr s deina o
experien bogat i o cantitatea mare de
cunotiine care se acumuleaz ntr-un mod
clasic.
Cartea este structurat, n continuare, n 5
capitole n care se prezint factorii care fac parte
din agilitate sau elementele cheie ale agilitii,
mai precis: contiena de sine (engl. self
awareness), agilitatea mental (engl. mental
agility) sau curiozitatea de a rezolva problemele
cu complexitate ridicat, agilitatea oamenilor
(engl. people agilty) sau capacitatea de analiz
dinamic a celor din jur, schimbarea agil (engl.
change agilty) i rezultate agile (engl. results
agility) sau a fi focusat pe finalizare, indiferent
de probabilitate.
Primul factor al agilitii, constiena de sine
care este i titlul celui de al doilea capitol, ne
ajut s ne dezvoltm propriile capaciti
existeniale, att prin exemple practice demne de
urmat, ct i prin tehnici demonstrate empiric de
a-i contientiza propriile capaciti. Acest
capitol ne pregtete pentru provocrile
urmtorilor factori de agilitate pe care trebuie s
ni-i nsuim.
Al treilea capitol, agilitate mental, ne pune
fa n fa cu ntrebarea: cum putem s atacam
diversele aspecte ale vieii, traduse de cele mai
multe ori n probleme sau provocri; rspunsul e
simplu i firesc: din mai multe unghiuri, astfel
nct s revelm diferitele faete ale acestor
probleme. Aceast tehnic ne va ajuta s
nelegem i, finalmente, chiar s rezolvm
sarcinile iniiale. De asemenea, ne arat c
aceast metoda de analiza se poate dobndi
folosindu-ne de creativitate, de schematizare i
de trecerea problemei din termeni abstraci n
realitate.
Al patrulea capitol, agilitatea oamenilor,
arat ct de important este s avem o atitudine
deschis fa de cei din jurul nostru, tocmai
pentru a observa ntr-un mod contient i
obiectiv capacitile intelectuale, punctele forte
ale celorlali i cum trateaz ei situaiile practice.
Pune accent pe partea benefic a interaciunii
umane, pe ct de mult ne poate lrgi orizontul i
ct de benefic este pentru auto-educare.
Al cincilea capitol - schimbarea agil, face

referire la capacitatea de a nu lua o situaie/un
model ca atare, ci dimpotriv, de a fi interesat de
metodele prin care, schimbnd diferii factori al
acestei situaii sau model, poi s ajui la
mbuntirea lui. Arat c nu trebuie s existe o
team de schimbare, atunci cand ea poate aciona
n beneficiul modelului de afaceri sau procedura
luat n calcul. ntr-un cuvnt, acest capitol ne
ncurajeaz s nu luam lucrurile ca atare, ci s
mbrism posibilele modificri care pot aduce
beneficii.
Ultimul capitol al crii - agilitatea
rezultatelor, vorbete despre dobndirea
succesului, motivat fiind de scopul final, adic
de a obine rezultate. Metodele pentru a avea
rezultate bune sunt cele ale unui conducator de
echip i nu ale unui individualist. Pentru a
dobndi aceast capacitate orientat ctre un
scop final, este nevoie s i asumi riscuri, s
nvei din mers, s perseverezi, s fi
inspiraional, s fi prezent printre ceilali, s ti
s delegi i s i asumi rolul de conductor.
Pentru ca rezultatele sunt atinse nu doar un
singur om, ci de colaborarea tuturor, sub
ndrumarea unui vizionar sau, mai bine spus, a
unui bun manager.
Prin coninutul celor 6 capitole, cartea ne
ofer o imagine complex asupra acestui curent
nou aparut n literatura de specialitate, al
nvrii agile, sugernd de fapt c, dobndind
aceast abilitate i devenind un lider agil te poi
face remarcat mult mai uor. Pn la urm, nu
este vorba despre ce realizri au fost dobndite n
trecut, ci despre ce se va putea face n viitor,
cnd vor trebui nfruntate noi dificulti, care vor
necesita abordarea unor noi atitudini i
comportamente. Victoria V. Swisher propune
acest ghid practic pentru a recunoate, a dezvolta
viitoare talente n pratica leadership-ului, ct i
pentru a obine rezultate foarte bune n situaii
noi i diferite. Ceea ce face ca aceast carte s
aibe un impact mare asupra cititorilor este
mpletirea dintre povetile unor oameni care au
fcut o diferen n lume (precum Albert
Einstein, Nelson Mandela sau Richard Branson)
i teorii ale leadership-ului bine documentate.
Man Roxana Iulia
Universitate de Vest din Timioara
111
Exploratory workshop on Evaluative Conditioning

Changing attitudes through evaluative conditioning: challenges and promises
Timioara 15-16th of September 2012
Silvia Rusu1
The workshop Changing attitudes through

evaluative conditioning: challenges and
promises took place between 15-16th of
September 2012 in Timisoara. The workshop
was organized by the Psychology Department of
West University of Timisoara and the SOCPERS
Lab, under the coordination of assoc. prof. Florin
Alin Sava, Ph.D..
Evaluative conditioning was defined as a
change in the valence of a stimulus (Conditioned
Stimulus, CS) following the pairing of that
stimulus with another valenced stimulus,
(Unconditioned Stimulus, US) (De Houwer,
2007) and it is now considered to be one of the
key mechanisms involved in the formation and
change of attitudes. Imagine a company is ready
to release a new brand of beer, and it is interested
in creating a favorable attitude towards it. In
order to do this, the company will use
advertising or other common techniques to pair
the beer brand with positive affective stimuli
(known as evaluative conditioning procedures).
Evaluative conditioning is considered to have a
strong potential to affect attitudes in different
areas such as alcohol consumption (Houben,
Schoenmakers, & Wiers, 2010; Houben,
Havermans, & Wiers, 2010) brand attitudes
(Sweldens, Van Osselaer, & Janiszewski, 2010),
emotion research (Mallan & Lipp, 2007), clinical
psychology (Olatunji, Lohr, Sawchuk, &
Westendorf, 2007). Recent research also
suggests that evaluative conditioning procedures
might be able to affect not only attitudes, but
also behavior (Houben, Nederkoorn, Wiers &
Jansen, 2011). Considering all of the above, we
believe it is important for scientists to focus on a
better understanding of the EC effect and on the
underlying causal mechanisms, in order to
design better EC procedures, with better results.
The exploratory workshop had three main
objectives:
1
Ph.D. student, West University from Timioara
112
1. To understand what are the causal

mechanisms (mediators) that make EC
efficient, and, therefore, helping
designing procedures that lead to strong
as opposed to weak changes in
preferences.
2. To understand what are the possible
moderators that affect the EC effect in
the direction of increasing the respective
effect.
3. To find in which cases EC has played a
crucial role in changing attitudes rather
than forming attitudes, since the former
case has more ecological validity
implications.
Six of the best researchers working in the
field of implicit measures and evaluative
conditioning were invited to present their
findings, the existent perspectives and
knowledge related to evaluative conditioning.
The workshop began with the presentation
of prof. Marco Perugini from the University of
Milano Bicocca On self-referential framework as
an EC procedure. Main findings and links to the
propositional and associative accounts in
explaining EC. After a short introduction on dual
process models, implicit attitudes and measures
as well as on evaluative conditioning, prof.
Perugini`s presentation focused on a specific EC
procedure,
namely
the
Self-referencing
paradigm. Because most people have positive
self-esteem and self-views at explicit and
implicit level, but also because the Self has a
special status in information processing, we can
exploit this positivity of the self by using it as an
Unconditional Stimulus. In other words, the self
can be used to change evaluations and attitudes
towards targets that are paired with the self. The
research conducted by professor Perugini
suggests that Self-referencing is a robust EC
Exploratory workshop on Evaluative Conditioning.

paradigm for attitude change detected using

implicit, but also explicit attitude instruments.
According to this research the self seems to be a
powerful US, as targets paired with the self
become more positive.
Prof. Keith Payne from the University of
North Carolina continued with a presentation on
Implicit and explicit social cognition - are
associations and propositions enough? The
theoretical framework of the presentation
consisted of the Associative - Propositional
Model, according to which the prototypical case
for implicit attitude change resulting from
changes in associative structure is evaluative
conditioning (Gawronski & Bodenhausen,
2006; p. 697). There is currently a debate in the
literature whether the evaluative conditioning is
an associative or a propositional process, but
either way we need to learn more about how it
affects implicit evaluations. If EC is associative,
we need to understand how it relates to implicit
and explicit evaluations, but it EC is
propositional, then we need to understand how
propositions lead to implicit evaluation.
Assoc. prof. Anne Gast from University of
Ghent presented aspects regarding The relevance
of propositional knowledge and memory on
evaluative conditioning effects. In the framework
of the Associative Propositional Model
(Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006) propositions
are mental links that are represented as
statements about the world, which are considered
to be truth. The propositional account of the EC
effect suggests that EC emerges when
knowledge about the common appearance of the
stimuli is accessible. From this point of view, the
memory of the pairings seems to be important,
and the results of the research developed by the
Lab in Ghent University shows that EC effect
depends on memory of the pairing during
valence measurement, but, not on memory of
pairings immediately after learning. There seems
to be a considerable amount of evidence
suggesting that under specific conditions, EC
effects are dependent on the propositional
processing of information and on the context.
Prof. Steven Sweldens from INSEAD
Business School presented aspects related to
Implicit and explicit learning in evaluative
conditioning - the role of the conditioning
procedure. The presentation approached two
research questions: The content - what is learned
in EC? and The process - is it associative or
propositional? Regarding the issue of content,
the connection between the CS and the UR

(unconditional response) can be established
either through associative learning (the CS is
associated with US), or through direct affect
transfer on the UR, depending on how the
stimuli are paired during the EC procedure.
Regarding the process, if the learning is implicit,
it should occur without awareness of the CS-US
contingency, but the literature shows confusing
results so far. One potential cause of the mixed
results provided by the literature is related to the
way CA (contingency awareness) is measured
because as long as people rely on their feelings
towards the CS in answering the memory
question, successful EC for unaware CS will
not emerge. Using a multinomial model, which
disentangles the memory and the attitude effects
in CA measurement, prof. Sweldens shows there
is significant attitude acquisition without
contingency awareness, consistent with the
implicit misattribution account of the EC (at
least when the CS and US are presented
simultaneously).
The presentation of assoc. prof. Florin Alin
Sava from West University of Timisoara focused
on Interventions that alter implicit cognitions,
showing a comparison between two different
techniques (EC and attentional training), using a
meta-analytical approach. It was shown that
Attentional Training procedures had a stronger
effect than EC, but only on attentional bias as
measured by the Dot Probe Task or E-Stroop.
This result should be regarded with caution since
the effect on attentional bias can be attributed to
method-specific factors (because of the
similarity between the training and assessment
procedure). When we consider the intervention
most effective in changing implicit associations
as measured by the Implicit Association Test, the
evaluative conditioning shows better effects than
the Attentional Training. No studies assessed the
effect of EC on attentional bias, so this relation
could not be evaluated. Also, the effects
assessed in this meta-analysis show significant
heterogeneity, suggesting that a number of
moderator variables should be further analyzed
for a better understanding of the effectiveness of
interventions designed to change implicit
cognitions.
Prof. Rainer Banse from University of Bonn
presented A critical view on EC procedures insights from an implicit measure perspective. A
recent meta-analysis (Hofmann, DeHouwer,
Perugini, Baeyens, & Crombez, 2010) showed
113

that evaluative conditioning is a real effect able

to change implicit and explicit attitudes.
Nonetheless, there still are several issues that
remain unclear concerning the efficiency of EC.
The criticisms brought to EC are related to the
poor reliability of the implicit instruments used
to measure the change, and on the fact that EC
seems to work only under certain conditions. For
instance, research ran by prof. Banse on the
context effects in evaluative conditioning yielded
unclear results, with no significant main effect of
the evaluative conditioning procedure. Some
suggestions made by prof. Banse included using
a large enough sample size for obtaining stable
results and replicating results within the study,
across different studies and different labs and
measures.
During the workshop, several topics related
to EC were addressed, such as the efficiency of
different EC procedures, the possible causal
mechanisms responsible for the EC effect,
potential moderators and critical aspects of the
EC. Although until now the causal mechanisms
of EC are not clear, some evidence suggest that
different procedures tap into different processes,
so in order to fully understand how and when EC
yields strong vs. weak effects we must first
understand the processes responsible for
different types of EC procedures. Future research
should also focus on identifying the moderators
which can increase the EC effect, but also on
developing better measures for CA and the effect
at implicit and explicit level. Last, but not least,
we should remember that replication is necessary
for considering EC a reliable procedure for
attitude formation and change.
114
References
De Houwer, J. (2007). A conceptual and theoretical
analysis of evaluative conditioning. The Spanish
Journal of Psychology, 10, 230241.
Gawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2006).
Associative and propositional processes in
evaluation: an integrative review of implicit and
explicit attitude change. Psychological bulletin,
132(5), 692.
Hofmann, W., De Houwer, J., Perugini, M., Baeyens,
F., & Crombez, G. (2010). Evaluative
conditioning in humans: a meta-analysis.
Psychological bulletin, 136(3), 390.
Houben, K., Havermans, R. C., & Wiers, R. W. (2010).
Learning to dislike alcohol: conditioning negative
implicit attitudes toward alcohol and its effect on
drinking behavior. Psychopharmacology, 211(1),
79-86.
Houben, K., Nederkoorn, C., Wiers, R. W., & Jansen,
A. (2011). Resisting temptation: Decreasing
alcohol-related affect and drinking behavior by
training response inhibition. Drug and alcohol
dependence, 116(1), 132-136.
Mallan, K. M., & Lipp, O. V. (2007). Does emotion
modulate the blink reflex in human conditioning?
Startle potentiation during pleasant and unpleasant
cues
in
the
picturepicture
paradigm.
Psychophysiology, 44(5), 737-748.
Olatunji, B. O., Lohr, J. M., Sawchuk, C. N., & Tolin,
D. F. (2007). Multimodal assessment of disgust in
contamination-related
obsessive-compulsive
disorder. Behaviour research and therapy, 45(2),
263-276.
Sweldens, S., Van Osselaer, S. M., & Janiszewski, C.
(2010). Evaluative conditioning procedures and
the resilience of conditioned brand attitudes.
Journal of Consumer Research, 37(3), 473-489.
IN MEMORIAM ADRIAN NECULAU

(30 august 1938 21 decembrie 2012 )
Corina Ilin1
Recunosc c mi este extrem de dificil s

scriu acest text. Am amnat mult dar am i
reflectat mult la ceea ce cu adevrat doresc s
scriu despre Profesorul Adrian Neculau ntr-o
revist de psihologie a resurselor umane. Aleg s
dau mrturie cteva aspecte considerate de mine
definitorii pentru personalitatea profesorului
Adrian Neculau: realizri, acele reuite
incontestabile dincolo de timp i generaii, teme
principale de interes, de studiu i de cercetare,
cu sperana c ele sunt inspiratoare pentru cei ce
doresc s i continue munca i dedicarea,
caracteristici personale, ceea ce l fceau cu totul
special, unic, n comunitatea academic
romneasc, crezuri, rostite din ce n ce mai des
i mai apsat n ultimii ani.
Lista realizrilor, parte deja a istoriei recente
a psihologiei romneti, este mult prea lung
pentru spaiul publicistic de fa, prezentarea
mea fiind o selecie subiectiv, elaborat cu
dorina de a sublinia activitatea profesorului
Adrian Neculau n domeniul psihologiei muncii
i conducerii. Adrian Neculau este cunoscut ca
numrul 1 n psihologia social din Romnia dar
nu a dori s uitm c nceputurile carierei sale
de cercettor au legtur cu laboratorul de
psihologie experimental din CFR, Iai, iar teza
sa de doctorat este o lucrare fundamental pentru
domeniul psihologiei grupurilor de munc.
Pentru a contura portretul su profesional voi
aduce n atenie o parte a temelor principale de
interes, de studiu i de cercetare ale profesorului
Adrian Neculau, din ultimii ani. Cu gndul la cei
ce sunt cititori ai acestei reviste dar nu au avut
bucuria ntlnirii personale i ocazia s lucreze
direct cu profesorul Adrian Neculau, voi scrie
cteva rnduri despre cum a fost ca om, profesor
i mentor, domnul Profesor. Sunt persoane mult
mai ndreptite dect mine, s vorbeasc despre
crezurile de-o via ale profesorului Adrian
Neculau. M gndesc, n primul rnd, la familia
sa i la prietenul su drag, profesorul Septimiu
Chelcea, la colaboratorii direci din Iai i de
pretutindeni. Sper c mi vor ierta ndrzneala, i
i asigur c scriu cu inima deschis dar mai ales

avnd convingerea c nu putem scpa n uitare
preioasa motenire profesional i spiritual
lsat de profesorul Neculau.
n 2003 profesorul Neculau s-a pensionat,
oficial. Colegii de la Catedra de Psihologie din
Universitatea Al. Ioan Cuza din Iai au avut
inspiraia de a pregti un volum In honorem
Adrian Neculau, numit proiect de inim i
onoare. mi amintesc c protestasem atunci, cei
drept, mut i surd: de ce un volum acum cnd
domnul profesor Adrian Neculau are doar 65 de
ani i tocmai pentru c se pensioneaz devine
liber s ne bucure cu prezena i rezultatele
muncii sale cel puin 20 25 de ani de acum
ncolo? Am convingerea c nu doar eu credeam
c aa se va ntmpla, iar dispariia fulgertoare
din 21 decembrie 2012 a ntrecut orice
nchipuire, ne-a lsat pe toi mpietrii n uimire,
suprare, tristee i neputin. Suntem n doliu.
Cartea Psihologia social i Noua Europ.
In honorem Adrian Neculau (Editura Polirom,
Iai, 2003) are acum o cu totul alt semnificaie
i valoare. Cum a fost ca om i mentor, domnul
Profesor Adrian Neculau? Gsim aici cteva
rspunsuri memorabile:
Serge Moscovici: Revenirea Romniei n
viaa mea are un nume i un chip: Adrian
Neculau: L optimisme est une qualite
formidable, voila ce que fut ma pensee lorsque je
rencontrai Adrian Neculau pour la premiere
fois.
Andrei Cosmovici un ctitor: Aportul
domnului Adrian Neculau este unul fundamental
i e similar cu ceea ce a fcut Florian tefnescu
Goang pentru psihologii de la Cluj n deceniile
trei i patru ale secolului trecut.
Tatiana Slama Cazacu Omagiul omeniei
tradiionale romneti: Mulumesc, domnule
Adrian Neculau, c m-ai fcut s ntlnesc
Omenia!.
Profesorul Teodor Cozma ne ajut s
nelegem legtura dintre profesorul Neculau i
trecutul su. A fcut parte din generaia ce a

Adresa de coresponden: cilin@socio.uvt.ro
115
creat puni ntre dou lumi i a fcut posibil

supravieuirea psihologiei n timpuri de rstrite:
tiu prea bine c lecia cea mai important pe
care ne-o puteau transmite (dasclii notri, n.a.)
era aceea a demnitii i au fcut-o n chip
magistral, nti de toate, prin modelul de via
intelectual i moral pe care ni l-au oferit de-a
lungul attor ani. Profesorul Adrian Neculau ia nsuit cu contiinciozitate aceast lecie i a
pus-o n practic nc din anii studeniei, apoi ca
profesor, psiholog, cercettor i cadru didactic
universitar. Acest crez profund l-a nsoit mereu
i l-a ajutat s-i pstreze optimismul n situaiile
cele mai dificile. Profesorul Adrian Neculau
rmne un model prin dou dimensiuni ce se
completeaz n cel mai fericit mod posibil:
cutarea de noi orizonturi, de oameni, de valori
noi, prin care exprim ncrederea lucid n viitor
i ntoarcerea permanent la tradiii, ndeosebi
la cele pe care, n mod abuziv, memoria tinde s
le treac n uitare. Strdania de cutare i
recuperare a memoriei pierdute a disciplinelor
noastre este o lecie pe care profesorul Neculau
o las motenire generaiilor ce le-au format i
mai ales, tinerei echipe de cercettori n care, de
mai bine de un deceniu, investete cunoatre i
ncredere.
Dar unde i cum a nceput totul?
Adrian Neculau s-a nscut n 1938 n
localitatea Ungureni, judeul Botoani, Romnia.
Studiile universitare i le-a fcut la Iai, obinnd
licena n pedagogie n 1962, sub ndrumarea
academicianului tefan Brsnescu. n 1974
obine doctoratul n psihologie sub coordonarea
academicianului Vasile Pavelcu cu teza Liderii
n dinamica grupurilor. Timp de un an pred la
un gimnaziu din Chiinu Cri dup care se
ntoarce la Iai, unde ase ani este psiholog
practician la laboratorul de psihologie
experimental al CFR-ului. n 1969 devine
asistent la Universitatea Al. Ioan Cuza din Iai.
Cariera academic l-a consacrat definitiv,
profesorul Neculau transformnd i nnobilnd
prin prezena i prestana sa mediul universitar
ieean, indiferent de ipostaza prin care l-a slujit:
asistent,
lector,
confereniar,
profesor,
conductor de doctorat, ef de catedr, prorector.
Ceea ce a reuit s realizeze profesorul Adrian
Neculau la Universitatea din Iai, dar nu doar
pentru Iai este remarcabil. A scris despre aceste
1
metamorfoze, n prefaa uneia din crile sale :
Schimbarea din 1989 a gsit Universitatea ntr1
Noi si Europa (coordonator i autor, prefaa), Iai,

Editura Polirom, 2002
116
o situaie dezastruoas: se diminuase drastic

numrul studenilor, nu se mai fcuser nici un
fel de investiii, corpul profesoral era izolat i
demoralizat, atmosfera de apatie i sentimentul
de neputin dominau cmpul universitar, situaia
psihologiei fiind nc i mai dramatic, n
Universitate rmseser doar civa profesori
care predau psihologie colar la diverse
faculti. Media de vrst a corpului profesoral
era mult peste cinzeci de ani. Nu exista un
laborator de psihologie, nu mai aveam dect doar
cteva mese i scaune chioape. Cei care ne
vizitau, se vedea dup expresia feei lor, erau
nspimntai de starea de napoiere n care ne
gseam. Pierdusem o jumtate de veac.
n aceste condiii, profesorul Neculau a
renceput formarea noilor generaii de psihologi.
Redresarea n-a durat ns dect civa ani,
investiia de ncredere n tinerii si colegi dnd
roade foarte rapid. Toi cei care au intrat n
corpul profesoral, dup 1995, fcuser stagii n
laboratoare de psihologie din Europa sau
America, se familiarizaser cu climatul de acolo,
au nceput s se fac cunoscui. S-au ctigat
programe internaionale, proiecte de cercetare
finanate de Banca Mondial, s-au nfiinat trei
laboratoare de cercetare. Bazei cu utilizatori
multipli, de la Facultatea de Psihologie i
tiinele Educaiei, Universitatea Al. I. Cuza
din Iai, singura din Romnia n tiine sociale, i
s-a conferit Diploma CNCSIS pentru Centru de
Excelen. Concomitent s-a ntemeiat revista, a
demarat programul de traduceri i de publicaii a
unor studii autohtone la Editura Polirom, s-au
organizat workshopuri internaionale, dar, cel
mai important, s-a dobndit contiina excelenei.
Poate din interior nu s-a perceput amploarea
schimbrii, cei de la distan au neles-o pe
deplin.
A venit vremea realizrilor. Poate c cel
mai important lucru pe care l-am realizat s
conexez
cercetarea
psihosociologic
romneasc la cmpul de cercetare european,
s-i ajut pe muli tineri s ias n lume i s
devin nume cunoscute, s iniiez o construcie
instituional, n care s i implic pe toi cei
dispui s se angajeze. (Din dialogul cu Mihai
Dinu Gheorghiu, 2003). La rndul su,
profesorul Mihai Dinu Gheorghiu, apreciaz:
Ceea ce mi se pare mie semnificativ pentru
intinerarul profesorului Adrian Neculau este
capacitatea de a coverti tiina social a relaiei
n practica relaiei sociale. Este pentru mine un
semn de nalt profesionalitate, de vocaie i de
etic profesional.
Doresc s amintesc doar cteva momente

editoriale pe care le apreciez ca fiind eseniale
pentru profilul profesional al profesorului Adrian
Neculau.
Volumul Liderii n dinamica grupului,
aprut n Bucureti, la Editura tiinific, n 1977
l-a fcut cunoscut i respectat n lumea
academic pe Adrian Neculau. Puini sunt cei
care se pot mndri cu publicaii, n timpul
regimului totalitar, de standard european, tema i
abordarea fiind de stringent actualitate tiinific
i n acord cu ceea ce se realiza pretudindeni n
lume la acea vreme. n interviul cu Septimiu
Chelcea din 2003, chiar este amintit reacia
profesorului Ion Radu... cum de te-au lsat s
publici aa ceva!?.
Prefaa-manifest a lui Serge Moscovici,
numele i prestigiul tuturor celor care se reunesc
n volumul Psihologia social. Aspecte
contemporane, dovedesc c profesorul Adrian
Neculau a fost dispus s-i pun ntreaga energie,
timpul i devotamentul su n slujba proiectul de
reconstrucie a psihologiei sociale romneti.
Semnul dat comunitii tiinifice a fost foarte
clar i astzi constatm, ct de rodnic i
ncununat de succes a fost acest ambiios, dificil
i temerar proiect.
Aa cum observa Pierre de Visscher, nimic
nu este ctigat pentru totdeauna i tot ceea ce
se uit trebuie s fie reamintit, de aceea
impresionantul volum Dinamica grupului. Texte
de baz (2001) este, cred, una din cele mai
valoroase publicaii de specialitate din Romnia
contemporan. Paradoxal, n aceast antologie,
texte scrise n francez i englez sunt publicate
n limba romn, fr s fie editate n aceast
form i n celelalte dou limbi. Cu acest volum
s-a reparat una din marile nedrepti ce a
destabilizat psihologia social. n consecin,
avem acum acces la texte fundamentale, clasice
sau recente i privilegiul gsirii propriei grile de
lectur a domeniului.
O semnificaie cu totul aparte a avut pentru
profesorul Adrian Neculau, Manualul de
psihologie social publicat n 2004 i reeditat, la
editura Polirom. Sigur, avem primul manual
autentic de psihologie social publicat n
Romnia post-totalitar dar i o lecie de inut
minte: ceea ce poate prea un lucru simplu, poate
fi de fapt un proiect extrem de complicat. n
concepia profesorului Neculau un manual
ncheie un ciclu, nu l deschide. Astfel, manualul
de fa include alturi de teorii i paradigme
cunoscute, rezultatele propriilor cercetri,
sintetiznd munca de ani a unei echipe ajuns la

deplin maturitate.
Pentru istoria recent a tiinei noastre, s-a
recuperat a parte din memoria ei pierdut:
proiectul nceput prin publicarea n 1999 a
volumului Memoria pierdut s-a continuat prin
interviurile lui Adrian Neculau cu Serge
Moscovici. Volumul Memoria pierdut, Editura
Polirom, 1999 a fost premiat de Uniunea
Autorilor din Romnia iar volumul de interviuri
Urmele timpului. Serge Moscovici n dialog cu
Adrian Neculau, din 2002 s-a epuizat de mult din
librrii!
Profesorul Neculau nu ascundea faptul c
tot ce fac n ultimul timp este ndreptat spre
descifrarea mecanismelor inoculrii. Cred c,
trind ntr-un context, nsuindu-i anumite
scheme cognitive i practicnd un anumit limbaj,
ajungi cu vremea s te identifici. Puini doar, cei
care au exersat mult al doilea tip de discurs n
sfera privat, i-au pstrat gndirea liber. Sper
c fac parte dintre acetia. (Adrian Neculau ntro convorbire cu Septimiu Chelcea, 2003).
Ajung astfel la cel de-al doilea aspect pe
care l consider definitoriu pentru personalitatea
profesorului Neculau, temele sale de cercetare
din ultimii zece ani: studierea realitii
romneti.
Viaa cotidian n comunism (2004), volum
coordonat de profesorul Neculau la care
colaboreaz nume importante ale vieii culturale
romneti, face de neles, explicabil chiar dac
nu mai puin trist i teribil, spun cei de la Editura
Polirom, ceea ce s-a ntmplat n viaa de zi cu zi
n perioada dictaturii comuniste din Romnia.
Aceast
lucrare
reprezentativ
pentru
preocuprile de cercetare i studiu ale
profesorului Neculau a fost publicat n Frana n
2008, La vie quotidienne en Roumanie sous
le communisme.
n 2011, cartea Psihologia servituilor
voluntare, reunete texte ce analizeaz o serie de
fenomene caracteristice societii romneti
actuale. Pe lng situaia satelor, definirea
identitii naionale sau locale i rolul instituiilor
de nvmnt sau al instituiilor statului sunt
prezentate portrete ale unor personaliti
culturale, dar i dosarele de urmrire ale unor
psihologi autohtoni aflate n arhivele CNSAS:
Mi se pare total nedemn s tratezi
anormalitatea ca pe ceva normal. Gsesc acestei
atitudini dou explicaii: sau sunt cercettori
terminai, incapabili s mai identifice fenomene
sociale reale din context, sau sunt nite
117
duplicitari, marcai de jocul prelungit, n

imposibilitate s i mai revin. (Adrian
Neculau ntr-o convorbire cu Septimiu Chelcea,
2003).
Cu mult elegan i consecven,
profesorul Adrian Neculau i continua lecia de
demnitate nceput n tineree i, la apus, cnd
devenise liber de servitui administrative, ne
surprinde, ne uimete i ne ncnt - se afund cu
interes i energie ce prea inepuizabil s
cerceteze arhivele CNSAS i lanseaz n lumea
cercettorilor din Romnia o tem pe ct de
terifiant pe att de delicat, psihologii romni
118
din nchisorile comuniste. Pn la capt

profesorul Neculau a lucrat mult i disciplinat,
am lucrat mai mult de 10 ore pe zi, tot citesc 4,
5 ore pe zi i uneori stau la calculator cte 6 ore
pe zi ...ct o s mai rezistm? (Adrian Neculau
ntr-o convorbire cu Septimiu Chelcea, 2003).
n ultima vreme profesorul Neculau glumea
mereu cnd l ntlneam spunnd celor din jur,
afectuos i ironic, ai venit la ntlnirea cu
istoria! A fost un privilegiu, un dar unic,
ntnirea cu profesorul Adrian Neculau dar a
venit dureros de repede timpul ca ceea ce am
primit s dm mai departe.
Cuprins
Editorial
Drago Iliescu
Starea actual a psihologului specializat n psihologia muncii i organizaional n Romnia (romn) / 7
Drago Iliescu
The current status of work and organizational psychologists in Romania (englez) / 12
Studii i cercetri
Cum arat un workaholic romn? Asocierea dintre workaholism i caracteristicile angajatului; o validare preliminar a
scalei DUWAS / 17
Elena Raluca Ciobot
Relaia dintre stresul ocupaional, satisfacia n munc i implicarea n munc / 33
Rolul resurselor personale n starea de bine a angajailor: implicarea n munc i epuizarea profesional / 51
Un review sistematic asupra antecedenilor i consecinelor nvrii colective n spitale / 65
Meserii, caracteristici i valori sociale atribuite masculinitii i feminitii / 83
Alena Todorov
O poveste despre pasiune: Copilul meu sau locul meu de munc? Studiu comparativ privind antreprenorii i angajaii / 92
Recenzii
Nastasia Slgean
Srboiu Floriana
Carmen Munteanu
Roxana Iulia Man
Evenimente
Silvia Rusu
IN MEMORIAM
Corina Ilin
Summary
Editorial
Drago Iliescu
Starea actual a psihologului specializat n psihologia muncii i organizaional n Romnia (romanian) / 7
Drago Iliescu
The current status of work and organizational psychologists in Romania (english) / 12
Study and research
characteristics; a validation attempt of DUWAS scale/ 17
Elena Raluca Ciobot
The relationship between occupational stress, job satisfaction and work engagement / 33
The role of personal resources in well-being of the employees: work engagement and burnout / 51
A review of empirical studies investigating antecedents and consequences of collective learning behaviors
in Hospitals / 65
Trades, characteristics and social values attributed to masculinity and femininity / 83
Alena Todorov
A story about passion: My child or my job? Comparative study regarding the entrepreneurs and the employees / 92
Reviews
Nastasia Slgean
Srboiu Floriana
Carmen Munteanu
Roxana Iulia Man
Events
Silvia Rusu
IN MEMORIAM
Corina Ilin
Sommaire
Editorial
Drago Iliescu
Starea actual a psihologului specializat n psihologia muncii i organizaional, n Romnia (roumaine) / 7
Drago Iliescu
The current status of work and organizational psychologists in Romania (anglais) / 12
Etudes et de recherches
Le drogu du travail? De possible associations entre làddiction du travail et les traits de l'employ; une validation
prliminaire du DUWAS / 17
Elena Raluca Ciobot
La relation entre le stress au travail, la satisfaction au travail et l'engagement au travail / 33
Le rle des ressources personnelles and bien-tre des employs: l'engagement de travail et l'puisement
professionnel / 51
Un review systmatique sur les antcdents et les consquences de lapprentissage collectif dans les hpitaux / 65
Mtiers, caractristiques et valeurs sociales attribues a la masculinit et a la fminit / 83
Alena Todorov
Une histoire sur la passion: Mon enfant ou mon emploi? tude comparatif concernant les entrepreneurs et
les employs / 92
Recension
Nastasia Slgean
Srboiu Floriana
Carmen Munteanu
Roxana Iulia Man
Evnements
Silvia Rusu
IN MEMORIAM
Corina Ilin
Starea actual a psihologului specializat n psihologia muncii i

organizaional n Romnia
Drago Iliescu1
Motivaie
n ultimii ani psihologia romneasc a trecut
prin multe transformri i evoluia sa este, de
principiu, una pozitiv. Totui, avem uneori
impresia c, dei lucrurile evolueaz, ele
evolueaz mult prea lent. Am vrea sa vedem din
ce n ce mai puini diletani i am vrea ca acest
lucru s se ntmple mai rapid. Uneori, nici nu
sunt foarte convini c evoluia are loc de fapt. n
continuare vedem muli diletani ba, uneori
avem impresia c numrul lor crete. n
continuare un numr foarte mic de psihologi
urmeaz tiina de exemplu, putem afirma c
cele mai voluminoase asociaii profesionale nu
sunt cele care ofer tiin, ci cele care ofer alte
avantaje, cum ar fi mult hulitele dar att de
vnatele credite Copsi.
n orice discuie informal cu un alt
psiholog, indiferent de specializare, n mod
inevitabil auzim frustrare. C muncim pe prea
puini bani, c exist concuren neloial, c alte
profesii intr pe teritoriul nostru, c proprii notri
colegi sunt slabi pregtii, c testele sunt scumpe,
c formarea e i mai scump, c facultatea nu nea pregtit pentru viaa real, c e plin de oameni
cu diverse interese, c societatea nu ne vede la
adevrata valoare, c instituiile care ar trebui s
ne apere de fapt ne apas ... am putea continua
aici.
Eu privesc aceast atitudine a colegilor mei
pe care o observ i la mine deseori cu
ngrijorare. Pe de o parte, pentru c nu m simt
bine n prezena unor emoii negative att de
generalizate. Pe de alt parte, pentru c, prin
specializarea pe care o am, a vrea s vd n
profesia mea expresii ale implicrii i
performanei: a vrea s vd entuziasm, vigoare,
emoii pozitive i psihologi cu o imagine de sine
pozitiv, mndri de ceea ce sunt, care vor s
creeze nite nvingtori.
Bine, bine, o s spunei aa suntem noi
romnii. Ne plngem de toate i ntotdeauna. Ei

bine, ca s sondm realitatea i pentru a evalua
ceva mai realist cum gndete, triete i
muncete psihologul specializat n psihologia
muncii i organizaional (PMO) n 2012-2013,
Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i
Organizaional (APIO) a realizat un studiu la
sfritul anului 2012. Acest sondaj este o
abordare profesionist, care ofer o reflecie ceva
mai obiectiv asupra felului n care un numr
mai mare de participani privete realitatea. Este,
dac vrei, o radiografie a practicii psihologice n
domeniul psihologiei muncii i organizaionale i
credem c este binevenit.
Culegerea de date n studiul APIO cu privire
la starea actuala a PMO n Romnia s-a
desfurat n perioada Septembrie-Noiembrie
2012. n total au participat cu nregistrri valide
N = 812 psihologi care activeaz n domeniul
psihologiei muncii i organizaionale, exclusiv
sau n combinaie cu alte activiti. Culegerea
datelor s-a fcut att online (N = 214), ct i prin
aplicare fa-n-fa a chestionarului (N = 598).
Chestionarul efectiv a fost secondat de un numr
de 21 de interviuri telefonice i fa n fa,
realizate cu o parte din acei psihologi care, n
faza de culegere a datelor prin chestionar, au
declarat c ar fi disponibili pentru un astfel de
interviu.
O s trecem rapid n revist cteva din
concluziile acestui studiu i o s ncercm s
mprtim o parte din gndurile noastre despre
locul n care suntem i locul spre care probabil ar
trebui s tindem.
nainte de orice ns, o precizare: prezentul
studiu se dorete a fi o imagine ct mai
obiectiv, liber de partizanate, a felului n
care muncete psihologul cu aceast
specializare n Romnia actual. Dorim totui
s atragem atenia c, la fel ca orice alt studiu
de acest tip, i acesta este imperfect. n ciuda
volumului mare al eantionului i al
1
Adres de coresponden - dragos.iliescu@testcentral.ro
Editorial
compoziiei sale echilibrate n ceea ce privete

proveniena geografic a participanilor,
limitele studiului sale sunt date de faptul c
participarea a fost voluntar i nu s-a aplicat
nici o metod de eantionare, precum i de
faptul c datele sunt auto-raportate de
participani. Studiul n sine este absolut liber de
orice acuze ctre persoane sau instituii.
Interpretarea lui este altceva: v aparine i
sperm ca fiecare s trag acele concluzii care i
se potrivesc mai bine.
Participani. La studiu au participat
N = 812 psihologi activi non-exclusiv n
domeniul psihologiei muncii i organizaionale.
Un numr de 169 (21%) sunt de gen masculin i
643 (79%) sunt de gen feminin. Vrsta minim
este de 22, iar cea maxim este de 62 de ani, cu
o vrst medie de M = 35.98 (SD = 8.78).
Experiena n munc, n specialitatea muncii i
organizaional, declarat de participani, este
cuprins ntre 0 i 35 ani (M = 5.99, SD = 5.29).
Relaia cu Colegiul Psihologilor. Dintre
participani, 289 (36%) nu sunt nregistrai n
Colegiul
Psihologilor,
iar
dintre
cei
nenregistrai, doar o treime intenioneaz s i
ia acest atestat n viitor. Avem aadar n
Romnia un segment important de psihologi,
activi n domeniul PMO, care nu sunt
nregistrai n Colegiu. Dintre participani, 22%
sunt nregistrai n regim de supervizare, 27%
practic n regim de autonomie. Un procent de
6% sunt nregistrai ca supervizori.
Dintre cei 523 de participani care sunt
nregistrai n Colegiu, 51% nu i-au pltit i nu
i pltesc taxele la timp. Aproape toi cei
intervievai suplimentar au declarat c nu i
pltesc i nu i vor mai plti de principiu aceste
taxe niciodat. Totui, n trecut aceti
participani au fost implicai n activitile
Colegiului. Un procent de 41% dintre ei au
participat la alegerile locale ale reprezentanilor
din regiunea n care profeseaz, iar 21% declar
c au fost reprezentani n cel puin una din cele
dou ocazii, pentru Convenia Naional de la
Bucureti. n acest context, considerm c
exist o tendin destul de pronunat de
diminuare a implicrii n activitile Colegiului
Psihologilor.
Gradul de satisfacie cu activitatea
Colegiului este extrem de sczut. Doar un
foarte mulumii de activitatea Colegiului. Un
nemulumii sau foarte nemulumii. Activitatea
comisiei de Muncii din Colegiu este evaluat cu

o tendin pozitiv, ns nu extrem de pozitiv doar 3% din participani declar c sunt foarte
mulumii de activitatea acestei comisii, pe cnd
40% declar c sunt nemulumii sau foarte
nemulumii.
Majoritatea
simpl
a
psihologilor
participani la studiu, 57% consider c la
urmtoarele alegeri este nevoie de schimbri
radicale, n oameni i strategie. Doar 11% din
participani au considerat c este nevoie de
continuitate, att n oameni, ct i n strategie.
Restul participanilor nclin spre o form
oarecare de schimbare, ori n oameni, ori n
strategie. Aceste opinii par a fi convergente cu
scderea dorinei de implicare i respectiv
gradul sczut de mulumire observate mai sus.
Loc de munc i plan de carier. Cam
jumtate din psihologii activi n domeniul PMO
sunt angajai prin contract de munc pe
perioad nedeterminat (57%), n diverse
companii. Majoritatea covritoare a celor care
nu sunt membri n Colegiul Psihologilor fac
parte din aceast categorie. Colegiul nu a reuit,
aadar, s capteze interesul sau s i stabileasc
un rol n percepia psihologilor activi ca
specialiti n resurse umane, n companii.
Majoritatea celor angajai sunt parte din
companii private (66%) timpurile n care statul
era cel mai mare angajator de psihologi n
domeniul nostru pare s fi trecut. Totui, 23% din
psihologii angajai lucreaz n instituii bugetare,
printre acestea sistemul aprrii i ordinii publice
ieind n mod deosebit n eviden.
Puin peste un sfert din participani (28%)
sunt antreprenori, ns majoritatea prefer s
funcioneze prin firme (SRL) i doar 6%
acioneaz pe baza unui cabinet, nfiinat
conform normelor Colegiului.
Felul n care psihologii din domeniul PMO
ajung s fie angajai este neobinuit, comparat
cu abordarea tipic, care spune c pentru a
ajunge s ai un loc de munc, e nevoie s trimii
CV-uri sau s acionezi printr-o agenie de
plasare. Cea mai mare parte din psihologi
(28%), pentru a avea un loc de munc, i-au
deschis propria afacere n domeniu, iar ali 15%
declar c au fost contactai de actualul
angajator. Un procent de 12% au contactat ei
angajatorul, 4% au fost plasai de companii
private de plasament i nici mcar un psiholog
din eantionul nostru nu i-a gsit loc de munc
prin ageniile publice de plasament (de ex.
AJOFM).
Editorial
Peste 36% dintre participani afirm c nu

au un plan de carier clar conturat pentru
urmtorii ani. Participanii care au dat acest
rspuns sunt, n marea lor majoritate, ori
psihologi la nivel de autonomie profesional
care progreseaz oarecum inerial, fr un scop
clar formulat, ori psihologi nceptori, care nu
sunt convini c aceast profesie le poate
asigura o carier.
Aproape dou treimi, 61% dintre
participani afirm c sunt mndri sau foarte
mndri de profesia lor de psiholog. Un procent
de 18% dintre participani consider c sunt
nemulumii de alegerea profesional fcut,
atunci cnd au ales PMO ca profesie.
Majoritatea lor covritoare sunt tineri care nu
i vd perspective n acest domeniu. Un
procent de 33% dintre participani intenioneaz
s i schimbe domeniul de activitate pe viitor,
majoritatea n alt domeniu al psihologiei, ns
un procent de 15% din acetia vor prsi
complet profesia de psiholog.
Activitate i venituri. Cam un sfert dintre
participani (25%) lucreaz exclusiv n
domeniul psihologiei muncii i organizaionale,
cu 40 sau mai multe ore pe sptmn.
Aproximativ jumtate din participani (49%)
sunt activi n acest domeniu mai puin de 20 de
ore pe sptmn (30% chiar mai puin de 10
ore). Alte domenii n care sunt activi sunt
legate, n ordine, de consilierea psihologic
(14%), psihologia clinic (13%), sau psihologia
transporturilor (11%). Domeniul n care ei
practic cel mai activ n afara PMO, este ns
complet n afara psihologiei: 32% din munca
acestor psihologi nu are de-a face deloc cu
psihologia.
Cea mai mare parte a muncii psihologilor
specializai n PMO este ocupat de evaluarea
psihologic; n medie aproximativ 58% (indice
consolidat) din munc este alocat nspre
evaluare i restul de 42% nspre intervenia
psihologic. n evaluare, 60% din psihologi
utilizeaz cu precdere metode cantitative i
40% cu precdere metode calitative.
Venitul mediu net calculat pentru acest
eantion de participani este de 2413 RON pe
luna. Aproximativ o zecime (9%) din
participani ctig sub 500 RON pe lun i
aproape un sfert (23%) ctig sub 1000 RON
pe lun. Aceast situaie este absolut critic, i
este doar n parte contrabalansat de zecimea
(11%) din participani care ctig peste 4500
RON pe lun (deci peste aproximativ 1000
Euro). Doar aproximativ 38% din acest venit

(SD = 36) este ctigat de participani exclusiv
din activitatea de psihologie a muncii i
organizaional.
Se pare c promovarea se face pentru cea
mai mare parte a psihologilor, prin recomandri
(29%) i prin contact direct cu potenialul client
(39%). De principiu, competenele legate de
promovare, marketing i vnzare sunt
recunoscute ca puncte slabe de ctre psihologii
specializai n PMO, motiv pentru care puini au
de fapt o strategie personal de promovare i se
rezum la comportamente tactice. Totui,
munca bine fcut i legtura cu fotii clieni,
care este inut de aproximativ 60% dintre
psihologi, este n msur s le asigure o baz
fidel de clieni care apeleaz constant la
serviciile lor (63%).
Educaie. Un numr mic din participani au
absolvit facultatea nainte de 1989 (5%).
Aproximativ 15% din participani fac parte din
promoiile care au absolvit n primii 5 ani dup
1989, iar 66% din participani au absolvit n
ultimii 10 ani studiile de licen.
Dei cifrele de colarizare arondate
facultilor private care au programe de
psihologie au fost mai mari dect cele tipice
pentru facultile de stat, se pare c absolvenii
facultilor private nu urmeaz att de activ
profesia pentru care s-au format. n eantionul
nostru, 67% din participani sunt absolveni ai
unei faculti de stat.
Un procent de 26.2% nu au dect studii
universitare, 67.1% au absolvit sau urmeaz
acum studii de masterat, iar 5.4% dintre
participani au studii doctorale, absolvite sau pe
care le urmeaz acum. Aceasta demonstreaz
interes pentru formarea academic formal i
atingerea unui nivel mai nalt de certificare.
Psihologii activi n domeniul PMO nu au o
orientare extrem de activ spre formarea
profesional continu. Majoritatea dintre ei se
in la curent cu schimbrile din domeniul lor
profesional prin urmtoarele metode: 66% i
extrag noutile din discuiile cu colegii, 87%
din vizitarea unor site-uri i 73% din diverse
Newsletter-e pe care le primesc. Doar 3% merg
frecvent la conferine tiinifice i doar 5%
citesc, chiar i din cnd n cnd, reviste
tiinifice. De principiu, 61.5% declar c nu
citesc niciodat reviste tiinifice i doar 6%
citesc mai mult de 5 astfel de reviste pe an.
Atunci cnd consult diferite surse de
informare (reviste, cri, site-uri profesionale),
Editorial
majoritatea (81%) se concentreaz pe surse de

specialitate din Romnia.
Formarea continu este rezumat, pentru
cea mai mare parte a psihologilor aflai n
supervizare, chiar prin activitile de
supervizare per se. Pentru ceilali, care nu mai
sunt direct presai spre formare continu, forma
principal de formare este audierea de
workshop-uri, urmat de prezena ca audient la
conferine i teriar ca i prezentator la
conferine. Proporia dintre aceste trei activiti
este de 45:33:20. Cu alte cuvinte, psihologii
prefer s asiste la workshop-uri sau la
comunicri mai degrab dect s creeze astfel
de activiti.
Numrul de ore dedicat pentru activiti de
formare continu, de la absolvirea facultii,
este cuprins ntre 0 i 6000, cu o medie de 445
(SD = 753). n ultimele 12 luni acest numr este
cuprins ntre 0 i 1500 de ore (M = 132,
SD = 237). Numrul este aproape de 3 ori mai
mare la persoanele aflate n supervizare dect la
restul participanilor i este mai mic de o
zecime la acei participani care sunt i
supervizori. Cu alte cuvinte, supervizorul tipic a
dedicat n ultimul an mai puin de 15 ore pentru
formarea sa.
Educaia profesional suplimentar este cea
mai mare povar pentru psihologul tnr.
Participanii la aceast cercetare declar c n
total, de la absolvirea ultimei forme de
nvmnt, au cheltuit pentru astfel de activiti
n medie 8163 RON (SD = 11464 RON). Pentru
ultimele 12 luni, media este de 3431 RON
(SD = 8267). Doar pentru 9.6% dintre
participani, angajatorul suport integral taxele
aferente acestor activiti; pentru ali 18%
aceste taxe sunt suportate mixt, ns
aproximativ 70% din psihologi trebuie s i le
suporte singuri.
Pentru cei supervizai, mulumirea fa de
competena supervizorului predomin. Un
procent de 34.2% evalueaz competena
supervizorului lor ca fiind foarte bun. n
acelai timp, ponderea total a celor mulumii
sau foarte mulumii, 50.4%, ntrunete la limit
criteriul majoritii. n acelai timp, exist 18%
care sunt nemulumii sau foarte nemulumii de
competena supervizorului lor. Implicarea
supervizorului este evaluat uor mai dur, 20%
dintre participani fiind nemulumii sau foarte
nemulumii de implicarea supervizorului lor.
n medie, pentru cei care fac supervizare,
exist un numr de 4 ore de supervizare pe lun
10
(SD = 9). Tariful mediu pltit pe edin este de

118 RON (SD = 49). n medie, astfel, o
persoan aflat n supervizare cheltuiete 493
RON pe lun, doar pentru supervizare.
Competen autoevaluat. Doar 2% din
psihologi se consider foarte competeni n
munca lor i doar 3% se consider extrem de
incompeteni. Totui, marea majoritate nu se
plaseaz pe medie, ci 59% consider c sunt,
dac nu foarte buni, totui buni i competeni
ntr-un mare numr de activiti pe care le fac.
Un procent de 65% cunosc lista de
competene elaborat de APIO pentru comisia
de specialitate a Colegiului Psihologilor, ceea
ce arat c se in la curent cu criteriile
profesionale. Totui, 35% din participanii la
studiu nu au auzit niciodat de aceast list jumtate dintre acetia sunt supervizori iar o
parte semnificativ supervizai.
Din
aceast
list,
autoevaluarea
competenelor proprii remarc scoruri relativ
mari pentru competene precum Evaluarea
indivizilor (73%) sau Acordarea de feedback
oral (71%) i relativ mici pentru competene
precum Designul de produs (43%). n ceea ce
privete competenele secundare, un punct
puternic relativ pare a fi competena Relaiile
profesionale (67%) i puncte slabe par a fi
competene precum Vnzrile i marketingul
(41%),Managementul afacerii (46%) sau
Cercetarea i dezvoltarea (51%).
n ceea ce privete competena proprie n
comparaie cu normele i standardele existente,
autoevaluarea conformitii cu standardele
naionale este mult mai bun dect cea a
conformitii cu standardele internaionale.
Doar 3% din psihologi se consider a fi complet
conformi cu cerinele internaionale ale
domeniului.
Concluzii
Avem n aceste date lucruri mbucurtoare
i lucruri ngrijortoare.
The Good... S ncepem cu cele bune.
Avem la acest moment n Romnia psihologi n
marea majoritate tineri, n marea majoritate
absolveni din generaia nou (de dup
Revoluie), n marea majoritate absolveni de
instituii de nvmnt de stat, care au urmat
apoi mcar un program masteral suplimentar.
Ei, nu e aa de ru, nu?
(Desigur, ca o concluzie secundar, putem
comenta despre lipsa de eficien pe care o au
Editorial
instituiile educaionale private, nu neaparat n

termeni de competene, dar totui mcar n
termeni de inserie n piaa munci a
absolvenilor lor.)
Majoritatea psihologilor specializai n
PMO lucreaz n companii private i o parte
semnificativ dein pri n compania n care
lucreaz probabil acestea fiind firme mici sau
cabinete de psihologie. Doar un numr mic de
psihologi funcioneaz pe baza unor cabinete de
psihologie, nregistrate dup preceptele Copsi.
Un numr mult prea mic au acel spirit
antreprenorial care ar fi de ateptat de la o
profesie liberal majoritatea sunt mulumii cu
statutul de angajat. Ei, da, ncepe s nu mai fie
att de pozitiv.
The Bad... Majoritatea psihologilor
specializai n PMO au un venit foarte sczut.
Venitul mediu, dei mic, este totui plasat
semnificativ peste venitul mediu net pe
economia Romniei calculat de Institutul
Naional de Statistic pentru 2012. Psihologii
din oraele mai mici ctig radical mai puin
dect psihologii din oraele mari sau din
Bucureti. Exist, din pcate, decalaje majore
de competen profesional n chiar ariile care
ar putea s i ajute pe psihologi s ctige mai
bine, de exemplu Vnzrile i marketingul,
Managementul afacerii etc. i, evident, nici un
curs n aceste domenii nu este compensat cu
credite din partea Copsi.
La aceste venituri mici se adaug o
presiune financiar extraordinar de mare
cauzat
de
reglementrile
Colegiului
psihologilor. Necesitatea de a acumula un
numr de credite se reflect, n mod special, pe
cei mai tineri membri ai profesiei, adic fix pe
aceia care ctig cel mai puin. Pentru peste
80% din psihologii n regim de supervizare care
au participat la studiu formarea pentru trecerea
n regim de autonomie profesional cost mai
mult pe lun dect venitul lor lunar.
And the Ugly... Psihologii, n mod special

cei tineri, au devenit astfel un consumator
captiv pentru ... psihologi, n special pentru cei
care au reuit s se poziioneze pozitiv n relaia
cu Copsi. n interviuri ni s-au dat exemple de
psihologi care supervizeaz i care de ceva timp
bun nu i mai ctig venitul practicnd, ci
doar superviznd. Din pcate, o parte a acestei
presiuni este doar formal. O parte din cei care
ofer formare doar mimeaz faptul c dezvolt
competena celor formai. Cursurile sunt
scumpe, slile se umplu, banii vin. ns de bun
seam c nu crete competena unui psiholog
tnr prin faptul c audiaz o prezentare sau c
particip la un workshop fr a se implica activ.
Criteriul de acordare a creditelor a ajuns s fie
ora, nu incrementul de cunotine sau
competene. i prea puine astfel de ateliere se
finalizeaz cu o examinare, orict de informal,
a cunotinelor, deprinderilor sau competenelor
dobndite n acele cteva ore. Credem din toate
aceste motive c acest sistem, aa cum este el
acum, cu presiune pe o singur categorie, cu un
numr relativ redus de persoane care profit de
o audien captiv, fr ca reglementatorul s
protejeze cumva sau s compenseze cumva
efortul acestei audiene, este o greeal i va
trebui rectificat.
Sunt convins c aceste studiu va putea s
fie o baz obiectiv pentru diverse politici n
urmtorii ani. Sunt convins c propuneri de
astfel de politici ar putea veni de la noi toi.
Probabil c n timpul celei de-a XIII-a Ediii a
Conferinei Naionale de Psihologie Industrial
i Organizaional care se va desfura la
finalul lunii Aprilie la Braov, vom avea ocazia
s discutm o parte din paii pe care APIO are
responsabilitatea de a-i face pentru toi
psihologii specializai n psihologia muncii i
organizaional, n Romnia.
11
The current status of work and organizational psychologists in Romania
Drago Iliescu1
Motivation
During the past few years, Romanian
psychology has gone through many changes
and its evolution is basically a positive one.
However, we sometimes feel that, although
things evolve, they do so too slowly. We would
like to see fewer amateurs and we want this to
happen fast. Sometimes, we are not really
convinced that evolution actually occurs. We
still see dilletants practicing moreover
sometimes we feel that their numbers are
growing. Still a very small number of
psychologists attend to science for example,
we can say that the largest professional
associations in Romanian psychology are not
those providing science, but those providing
others advantages, like the oh-so-evil but oh-socoveted Copsi credits.
In any informal discussion with other
psychologist, regardless their field of activity,
we inevitably hear frustration. That we work for
too little money, that competition is unfair, that
other professions infringe on our field, that our
own collegues are poorly trained, that tests are
too expensive, that training is even more
expensive, that universities did not prepare us
for real life, that we are lead by people with
only their own interests on their mind, that
society doesnt appreciate us at our true value,
that authorities who should defend us actually
press us ... and we could continue.
I regard with concern these attitudes even
more so because I often have them myself. On
one hand, because I feel unwell when in the
middle of such widespread negative emotions.
On the other hand, because as a result of my
professional specialization (I/O Psychology) I
would like to see in my profession expressions
of wellbeing, involvement and performance: I
would like to see enthusiasm, vigour, positive
emotions and psychologists with positive selfimage, proud of what they are, who want to
create winners.
1
National School of Political and Administrative Studies
Corresponding address - dragos.iliescu@testcentral.ro
12
Okay, Okay, you will say this is just the

way Romanians are. We always complain about
everything. Well, to probe reality and to assess
the way a Romanian psychologist specialized in
work and organizational psychology (WOP)
thinks, lives and works in 2012-2013, the
Association of Industrial and Organizational
Psychology (APIO) has run a study at the end
of 2012. This survey is a professional approach
that provides a more objective perspective on
how a larger number of participants view
reality. It is, if you want, a review of the
psychological practice in the field of work and
organizational psychology and we believe that
it is more than welcome.
The data collection process for the APIO
survey on the current state of WOP in Romania
took place between September and November
2012. The total number of valid entries is
N = 812 psychologists active in the field of
work
and
organizational
psychology,
exclusively or in combination with other
activities. Data collection was done online
(N = 214) and by face-to-face questionnaires
(N = 598). The actual questionnaire was
complemented by a number of 21 telephone and
face to face interviews, run with some of those
psychologists who at questionnaire completion
had said that they would be available for such
an interview.
We will quickly review some of the findings
of this study and we will try to share some of our
thoughts about where we are and the place where
we probably should aspire to be.
Before anything, however, a mention: this
study aims to be as objective and free from
partisanship image as possible, of how the
psychologist work in this field in Romania today.
However, we wish to draw attention that like any
other study of this kind, this one is also
imperfect. Despite the large volume of the
sample and its balanced composition in terms of
geographical origin of participants, its limits are
Editorial
given by the voluntary nature of participation, by

the fact that no method of sampling has been
applied and by the fact that the data were selfreported by the participants. The study itself is
absolutely free from any blame to individuals or
institutions. Its interpretation is something else: it
belongs to you and we hope that each one of you
will draw important conclusions from the data.
Participants. The study was run on N =
812 psychologists, active non-exclusively in the
field of work and organizational psychology. A
number of 169 (21%) are male and 643 (79%)
are female. The minimum age is 22 and the
maximum age is 62 years, with a mean age of
M = 35.98 (SD = 8.78). Work experience in the
field of work and organizational psychology, as
stated by the participants, is between 0 and 35
years (M = 5.99, SD = 5.29).
Relationship with the Board of Psychology
(Copsi). Of the participants 289 (36%) are not
registered in the Board of Psychology (Copsi)
and among these only one third intend to take
this certification in the future. Therefore, we
have in Romania an important segment of
psychologists active in WOP, who are not
registered in the Board. A percentage of 22%
out of all participants are registered with the
Board and practice under supervision, 27%
practice autonomously, and 6% are registered
as supervisors.
Of the 523 participants who are registered
with the Board, 51% have not paid and do not
pay their yearly dues on time. Almost all those
interviewed in the qualitative follow-up phase
have said that they will no longer pay any of
these fees. However, most if not all of these
participants were involved in the past in the
activities of the Board. A percentage of 41% of
all the participants attended the local elections
of the representatives in the area were they
practice while 21% state that they were electors
in at least one of the two past occasions at the
National Convention in Bucharest. Given this
context, we believe that we see a pronounced
tendency to decrease involvement with the
activities of the Board of Psychology (Copsi).
The degree of satisfaction regarding the
activity of the Board is extremely low. Only 3%
of the participants declare that they are very
satisfied by the Board. A percentage of 49%
state that they are dissatisfied or very
dissatisfied. The activity of the Boards
Committee for Work and Organizational
Psychology is assessed with a very slightly
more positive trend, but still extremely negative

only 3% declare that they are very satisfied by
the activity of this committee, while 40%
declare that they are unsatisfied or very
unsatisfied.
The simple majority of psychologists who
participated in this study (57%) believe that for
the next elections we need radical changes in
the Board, in people and strategy. Only 11% of
the participants consider that we need
continuity in both people and strategy. The
remaining participants lean toward some form
of change in either people or strategy. Those
points of view seem to be convergent with the
decreasing desire for involvement and the low
degree of satisfaction noted above.
Current work and career plans. About half
of the psychologists active in WOP are
employed in various companies, based on a
contract for an indefinite period (57%). The
overwhelming majority of those who are not
members of the Board, are part of this category.
Therefore, the Board failed to capture their
interest or to establish a role for itself in the
perception of psychologists active as Human
Resources specialists in companies.
Most of those employed work in private
companies (66%) the time when the State was
the largest employer of psychologists in our
field seems to have passed. However, 23% of
those employed work in budgetary institutions,
among these we may mention the fact that the
defense and public order system stands out.
Just over a quarter (28%) of the
participants are entrepreneurs (self-employed),
but they prefer to work through self-owned
companies (SRL), and only 6% work through a
psychological practice established according to
the rules of the Board.
The way WOP psychologists come to be
employed is unusual when compared with the
typical approach, which says that in order to get
a job one would need to send out resumes or act
through a placement agency. In order to have a
job, the greatest percentage of those who
participated in the present survey (28%) have
opened up their own businesses and another
15% said they were contacted by the current
employer. A percentage of 12% contacted their
employer, 4% were placed by private placement
companies an not even a psychologist in our
sample found employment through public
placement agencies (ex: AJOFM).
13
Editorial
Over 36% of the participants say that they

have no clear career plan outlined for the next
few years.
Participants who have given this response
are in their great majority psychologists
working autonomously, progressing somehow
inertial, without a clearly formulated purpose,
or beginners (supervised psychologists) who are
not convinced that this profession can provide a
career.
Nearly two-thirds (61%) of the participants
say they are proud or very proud of their
profession as a psychologist. A percentage of
18% of the participants consider they are
unsatisfied by the professional choice made
when they chose WOP as a profession. The
overwhelming majority of them are young
professionals who do not see any perspectives
in this area. A percentage of 33% of the
respondents intend to change their professional
field in the future, mainly in other areas of
psychology, but 15% of them will leave the
profession completely.
Work and income. About one quarter of the
respondents (25%) work exclusively in the the
area of work and organizational psychology
with 40 or more hours per week. Almost half of
the participants (49%) are active in this area
less than 20 hours per week (30% even less
than 10 hours). Other fields where they are
active are, in descending order, psychological
counseling (14%), clinical psychology (13%) or
traffic psychology (11%). The domain in which
they practice most actively apart from WOP is
completely outside of psychology: 32% of the
work of these psychologists has nothing to do
with psychology.
Most of the work of psychologists
specialised in WOP is occupied by
psychological assessment; on average about
58% (consolidated index) of the work is
assigned to assessment and the remaining 42%
to psychological intervention. In assessment,
60% of participating psychologists mainly use
quantitative
methods
and
40%
use
predominantly qualitative methods.
The average net income for this sample is
2413 RON per month. About one tenth (9%) of
the participants earn less than 500 RON per
month and almost a quarter (23%) earn less
than 1000 RON per month. This is absolutely
critical and is only partly counterbalanced by
the tenth (11%) of the participants who earn
over 4500 RON per month (i.e. over 1000
14
Euro). Only about 38% of this income

(SD = 36) is earned by the respondents
exclusively from their activity in WOP.
It seems that most of these psychologists
gain contracts through recommandations and
through direct contact with potential clients
(39%). Basically, the competencies related to
advertising,
marketing and sales
are
acknowledged as weaknesses by psychologists
specialised in WOP, which is why few actually
have any personal promotion strategy and are
limited to tactical behavior. However, work
well done and their relationship with former
clients (relationships which are kept alive by
60% of respondents) are able to ensure a base
of loyal customers who use their services
constantly (63%).
Education. A small number of participants
have graduated before 1989 (5%). About 15%
of them are graduates of the first five classes
from after 1989 and 66% of the participants
have graduated during the past 10 years.
Although the numbers of graduates from
psychology programmes in private universities
are higher than those typical for public
universities, it seems that the graduates of
private universities are not so active in the
profession for which they were trained. In our
sample, 67% of the participants have graduated
from a state university.
A percentage of 26% only have university
studies, 67.1% have graduated or are currently
in a master programme and 5.4% of the
participants have doctoral studies, completed or
ongoing. This shows an interests for formal
academic training and for achieving a higher
level of certification.
Psychologists active in WOP do not exhibit
much interest for continuous professional
development. Most of them are kept up to date
with changes in their professional field by the
following methods: 66% get the news from
discussions with colleagues, 87% by visiting
websites and 73% from various newsletters
they receive. Only 3% go frequently to
scientific conferences and only 5% read, even
once in a while, scientific journals. In principle
61.5% say they don't read scientific journals
and only 6% read more than five such
magazines a year.
When they consult different sources of
information (magazines, books, professional
websites) the majority (81%) focuses on
sources from Romania.
Editorial
For most of those psychologists working

under supervision, continuous training means
being supervised. For those who are not directly
pressured towards continuous training any
longer, the main form of training is going to
workshops, and this is followed by auditioning
conferences, and only after that by presenting at
conferences. The proportion between these
three activities is 45:33:20. In other words,
psychologists prefer to attend workshops or
look at other people presenting, rather than
creating such presentations themselves.
The number of hours assigned to
continuous development after graduation is
between 0 and 6000 with an average of 445
(SD = 753). In the past 12 months, this number
is placed between 0 and 1500 hours (M = 132,
SD = 237). The number is nearly three times
higher in psychologists practicing under
supervision than for the rest of the participants
and is less than a tenth in those participants who
are also supervisors. In other words, the average
supervisor has dedicated during the past year
fewer than 15 hours for his professional
development.
Continuous professional education is the
greatest burden for young psychologists.
Participants at this survey declare that since
graduating their last form of education, they
have spent a total average of 8163 RON
(SD = 11464 RON) for these activities. For the
past 12 months the average is 3431 RON
(SD = 8267). Only for 9.6% of the participants
is the employer bearing the full costs associated
with these activities; for 18% of them the costs
are beared by both sides, but nearly 70% of the
psychologists have to pay these costs
themselves.
For those psychologists working under
supervision, satisfaction with the competence of
their supervisor prevails. A number of 34%
assessed the competence of their supervisor as
very good. At the same time, the total
percentage of those satisfied or very satisfied,
i.e 50.4%, hardly reaches the majority criterion.
At the same time, there are 18% who are
unsatisfied of very unsatisfied by the
competence of their supervisor. Supervisor
involvement is assessed slightly worse and 20%
of participants are unsatisfied or very
unsatisfied by the involvement of their
supervisor.
On average, those who have to take
supervision, take a total of 4 hours of
supervision per month (SD = 9). The average

cost per supervisory meeting is 118 RON
(SD = 49). On average a person under
supervision spends 493 RON a month just for
supervision.
Self-reported competency. Only 2% of the
participants
consider
themselves
very
competent in their work and only 3% consider
to be extremely incompetent. However, most
are not placed on the average, but 59% are, if
not very good, at least good and competent
for a wide range of activities which they do.
A percentage of 65% of the participants
know about the competencies developed by
APIO for the Board's WOP committee, which
shows that they are up to date with professional
criteria. However, 35% of the participants in the
study have never heard of this list - half of them
are supervisors and a significant part
supervised.
Self-assessment of their own competencies
by this list shows high scores for competencies
such as Assessment of individuals (73%) or
Providing verbal feedback (71%) and
relatively low scores for competencies such as
Product design. For the secondary
competencies, a relatively strong point seems to
be Professional relationships(67%) and weak
points seem to be Sales and Marketing (46%)
or Research and Development (51%).
With regard to their own competence in
comparison with existing norms and standards,
compliance with national standards is much
better assessed than compliance with
international standards. Only 3% of the
participants consider themselves to be fully
compliant with international requirements for
the WOP domain.
Conclusions
These data show a few pleasant things and
a whole many worrisome things.
The Good... Let's start with the good. We
have at this moment in Romania mostly
graduates of the new generation (after the
Revolution), most of them graduates of public
educational institutions, who have followed at
least one additional MA programme. It's not so
bad, right?
(Of course, as a secondary conclusion, we
can comment about the lack of efficiency of
private educational institutions, not necessarily
in terms of competence, but at least in terms of
15
Editorial
insertion of their graduates in the labor

market.)
Most psychologists specialized in WOP
work in private companies and a significant
percentage hold shares in the company where
they work these are probably small companies
or private practices in psychology. Only a small
number of psychologists are working in private
practices in psychology, registered after the
precepts of Copsi. A too small number of
psychologists have that entrepreneurial spirit
that would be expected from a liberal
profession the majority are satisfied with the
status of an employee. Well, yes, it starts to be
not so positive.
The Bad... Most psychologists specialized
in WOP have a very low income. The average
income, although small, is still significantly
placed above the average net income for the
Romanian economy, as reported for 2012 by
the
National
Institute
for
Statistics.
Psychologists from smaller cities earn radically
less than psychologists from large cities or from
Bucharest. We see a major lack of professional
competence in areas which could help
psychologists to earn better, for example Sales
and marketing, Business management, etc. And
obviously no training in these fields is
acknowledged and credited by the Board of
Psychology (Copsi).
As if this low income is not enough, we
also see an extremely high financial pressure
caused by the regulations of the Board of
Psychology (Copsi). The need to accumulate a
number of credits is particularly a pressure for
younger members of the profession, i.e. exactly
those who earn the least. For over 80% of the
psychologists who participated in this study the
training needed for passing to professional
autonomy costs more per month than their
monthly income.
16
And the Ugly... Psychologists, especially

young ones, have become a captive consumer
for... psychologists, particularly for those who
have managed to place themselves in a positive
relationship with Copsi. In interviews the
respondents gave us examples of supervisors
who no longer earn their income practicing, but
only supervising. Unfortunately, a part of this
pressure is only formal. A part of those who
provide training only mime that they develop
the competence of those trained. Trainings are
expensive, classrooms are filled, the money
comes in. But of course that hearing a
presentation or attending a workshop without
being actively involved does not increase the
competency of a young psychologists. The
criterion for receiving credits has became
"hours spent", not an increment in knowledge
or competencies. And too few such workshops
are completed with an examination or a review
of the knowledge, skills and competences
acquired in those few hours, no matter how
informal such a review would be. We believe
for all these reasons that this system, as it is
now, with pressure put on a single category,
with a relatively small number of people who
take advantage of a captive audience, without
the regulator to protect or compensate somehow
the effort of this audience, is a mistake and
should be corrected.
I am convinced that this survey will be an
objective base for various policies in the
coming years. I am convinced that such
proposals could come from all of us. Probably
during the 13th Edition of the National
Conference of Industrial and Organizational
Psychology, which will take place in Brasov at
the end of April we will have the opportunity to
discuss some of the steps which we have to
take, to be true to our responsibility for all
psychologists specialized in WOP in Romania.
What does the Romanian workaholic look like? A first glimpse into the
links between workaholism and employee characteristics;
a validation attempt of DUWAS scale
Andreea Butucescu1, Lavinia C. Usctescu2
Abstract
The primary objective of this study was to explore the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of
the Romanian employee, and see whether these traits might also favor workaholism. In order to do that, a
validation of a workaholism assessment tool was necessary. For the purpose of the present study, DUWAS
(Dutch Work Addiction Scale) was chosen, as it captures core concepts related to workaholism and is hence
widely accepted as a suitable tool. Preliminary results show a suitable validation and a real potential for the use
of DUWAS in future studies, in Romania. Moreover, the study also brings forth interesting findings related to
the link between demographic and socio-economic employee characteristics and a predisposition to
workaholism.
Keywords: workaholism, DUWAS, Romanian employee, demographic and socio-economic characteristics
Resum
L'objectif principal de cette tude tait d'examiner les caractristiques socio-conomiques et
dmographiques du salari roumain, et voir si ces traits pourrait galement favoriser làddiction au travail. Pour
ce faire, une validation d'un outil d'valuation dàddiction au travail tait ncessaire. Aux fins de la prsente
tude, DUWAS (Dutch Work Addiction Scale) a t choisi, car il surprend les concepts cl lis au drogue du
travail et est donc largement accept comme un outil acceptable. Les rsultats prliminaires montrent une
validation satisfaisante et un rel potentiel de l'utilisation de DUWAS dans les tudes prochaines, en Roumanie.
Par ailleurs, l'tude relve aussi des rsultats intressants concernant les caractristiques dmographiques et
socio-conomique des employs,qui metent ces hommes en danger de devenir drogus du travail.
Mots cls: addiction au travail, DUWAS, salari roumain, caractristiques dmographiques et socioconomique
Rezumat
Principalul obiectiv al acestui studiu const n investigarea caracteristicilor socio-economice i demografice
ale angajailor romni pentru a vedea dac acestea pot influena aparita fenomenului de workaholism. Pentru a
realiza acest lucru, a fost necesar validarea unui instrument de evaluare a workaholismului. DUWAS (Dutch
Work Addiction Scale) este scala asupra creia ne-am concentrat n acest studiu. Rezultatele preliminare
sugereaz o traducere i adaptare adecvat, ceea ce o recomand pentru viitoare studii n Romnia. Mai mult
dect att, cercetarea de fa exploreaz legturile dintre statutul socio-economic i caracterisitici demografice cu
predispoziia spre workaholism.
Cuvinte cheie: workaholism, DUWAS, angajai romni, caracteristici socio-economice i demografice
1
2
Ovidius University, Corresponding address: andreea.butucescu@gmail.com

Babe-Bolyai University
17
Introduction
Over the years, important changes relating
to the work environment have occurred. The
emergence of multinational companies as well as
of a vaster array of career opportunities,
combined with the technological development,
are just some of the defining traits of our modern
society. These factors have also greatly
contributed to the occurrence of workaholism all
over the world, as well as in Romania.
Researchers` interest towards workaholism
has continually increased, especially in the
western societies. It all started 41 years ago,
when Wayne Oates coined the term workaholism
and tried to define its meaning. Nevertheless,
various studies have reached different, or even
contradictory conclusions on this matter. In
Romania, the term workaholism has mostly been
propagated by the mass-media, being advertised
as rather a trendy term than a proper scientific
construct. This is all the most surprising
considering the fact that no further than five
years ago a young female manager died from
what doctors diagnosed as overwork. Although
her case drew great public attention, the
Romanian researchers` and occupational health
specialists` interest to the subject of workaholism
and its assessment has remained extremely
reduced, compared to their western counterparts.
To our knowledge, there has been no other
attempt to either create or adapt a tool to
measure workaholism in the Romanian work
environment.
The present study brings several important
contributions to the area of occupational health
by: (a) adapting, for the first time on the
Romanian population, an instrument designed to
assess the risk of overworking; (b) identifying
relevant demographic and socio-economic data
(i.e. education, income, gender etc.) that might
be associated with a higher risk for workaholism,
as well as with workaholism-related traits (i.e.
anxiety,
mania,
intolerance,
obsessivecompulsiveness).
Workaholism: Definition and
Conceptualization
Workaholism, as coined by Wayne Oates
(1971) from the term alcoholism, was originally
defined as a compulsive need to work without
any interruption. The term and its meaning
became so empirically relevant, that nowadays it
is part of our routine vocabulary. An important
18
aspect which made the term increasingly

appealing to the public was the lack of separation
between work and private life (Sorensen and
Feldman, 2007). Although workaholism, as a
scientific construct, has had a period of over 40
years of development, contradictions still exist
regarding its meaning. One reason for this could
reside in its nature, while another reason is more
concerned with its health-related value. First of
all, confusion regarding its nature comes from
the
existence
of
several
different
conceptualizations: as a personality trait, that
shows stability over one`s life course; as a
learned behavior, that tends to manifest itself in
certain organizations or cultures; as a disorder,
similar in manifestations and consequences to
any other type of addiction. Second, it has been
debated whether workaholism is a healthy habit.
Older approaches argue that it is a positive
phenomenon because it derives from the love of
work (Cantarow, 1979; Machlowitz, 1980;
Sprankle and Ebel , 1987). On the contrary,
recent opinions on this subject tend to view
workaholism as unhealthy, more likely
belonging to the same category as other types of
addictions. What is more, this last approach
argues that workaholism leads to unhappiness,
obsession, lack of performance at work and even
difficulties with co-workers.
Conceptual differences
Working hard versus Workaholism
In spite of the conceptual differences, there

is a consensus regarding the fact that workaholic
persons spend most of their time working.
However, researchers insist on clarifying the fact
that having a work addiction is fundamentally
different from simply working hard. There is
nothing wrong with being passionate about one`s
work, if one gets more involved when something
needs to be done in a shorter period of time, or if
one feels proud about one`s professional
accomplishments.
Workaholics` lives differ from these in that
they feel a total lack of control; they are unable
to slow down, not even in order to enjoy the
results of their own work. Workaholism is
mostly associated with an increased number of
working hours. It is, however, much more than
that. Workaholism is rather similar to an
addiction, an obsessive-compulsive disorder, and
is much more than working hard or working for
many hours (Robinson, 2000). Their obsession
with work occupies their entire time, which
prevents them from maintaining a healthy social

life, or a healthy lifestyle in general (Tuck,
2003).
It is somewhat understandable why it is
difficult to differentiate between working hard
and working too much, between being and not
being addicted to work. That is because work is
usually seen as a virtue. Those who do not work
hard are generally disrespected by society. In
contrast, diligent workers are praised or
rewarded. Work recognition often plays the role
of social and personal validation in an
individual`s life.
Work engagement versus Workaholism
Dutch researchers (Schaufeli and Bakker,
2003) have generally agreed that workaholism
can be either good or bad. Thus, in order to
obtain a conceptual clarification, it has been
suggested to replace the concept of good
workaholism with that of engagement and the
concept of bad workaholism with that of
workaholism (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2003).
Employees engaged in their activity work more
intensely, are happy and absorbed in their tasks,
and may seem a lot similar to the workaholics.
However, in contrast to the latter, employees
engaged in their activity work hard because they
like it, or due to external factors such as financial
rewards, career perspectives etc., and not
because they are driven by an inner impulse they
cannot resist (Bakker, Schaufeli, Leiter, and
Taris, 2008).
Gorgievski and Bakker (2010) consider that
both work engagement and workaholism refer to
being passionate about work, the major
difference between the two residing in the
motivation that drives each of them. Thus, on
one hand, there is the harmonious passion,
when an individual is in control of the activities,
and feels rewarded by his/her work. On the other
hand, there is the obsessive passion, when an
individual is controlled by his/her work and only
thinks about avoiding guilt, frustration, and other
negative emotions (Vallerand, 2008).
Workaholism assessment
challenges
Workaholism assessment comes no easier
than its conceptualization. A first attempt in this
respect was undergone by Spence and Robbins
(1992), who created the Workaholism Battery
(WorkBat). The basis for this instrument resides
in three main characteristics of a workaholic:

being heavily involved in work, motivated by an
inner drive, and at the same time feeling reduced
enjoyment for one`s work. Some conflicting
view about the usefulness of the WorkBat still
exist, although it is, at present, the most
frequently used instrument of this sort. Several
studies have reported that the work involvement
subscale did not show appropriate psychometric
properties. Another important critic was related
to the enjoyment of work subscale, which some
authors do not consider a core feature of
workaholism.
Another workaholism assessment tool was
developed by Robinson (1999), who closely
observed a group of members from Workaholic
Anonymous. He reached the conclusion that
workaholism has the following characteristics:
(1) Compulsive Tendencies, which refer to
intense working and difficulties relaxing after
work; (2) Lack of control, which refers to being
unable to wait for something, or someone, or
about being unable to tolerate not doing
something in the desired way; (3) Impaired
Communication/Self-Absorption, which could
be explained as the tendency to rate work as
more important than anything else, at the cost of
social interactions; (4) Inability to Delegate, and
(5) Self-Worth, when the individual considers
the results of his/her work to be more interesting
than work itself. Based on these observations,
the Work Addiction Risk Test (WART) was
developed. Nevertheless, critics argued that it
tends to rely on type A behaviors, therefore
referring to daily aspects of an individual`s life
rather than to work-related characteristics
(McMillan, O`Driscoll, Marsh and Brady, 2001).
From a theoretical perspective, workaholics
are considered to spend a great deal of time on
work-related activities, being also obsessed with
their work. Based on these characteristics, the 20
item Dutch Workaholism Scale (DUWAS) was
created by Taris and Schaufeli (2003). The
DUWAS has two essential dimensions, namely,
Working Excessively (WE) and Working
Compulsively (WC). WE (items 3, 4, 6, 8, 11,
13, 14, 17, and 19) originated from WART and
stands for the Control Tendencies factor, while
WC (items 2, 5, 7, 9, 12, 15, and 18) originated
from WorkBat and stands for the Drive factor.
DUWAS also contains an Overwork (items 1,
10, 16, and 20) dimension, in order to determine
the actual duration of one`s work. Four more
items determine the length of time one spends
19
working. Data show that the DUWAS has good

psychometric properties (Schaufeli, Taris, and
Bakker, 2006; Schaufeli, Taris, and van Rhenen,
2008).
A fourth scale, the Work Attitudes and
Behaviors Inventory (WABI), was elaborated by
Senholzi (2008). The WABI includes five scales
measuring: anxiety, obsessive-compulsiveness,
mania, intolerance, and self-doubt. The anxiety
scale comprises questions regarding a series of
physical health-related items (i.e. exhaustion,
headaches, mood swings, and forgetfulness). The
obsessive-compulsiveness scale includes items
pertaining to: amount of time spent working and
thinking about work, and difficulty relaxing. The
mania scale includes items regarding one`s
organization skills, multitasking abilities, and
time spent planning the future. The intolerance
scale refers to perfectionism, intolerance of
mistakes, and dissatisfaction with the work of
others. The self-doubt scale contains items
regarding negative self-attitudes and lack of time
to complete tasks. The total number of items
contained in the WABI amounts to 70, yet a
shorter version, with 25 items, has also been
used.
The DUWAS was the focus of the present
study, and it was preferred over WART and
WorkBat, for several reasons. First of all, the
WART lacks items referring to the underlying
motivation of working hard (Del Libano,
Llorens, Salanova, and Schaufeli, 2010). Second,
the WorkBat failed to contain the three factors
considered to be central to workaholism: work
involvement, work enjoyment and inner drive to
work (Kanai, Wakabayashi, and Fling, 1996;
McMillan, Brady, ODriscoll, and Marsh, 2002).
These characteristics are, above all, considered
to be core components of the construct, as one
definition presents workaholism as a negative
psychological state characterized by working
excessively due essentially to an internal drive
that cannot be resisted (Salanova, Del Libano,
Llorens, Schaufeli & Fidalgo, 2008, p. 1, apud
Del Libano et al., 2010).
The present study had, thus, two major
objectives. The first was to verify the
psychometric properties of the DUWAS on the
Romanian population. The second objective was
to identify the relations between certain traits
that might be associated with workaholism
(Anxiety, Obsessive-Compulsiveness, Mania,
Intolerance), a series of demographic
characteristics (type of institution, income,
20
gender, sex, marital status, education), and three

workaholism components (i.e. WC, WE, and
combined workaholics/CW a cumulated
dimension resulting from the summation of WC
and WE).
Method
Participants
Sample 1
For the linguistic validation of the DUWAS,
34 volunteers were recruited. All of them were
bilingual speakers. The sample comprised 15
males and 19 females, and had an age range
between 21 and 45 years old.
Sample 2
For the construct validity, a total number of
137 participants voluntarily took part in the
study. The questionnaires were completed via
internet by 32 of them, while for 105
participants, printed questionnaires were used.
Of all participants, 64 were males, and 72 were
females. This sample was also asked to answer
several questions regarding socio-economic and
demographic aspects. Thus, 33.8 % reported
working in the public sector, while 65.4 %
reported working in the private sector. Further
on, 2.9 % reported having only secondary school
education, 25 % having graduated from high
school, 53 % participants reported having
graduated from university, and 32.4 % reported
having post-university education. The income
varied from 100 to more than 1000 Euros/month.
Regarding their marital status, 60.3 % of the
participants were married, 34.6 % have never
been married, while 5.1 % reported being
divorced. All the participants were middle-aged
adults.
Measures
For the present study, the 20-item version of
the DUWAS was applied. The responses are
totally disagree to totally agree. For each of the
subscales, the total score is calculated first by
adding the scores on all the items from the
respective subscale, and then by dividing the
sum by the number of items contained in the
subscale.
A 25-item version of the WABI was also
administered. It contains only the first four
factors (anxiety, obsessive-compulsiveness,
mania, and intolerance), and was previously
translated and adapted on the Romanian

population by Cotrl (2006). The items are
Never true to Always true.
Procedure
In order to obtain a good linguistic

validation of the DUWAS, the translation - backtranslation procedure was used. The translation
procedure followed the International Test
Commission Guidelines (Van de Vijver &
Hambleton, 1996; Hambleton, Merenda, and
Spielberger, 2005). The scale items were
translated from English into Romanian by two
translators, after which another one translated the
Romanian version
back into English
(retroversion). The English items obtained
following the retroversion were compared to the
original English items, as recommended by
Brislin (1970). The equivalence of the translated
version to the original measure was evaluated
using the bilingual test retest method (Butcher
and Gur, 1974). In order to do that, bilingual
speakers were recruited. The English and
Romanian versions of the DUWAS were
applied, in this order, with a 10 days period in
between. Before completing the measures,
participants were informed about the
confidentiality of the data. Participants
completed both versions of the DUWAS
anonymously, being asked to provide a code that
would allow them to identify their responses.
The entire procedure was completed online.
Next, for the construct validation, both printed
and electronic versions of the scales were used.
What is more, another workaholism scale, the
WABI, was also applied. The participants were
also asked to provide a series of demographic
data (i.e. type of institution, income, gender, sex,
marital status, and education).
At first, steps were taken in order to verify

the linguistic equivalence of the two versions.
Afterwards, the psychometric properties of the
Romanian version of the DUWAS were verified,
as well as the temporal stability of the translated
instrument. Further on, construct validity and
reliability were verified. Eventually, with the
help of the data collected with the WABI, traits
related to workaholism (anxiety, obsessivecompulsiveness, mania, intolerance) were also
accounted for, and later used in the analysis. In
the end, three components of workaholism were
taken into consideration: working compulsively,
working excessively and combined workaholics.
Formatted: Space After: 10 pt
Results
Objective 1. Assessing the psychometric
properties of the DUWAS
In order to verify that the two linguistic

versions of the DUWAS are equivalent, two
approaches were chosen. On one hand, the
difference between the two versions was
assessed using a paired samples t-test, with the
presumption that no significant difference will be
found. On the other hand, by performing
Spearman correlations, the presumption that the
two linguistic versions would be strongly
associated was tested.
To assess the stability of the translated
DUWAS, a paired samples t-test was performed,
on the English (M = 47.44, SD = 8.81) and
Romanian (M = 47.17, SD = 8.83, t = -2.58, p =
.79) scores. The results show no significant
difference between the two linguistic forms,
therefore the data support the equivalence
between the Romanian translation and the
original, English version (See Table1).
Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and t Tests for the English and Romanian Versions of the DUWAS
Scale
DUWAS
En version
Mean
SD
47.44
8.81
Ro version
Mean SD
47.17
8.83
t- test
-2.58
Sig.
.79
Deleted:
The next step was to determine the temporal

stability of the translated DUWAS by correlating
the scores obtained from the administration of
English and Romanian versions of the DUWAS.
The Spearman product-moment correlation
coefficient of these scores was highly significant,

and confirms good test-retest reliability. The
same was true for all item pairs correlations (See
Table 2 & 3).
Deleted:
Formatted: Condensed by 0.1 pt

Formatted: Condensed by 0.2 pt
21
Table 2 Test-Retest Reliability of the DUWAS

DUWAS Ro
DUWAS En
Sig.
N
.69**
.00
34
**p < .01

Table 3 Spearman Correlations per Item Pairs
English Romanian pair for item no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
* p < .05. ** p < .01.
The internal consistency for the English and

Romanian versions of the DUWAS was tested
by calculating Cronbach` Alpha. Both
.03 (p=.867)
.62**
.52**
.71**
.60**
.68**
.44**
.43**
.53**
.71**
.56**
.61**
.64**
.39*
.64**
.68**
.67**
.50**
.63**
.68**
coefficients were quite high: = .82 for the

English version, and = .85 for the Romanian
version (see Table 4).
Table 4 Internal Consistency of the English and Romanian Versions of the DUWAS
Scale
DUWAS English
DUWAS Romanian
Cronbach's Alpha
.82
.85
In order to assess the convergent validity of

the DUWAS, the relation between workaholism
and the Overwork dimensions was explored. As
shown by the Pearson correlations performed;

WE showed a stronger correlation with OW (r =
.53, p < .01), than did WC (r = .46, p < .01).
Table 5. Pearson Correlations between Working Excessively, Working Compulsivelly,

Combined Workaholism, and Overwork
WE
WC
CW
OW
** p < .01.
22
WE
WC
CW
OW
.77**
.96**
.53**
.91**
.46**
.53**
Further on, correlations between the

workaholism scores obtained from the two
instruments were performed. There was a
significant, considerable association between the
two (r = .43, p < .01).
used separately in all the three models were:

Working Compulsively Workaholics (WC),
Working Excessively Workaholics (WE), and
Combined
Workaholics
(CW;
Working
Compulsively and Working Excessively taken
together). The independent variables used in all
the three models were: type of institution (public
sector versus private sector), monthly income,
marital status, education, sex, anxiety, mania,
A regression analysis was performed, in
which workaholic behavioral patterns, namely
CW, WC, and WE were regressed on nine
predictors: type of institution (public sector
versus private sector), monthly income, marital
status, education, sex, anxiety, mania,
Table 6 reveals that in the case of the
dependent variables, the F- ratio is significant at
p < .01, and the value of the adjusted R-square
explains .23 %, .25 %, and .17 % respectively of
the total variance.
Objective 2: verifying the association

between workaholism and demographic,
and socio-economic data
Due to the exploratory nature of this

objective, an increased number of analyses were
performed. More precisely, the concept of
workaholism, as measured with both the
DUWAS and the WABI, was verified in the
following associations. Due to the novelty that
workaholism studies represent within the
Romanian work space, the decision to fully
scrutinize its relation to other demographic data
was taken.
Three models were formulated in the
present study. The three dependent variables,
Table 6. The regression analysis, in which 3 criterions (Combined Workaholics, Working Compulsively
Workaholics, and Working Excessively Workaholics) were regressed on nine predictors (type of institution,
monthly income, marital status, education, sex, anxiety, mania, intolerance, Obsessive-Compulsiveness)
Model
workaholics
Variables
Combined Workaholics
Working Compulsively
Working Excessively
Standardized t
Coefficients
Standardized t
Coefficients
Standardized t
Coefficients
(Constant)
Typecof
institution
Education
Sex
Monthly Income
Marital Status
Sig.
1.01 .31
Sig.
1.22 .22
.76
Sig.
.44
.22
2.73 .00
.20
2.56 .01
.21
2.53 .01
-.03
.03
.14
-.04
-.46
.40
1.68
-.60
.64
.69
.09
.54
-.12
.06
.16
-.04
-1.59
.75
2.05
-.54
.11
.45
.04
.58
.02
.01
.10
-.04
.32
.12
1.25
-.57
.74
.90
.21
.56
.76
Anxiety
.04
.41
.67
.06
.52
.60
.03
.30
Mania
.37
3.02 .00
.45
3.67 .00
.29
2.25 .02
-.42
.67
-.08
-.63
.52
-.03
-.23
.81
.86
.38
.07
.53
.59
.13
.98
.32
Intolerance
ObsessiveCompulsiveness
-.05
.11
F Ratio
5.49***
R Square
.28
Adjusted R Square
.23
* p < .05. ** p < .01. ***p < .10.
6.12***
.30
.25
4.15***
.23
.17
23
Important predictions could be inferred from

the resulting relations between the predictors and
the criterions. Namely, the type of institution
(private versus public sector) and mania show a
significant predictive power for all criterions.
to be predictive for WC.
Further on, the associations between
workaholism and various socio-economic and
demographic characteristics were explored. It
can be noticed that the probability for someone

to be a workaholic significantly increases for
those employed in the private sector (see
Chart 2). Moreover, after performing an
independent samples t test, a significant
difference was found between the two means (t
(133) = 3.216, p <.01), those working in the
private sector being more likely workaholics (M
= 39.63, SD = 8.45) compared to those working
in the public sector (M = 33.57, SD = 11.25).
Figure 1. The Association between Workaholism (DUWAS) and Type of Institution
The relation between education and

workaholism (as reflected by the responses on
the DUWAS) was also assessed. A one-way
ANOVA showed no significant difference
between the four groups (F = 1.27, p = .28), the
means for each group being: (1) gymnasium
(M = 44); (2) high school (M = 35.29); (3)
university (M = 38.26); (4) post-university
(M = 37.86). Further analysis, however, showed
that the probability for someone to be a
workaholic is inversely associated with the
monthly income (rho = -.17, p = .04).
Correlations between the two dimensions of
the DUWAS (WE and WC), as well as the total
score, and the demographic data (type of
institution, monthly income, marital status,
24
education, sex) as well as the dimensions of the

WABI (Anxiety, Mania, Intolerance, ObsessiveCompulsiveness) were performed. WE was
found to be positively correlated with all the
dimensions of the WABI; Intolerance (r = .31,
p < .01), Mania (r = .39, p < .01), Anxiety
(r = .32, p < .01), Obsessive-Compulsiveness
(r = .38, p < .01). At the same significance
levels, the same was true for WC and:
Intolerance (r = .30), Mania (r = .46), Anxiety
(r = .35),
and
Obsessive-Compulsiveness
(r = .38). Finally, the same was found for the
total score of the DUWAS and: Intolerance
(r = .32), Mania (r = .44), Anxiety (r = .35), and
Obsessive-Compulsiveness (r = .40).
Table 7. Correlations between the two dimensions of the DUWAS (WE and WC), the total score, the
demographic data (type of institution, monthly income, marital status, education, sex), and the dimensions of the
WABI (anxiety, mania, intolerance, obsessive-compulsiveness)
Marital Income Sex Education Instit Intolerence. Mania Anxiety Obsessivestatus
Compulsiveness
.04
.04
.06 .08
.26** .31**
.39**
.32**
.38**
Working
Excessively
Pearson
Correlation
Sig.
.57
N
136
Working
Pearson
.05
Compulsively Correlation
Sig.
.50
N
136
Workaholism Pearson
.05
(DUWAS)
Correlation
Sig.
.52
N
136
* p < .05. ** p < .01. ***p < .10.
.61
136
.06
.43 .33
136 135
.10 -.03
.00 .00
135 136
.28** .30**
.00
136
.46**
.00
136
.35**
.00
136
.38**
.48
136
.05
.22 .65
136 135
.08 .03
.00 .00
135 136
.29** .32**
.00
136
.44**
.00
136
.35**
.00
136
.40**
.54
136
.30 .68
136 135
.00 .00
135 136
.00
136
.00
136
.00
136
In the end, nonparametric correlations

between the demographic data and the
dimensions of the WABI were performed (See
Table 8). Results show significant associations
between obsessive-compulsiveness and: marital
status (rho = .17, p <.01), and type of institution
(rho = .21, p < .01). Anxiety correlated

significantly with sex (rho = .23, p < .05), while
mania inversely correlated with monthly income
(rho = -.20, p < .01). Other associations between
the demographic data are shown in Table 8.
Table 8. Nonparametric correlations between the demographic data and the dimensions of the WABI (anxiety,
mania, intolerance, obsessive-compulsiveness)
Variable
Marital Income
status
.21*
Marital status
Monthly income
Sex
Education
Type of institution
Intolerance
Mania
Anxiety
** p < .05. * p < .01.
Sex
Edu.
Instit.
Intolerance
Mania Anxiety
.07
-.04
.07
.21*
.17*
.19*
.11
-.02
-.03
.15
-.12
.05
.15
.08
.04
-.20*
.15
.10
.10
.72**
To further clarify the relations detailed in

Table 8, a series of figures were produced.
Figure 2 shows that the probability that one
is obsessively compulsive about one`s work
increases if one is divorced. However, A
KruskalWallis test was conducted to evaluate
this hypothesis. The results of the test were not
significant, H(2) = 2.48, p = .288, with a mean
rank of 64.25 for the married individuals, 78.57
for the divorced, and 74.41 for those who had
never been married. One possible limit due to
.10
-.06
.23**
.15
.11
.64**
.64**
.17*
-.14
.09
.08
.21*
.73**
.71**
.70**
which an effect failed to be statistically visible

might be the reduced number of divorced
respondents (N = 7), compared to those who
reported being married (N = 82), or never
married (N = 47). Thus the means of obsessivecompulsiveness did not differ significantly
among the three groups: (1) married (M =
21.59); (2) divorced (M = 23.43); (3) never
married (M = 23.02). Therefore, we may
conclude that only a tendency is observable that
being divorced increases the probability of being
25
more obsessive-compulsive about one`s work.

Figure 3 shows the relation between
obsessive-compulsiveness and the type of
institution when one works. It can be observed
that the probability of someone acting more
obsessive-compulsive slightly increases for those
who work in the private sector. More precisely,

the people working in the private sector showed a
significantly higher workaholism level (M = 22.8,
SD = 3.53), than those working in the public
sector (M = 20.93, SD = 4.72), t (133) = 2.35,
p = .02.
Figure 2. The relation between obsessive-compulsiveness and marital status, where: 1 = married, 2 = divorced, 3
= never married
Figure 3. The relation between obsessive-compulsiveness and the type of institution
26
Finally, Figure 4 shows the relation between

anxiety and sex. As it can be observed, being
female increases, although slightly, the
probability of feeling anxious about one`s work.
The independent samples t test shows that the
mean anxiety level for the sampled women is

2.04 greater than for the sampled men (t (134) =
2.04, p < .01). The exact values are as follows:
for women (M = 20.42, SD = 3.93), and for men
(M = 18.38, SD = 4.44).
Figure 4. The relation between anxiety and sex
Discussion
The present study had two main objectives:
(1) to assess the psychometric properties of the
DUWAS, and (2) to verify the association
between workaholism, related traits and sociodemographic and economic data. The first step
was to translate and perform a linguistic
validation of the DUWAS. Afterwards, the
convergent validity was tested, with the help of a
second workaholism questionnaire the WABI.
Finally, the relation between workaholism and
various demographic and socio-economic data
were analyzed. This final part of the study was
somewhat more exploratory, considering the fact
that this subject has not yet been investigated
within the Romanian work space. It is for this
purpose that it was decided in favor of a more
extensive approach, for example to also perform
correlations between the demographic and socioeconomic data and workaholism, as measured not
only with the DUWAS, but also with the WABI.
The linguistic equivalence between the

Romanian and the English versions was verified
using a paired-samples t-test. No significant
difference between the two tests was found.
What is more, significant correlations between
the two language versions were found, both
between the global scores, and between the item
pairs. Moreover, the internal consistency of the
Romanian DUWAS was very similar to the
original.
So far, the DUWAS has been translated into
several languages and its psychometric
properties have been tested in Spain (Del Lbano
et al., 2010), Brazil and Japan (Schaufeli,
Bakker, and Van Rhenen, 2009). The results
showed that regardless of the sample used, all
values of Cronbachs alpha met the criterion of
.70 (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994), which is
used as a rule of thumb and can be interpreted as
having sufficient internal consistency. The only
exception was the WC scale in the Japanese
sample, whose value was slightly below the
criterion ( = .68). All the aforementioned results
27
support the fact that the Romanian version of the

DUWAS met the prior standards and can be
considered successful and was included in a
subsequent construct validity procedure.
For this second purpose, another
workaholism scale was used - the WABI.
Significant correlations were found between the
two sets of data, both between the final scores
and between the individual components. These
results are in accordance with previous studies
(Schaufeli et al., 2008), and support the view that
the more a person is a workaholic, the more time
and effort will be invested in one`s work.
Another important finding supporting a good
validity of the Romanian version of the DUWAS
is that WE, compared to WC, was more strongly
correlated with OW. These results have
previously been found on very large samples of
over 7,500 Dutch and 3,311 Japanese employees
(Schaufeli et al., 2009). All correlations between
workaholism (WE and WC) and OW were
positive and significant. WE was more strongly
associated with OW than WC in both samples (r
between .23 and .53, p < .001). Moreover, the
same relation was also found in the present
study, which shows that, on one hand, the
Romanian version of the DUWAS can be
trustfully used , and on the other hand, the
relation between WE and OW is generalizable to
the Romanian work environment.
Having, thus, successfully validated the
Romanian version of the DUWAS, the relation
between workaholism (as measured with both
scales) and different socio-demographic and
economic data was assessed. Both scales were
equally used in this endeavor.
Those working in the private sector seemed
more likely to be workaholics (according to the
data collected with the DUWAS), compared to
those working in the public sector. Although
workaholics feel compelled to work unhealthily
long hours because of internal pressures, some
studies have shown that there are some variables
that can foster or, on the contrary, prevent this
form of maladaptation. For example, regarding
the type of institution (i.e. either public or private
sector), some claim that there is no relation to
workaholism (Morgan, 1998), while many more
argue that there are organizations which can
precipitate or maintain the workaholic behaviors
of their employees (Fassel, 1990; Porter, 1996;
Schaef and Fassel, 1988).
Data from this study also showed that the
lower someone`s income, the higher the
28
probability of being workaholic (as assessed

with the WABI). This result supports some
indications in the literature concerning the role of
economic motivators for working. Money plays
an important role in the life of most people
(Lawler, 1971), and financial earnings are as
important as ever (Haywood et al.,1989). Oates
(1971) also stated that those who grew up in
economically deprived environments, would be
more likely to become workaholic adults. In fact,
interviews with some of the workaholics`
children actually showed that they believed the
reason for their parents` workaholism was
poverty. Regarding income, three main
arguments have dominated the literature;
workaholics either earn more, or less, or income
is in no respect linked to workaholism. A study
by Burke (2001b, apud. Schaufeli, 2008.)
revealed no evidence to support the relation
between income increases and either career
satisfaction or workaholic behaviors. However,
Scott, Moore, and Miceli (1997, apud. Harpaz
and Snir, 2003) explicitly state that workaholics
work beyond what is reasonably expected to
meet basic economic needs. Income was found
to be significant (p < .05) and negatively
correlated with CW and WC workaholics
(Sharma & Sharma, 2011). A Canadian General
Social Survey found that 38% of the
respondents, who also had an income of over
$100,000 per year, described themselves as
workaholics, compared to only 23% who made
under $10,000 annually (Hamermesh and
Slemrod, 2008).
In the present study, dimensions of the
WABI also showed interesting associations with
some demographic data, such as being divorced.
Robinson and Post (1997) have also found that
workaholics tend to have more dysfunctional
families. Moreover, increased workaholism has
been linked to increased problem coping
difficulties,
communication
difficulties,
decreased
emotional
involvement
and
dysfunctional couple dynamics. Even if having a
work addiction seems to impact aspects of one`s
life which are unrelated to work, there is no
evidence to suggest that workaholism favors a
higher divorce rate (Burke, 2000b). Things are
even more complicated when considering a
comparison between married and single
individuals. Harpaz and Snir (2003), analyzing a
three-way interaction of gender by marital status,
found that married women worked fewer hours
per week than unmarried women, while married
men worked more hours per week than

unmarried men. Moreover, Doerfler and
Kammer (1986) had previously shown that most
single workaholics are women, while workaholic
women tend to be more masculine.
In the present study, sex differences were
also noticed with respect to being anxious about
one`s work. Thus, being a female slightly
increased the probability of being more anxious.
The link between anxiety and workaholism is
more complex, other studies showed anxiety
while relaxing to be associated with
workaholism (Morris & Charney 1983).
Closely related to the issue of clinical
features within the workaholics` spectrum of
characteristics, earning less meant an increased
probability of feeling a state of euphoric
exaltation, hyperactivity and insomnia (the
Mania dimension of the WABI). This seems to
be in line with the view that workaholism can be
conceptualized as an obsession (Fassel, 1990;
Robinson, 1998; Chonko, 1983; Naughton,
1987; Clark, McEwen, Collard and Hickok,
1993), or as mania, referring to features such as
experiencing an excessive fear of inactivity,
feeling the urge to be energetic and
overinvolved, also showing a great enthusiasm
for life (Klaft i Kliener, 1988; Machlowitz,
1980).
Finally, regression analysis showed that the
type of institution where subjects work (private
versus public sector) show a significant
predictive power for: Combined Workaholics
(Working
Compulsively
and
Working
Excessively),
Working
Compulsively
Workaholics, and
Working Excessively
Workaholics. Some studies showed that some
organizations can foster workaholism (Fassel,
1990; Porter, 1996; Schaef & Fassel, 1988); the
employees become addicted to the corporation as
a result of income and other benefits (Schaef and
Fassel, 1988). The rewards applied by some
organizations encourage the idea that long,
intense working hours, and the loyalty towards
the organization are very important (Salancik,
1977).
Another predictor mania, seem to support
Trait-Specific Model, according to which
workaholics show hippomanic (Klaft i Kliener,
1988; Machlowitz, 1980). As defined by the
DSM-IV TR, hippomania refers to feeling
increasingly well, while at the same time feeling
no need to sleep, thinking rapidly about different
things and also being very fast in various
activities, all being related or included in one`s

work (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
to be predictive for Working Compulsively.
The main limit of the current study refers to
the characteristics and size of the sample, which
require caution in generalizing these findings.
However, on the whole, the results of the present
study are in agreement with those obtained in
other populations investigated (Schaufeli et al.,
2009).
The present study brings important
contributions to the field of occupational health,
as eastern European participants were included
in the research, thus confirming equivalence for
the concept of workaholism, as proposed by
Schaufeli and previously investigated in Western
cultures and Japan.
In conclusion, the present study was the first
successful attempt to validate a tool designed to
assess workaholism, on the Romanian
population the DUWAS. Although Romanian
occupational health professionals have so far
showed only a limited interest in the subject of
workaholism, hopefully, having a valid
assessment tool will help increase their interest
for this exciting subject.
References
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic
and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.
Revised). Washington, DC: Author.
Bakker, A.B., Schaufeli, W.B., Leiter, M.P., Taris,
T.W.(2008). Work engagement: An emerging
concept in occupational health psychology. Work
& Stress, 22, 187 - 200.
Brislin, R.W. (1970). Back-translation for crosscultural research. Journal of Cross-cultural
Psychology, 185-216.
Burke, R. J. (2001). Workaholism components, job
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Anex
Varianta n romn a scalei DUWAS
Urmtoarele 20 de afirmaii se refer la modul n care v simii la locul de munc. V rugm citii cu atenie fiecare
afirmaie i decidei ct de des simii n acest fel n legtur cu munc dumneavoastr. V rugm indicai pentru
fiecare afirmaie varianta care descrie cel mai bine ct de frecvent v simii n acel mod. De exemplu, dac
niciodat sau aproape niciodat nu v-ai simit n acest fel, ncercuii 1 (unu). Dac ntotdeauna sau aproape
ntotdeauna ai avut acest sentiment, ncercuii 4.
(Aproape) niciodat- 1 Uneori -2 Deseori- 3 (Aproape) ntotdeauna - 4
1. Nu mi place munca n exces.
2. Mi-a dori s nu fiu att de dedicat/ muncii mele.
3. Par s fiu n grab i contra cronometru.
4. Continuu s muncesc chiar i dup ce colegii mei au renunat.
5. Este important pentru mine s muncesc din greu, chiar i atunci cnd nu-mi place ceea ce fac.
6. Stau ocupat/ i lucrez pe mai multe fronturi.
7. M gndesc la munc chiar i atunci cnd vreau s-mi iau, temporar, o pauz.
8. M implic n mai multe lucruri dect pot face.
9. Par s simt un impuls intern de a munci din greu, un sentiment c e ceva ce trebuie s fac, fie c vreau sau nu.
10. Merg la munc i atunci cnd nu m simt bine.
11. Tind s m in sub presiune prin termene limit auto-impuse cnd muncesc.
12. Simt c este ceva n interiorul meu care m face s muncesc din greu.
13. Petrec mai mult timp muncind dect petrecnd timp cu prietenii sau fcnd activiti preferate sau relaxante.
14. M simt vinovat/ atunci cnd nu lucrez la ceva.
15. M simt obligat/ s muncesc din greu, chiar i atunci cnd nu este plcut.
16. Lucrez i n weekend-uri.
31
17. M surprind fcnd dou sau trei lucruri deodat, cum ar fi s iau prnzul i s scriu un e-mail n timp ce
vorbesc i la telefon.
18. M simt vinovat/a atunci cnd iau pauz de la lucru.
19. mi este greu s m relaxez atunci cnd nu muncesc.
20. mi iau de lucru i acas.
Ore de munc
a. Cte ore lucrai pe sptmn n mod oficial?
b. Cte ore lucrai efectiv pe sptmn (incluznd munca peste program)?
b. Ct timp v ia n mod obinuit s ajungei de acas la locul de munc i napoi? *minute
c. Muncesc (v rugm indicai):
c.1. program normal
c.2. n ture
c.2. n ture (dac da):
doar ture de zi
doar ture de noapte
att ture de zi, ct i de noapte
32
Elena Raluca Ciobot1
Abstract
Nowadays the economic situation increases the demands and pressure levels upon the employees, which
eventually affects the organizations efficiency. Thus, understanding the issue of occupational stress is essential
for identifying adequate strategies to manage it. Analysing the relationship between occupational stress and
different attitudinal variables is a constant concern of the researchers in the area of behavioural sciences.
However, the results obtained so far with regards to job satisfaction and work engagement are not satisfactory
since they refer to a small amount of stress sources faced by the employees at work. The current research
analyses the relationship between six occupational stressors, job satisfaction and work engagement. Three
psychometric instruments are used in order to examine the association between the variables and the predictive
values of occupational stress. It is also determined the moderating effect played by demographic variables of the
238 participants included in the research. Statistical data highlight the negative, medium and low correlations
between the subscales of the independent variables and the dependent variables and that certain occupational
stress sources are predictors of the dimensions specific to job satisfaction and work engagement. The results
obtained from the moderating analysis show that five demographic variables have a moderating effect on the
relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction subscales. The employees age, gender and the age
in the organization are unique moderators with regards to the relationship between stress and work engagement.
In conclusion, the research points out the urge of introducing in organizations some stress management
programs, which should consider the employees and job characteristics.
Keywords: occupational stress, job satisfaction, work engagement
Rsum
La situation conomique actuelle augmente les exigences et les pressions qui s'exercent sur les employs, ce
qui finalement fait du mal l'efficacit des organisations. Dans ce contexte, il est essentiel de comprendre les
problmes de stress au travail afin de pouvoir identifier les stratgies appropries le grer. L'analyse de la
relation entre le stress au travail et des variables attitudinales diffrentes reprsente une proccupation constante
des thoriciens dans le domaine des sciences comportementales. Cependant, les rsultats obtenus jusqu' prsent,
se rfrant la satisfaction au travail et l'engagement au travail sont insuffisantes vu qu'ils incluent une zone
limite des sources du stress auxquelles les employs doivent faire face au travail. La prsente tude examine la
relation entre six stresseurs professionnels et la satisfaction au travail et l'engagement au travail. On analyse les
corrlations entre les variables et les valeurs prdictives du stress professionnel l'aide des trois instruments
psychomtriques. On examine aussi l'ffet moderatur des variables dmographiques pour le lot de 238
participants inclus dans la recherche. Les donnes statistiques soulignent l'existence des corrlations ngatives
reduites et moyennes entre les souschelles de la variable indpendente et celles des variables dpendentes et que
certaines sources de stress professionnel constituent des prdicteurs des dimensions specifiques de la satisfaction
au travail et de l'engagement au travail. Les rsultats qui sont issus de l'analyse de modration montrent qu'il y a
cinq variables dmographiques qui modrent la relation entre les souschelles du stress au travail et celles de la
satisfaction. En ce qui concerne la relation entre le stress et l'engagement, l' ge de l'employ, le genre et
l'anciennet de travail sont les seuls qui ont un effet modrateur. Les conclusions de la recherche indiquent la
necessit d'introduire dans les organisations des programmes de gestion du stress ayant en vue les rsultats
obtenus en tenant compte des caractristiques des employs et du lieu du travail.
Mots-cls: stress au travail, satisfaction au travail, engagement au travail

Adresa de corespondenta- raluca.ciobota@yahoo.com
33
Rezumat
Situaia economic actual conduce la creterea solicitrilor i presiunilor care acioneaz asupra
angajailor, ceea ce afecteaz, n final, eficacitatea organizaiilor. n acest context, nelegerea problematicii
stresului ocupaional este esenial pentru a putea identifica strategii de gestionare adecvate. Analiza relaiei
dintre stresul ocupaional i diferite variabile atitudinale reprezint o preocupare constant a cercettorilor din
domeniul tiinelor comportamentale. Totui, rezultatele obinute pn n prezent referitoare la satisfacie n
munc i implicare n munc sunt insuficiente de vreme ce includ o arie restrns de surse de stres cu care
angajaii se confrunt la locul de munc. Studiul de fa investigheaz relaia dintre ase stresori ocupaionali i
satisfacia n munc i implicarea n munc pe populaie romneasc. Sunt analizate corelaiile dintre variabile i
valorile predictive ale stresului ocupaional cu ajutorul a trei instrumente psihometrice. De asemenea, este
examinat efectul de moderare al variabilelor demografice pentru lotul de 238 de participani inclui n cercetare.
Datele statistice evideniaz existena unor corelaii negative, reduse i medii ntre subscalele variabilei
independente i cele ale variabilelor dependente i c anumite surse de stres ocupaional constituie predictori ai
dimensiunilor specifice satisfaciei n munc i implicrii n munc. Rezultatele care reies din analiza de
moderare arat c cinci variabile demografice au efect moderator n relaia dintre subscalele stresului ocupaional
i cele ale satisfaciei n munc. n ceea ce privete relaia dintre stres i implicare n munc, moderatori sunt
doar vrsta, genul i vechimea n organizaie. Concluziile cercetrii indic necesitatea introducerii unor programe
de gestionare a stresului n organizaii care s aib n vedere rezultatele obinute prin prisma caracteristicilor
angajailor i ale locului de munc.
Cuvinte cheie: stres ocupaional, satisfacie n munc, implicare n munc
Introducere
Relaia dintre stresul ocupaional i diferite
variabile
atitudinale
caracteristice
ariei
industrial-organizaionale este una dintre cele
mai intens cercetate problematici din ultimii ani.
Acest fapt este justificat de vreme ce stresul
ocupaional are implicaii majore att asupra
angajailor ct i asupra organizaiilor.
Consecinele asupra angajailor apar la nivel
psihologic, medical i comportamental. Efectele
psihologice asociate cu un nivel ridicat de stres
ocupaional sunt suprasolicitarea i epuizarea
psihic, anxietatea, tulburrile de somn, depresia
etc. Din punct de vedere medical, stresorii
ocupaionali au fost corelai cu o serie de
probleme de sntate severe precum: boli
cardiovasculare, cancer, atacuri cerebrale,
vtmri corporale, pneumonie, diabet, boli
infecioase, boli cronice ale ficatului, boli ale
plmnilor, boli de piele, bronite cronice etc.
Stresul ocupaional contribuie semnificativ la
apariia i agravarea acestor boli prin intermediul
stilului de via caracteristic angajailor stresai,
care include comportamente precum creterea
consumului de igri, abuzul de alcool i droguri,
predispoziia spre accidente, comportamentele
agresive, tulburri ale comportamentului
alimentar etc. (Cartwright & Cooper, 1997;
Jones & Bright, 2001). n ceea ce privete
consecinele stresului ocupaional asupra
organizaiilor, cele directe vizeaz participarea
34
defectuoas a angajailor la munc (absenteism,

ntrzieri, greve, fluctuaie de personal,
comportamente contraproductive etc.), n timp ce
efectele indirecte se refer la comportamentele
de munc dezadaptative: eecul de a investi
resurse fizice i psihice suficiente n sarcinile de
munc (burnout-ul), diminuarea performanei
(scderea productivitii i a calitii serviciilor
oferite clienilor), fluctuaia de personal i
costurile mari asociate concediilor medicale i
serviciilor de sntate n munc (Stamatios,
Antoniou & Cooper, 2005). Amploarea
ngrijortoare a acestor consecine a fcut ca
stresul ocupaional s intre nu doar n atenia
cercettorilor (mai ales a celor din domeniul
tiinelor comportamentale), ci i a managerilor
preocupai de sntatea organizaional.
Studiul de fa urmrete s clarifice natura
relaiei dintre stresul ocupaional, satifacia n
munc i implicarea n munc. Cercetarea
relaiei dintre cele trei concepte este important,
n primul rnd, n msura n care acesta indic
elementele i relaiile dintre acestea care trebuie
analizate cu atenie n cadrul interveniilor ce
vizeaz dezvoltarea organizaional. Aceast
etap este esenial pentru orice organizaie care
urmrete nu doar s supravieuiasc ntr-un
mediu concurent, ci s reprezinte un pilon
important pentru industria n care activeaz. Pe
lng utilitatea sa practic, cercetarea relaiei este
semnificativ deoarece problematica este nc
nediscutat
suficient
n
psihologia
organizaional, fiind necesare clarificri

suplimentare: dac despre relaia dintre stres i
satisfacie s-a scris foarte mult, cercetrile despre
relaia acestora cu implicarea n munc sunt
destul de puine, aa cum reiese din numrul mic
de articole publicate pe aceast tem (Schaufeli
& Bakker, 2004).
Tema cercetrii este actual n msura n
care, n ultimii ani, stresul ocupaional a devenit
un element nelipsit al realitii organizaionale,
cu vaste implicaii asupra satisfaciei i asupra
implicrii n munc. Locul de munc se
dovedete a fi un mediu tot mai instabil pe
msur ce organizaiile contientizeaz rolul
pozitiv pe care l are schimbarea continu n
ndeplinirea misiunii i pentru realizarea
scopului organizaional. Nivelul de stres
ocupaional asociat acestei incertitudini crete n
condiiile n care schimbarea solicit utilizarea
de noi tehnologii, ncheierea de contracte de
scurt durat, relocri impuse de noile strategii
de eficientizare a muncii etc. (Jones, 2001). n
acest context, atitudinile pozitive ale angajailor
sunt afectate semnificativ, fapt ce poate genera
dezechilibre organizaionale importante.
Dintre aceste atitudini, satisfacia n munc
constituie un subiect de mare interes pentru
cercettorii din domeniul psihologiei industrialorganizaionale
i
al
comportamentului
organizaional
i
pentru
managementul
organizaional deopotriv. Astfel, pe de o parte,
satisfacia n munc ocup un loc central n
cercetrile privind atitudinile angajailor la locul
de munc, ceea ce reiese din numrul de studii
publicate pe aceast tem. Pe de alt parte,
evaluarea satisfaciei angajailor reprezint o
activitate de rutin n tot mai multe organizaii.
Preocuparea pentru aceast variabil atitudinal
este justificat din moment ce satisfacia n
munc genereaz comportamente cu implicaii
asupra sntii fizice i asupra strii de bine
psihologice a angajailor. Acest fapt influeneaz
la rndul lui binele organizaiei n ansamblu de
vreme ce satisfacia n munc reprezint un
factor important pentru eficacitatea afacerilor.
Nivelul crescut de satisfacie al angajailor
contribuie att la diminuarea fluctuaiei de
personal, ct i la reputaia organizaiei de
angajator preocupat de binele angajailor. Acest
aspect favorizeaz atragerea de candidai
performani pe posturile vacante.
n literatura de specialitate s-au conturat
dou perspective privind motivele pentru care
organizaiile ar trebui s fie atente la nivelul de
satisfacie al angajailor lor. Perspectiva

umanitar, centrat pe individ, susine c
angajaii merit s fie tratai cu respect i
corectitudine. Astfel, modul n care organizaia
se comport fa de angajaii si se reflect n
satisfacia n munc. n plus, satisfacia este un
indice al strii de bine psihologice. A doua
perspectiv, mai pragmatic, utilitarismul,
consider c, n funcie de nivelul de satisfacie
al angajailor, acetia manifest comportamente
care afecteaz funcionarea organizaiei. Modul
n care angajaii se simt la locul de munc poate
determina comportamente dezirabile sau
negative. De asemenea, satisfacia n munc
spune dac organizaia are o funcionare coerent
sau deficitar. Cele dou perspective explic i
justific preocuparea fa de satisfacia
angajailor (Spector, 1997).
Pe de alt parte, studiul implicrii n munc
este important datorit consecinelor vaste pe
care le are asupra realitii organizaionale.
Acestea in de atitudinile pozitive fa de munc
i fa de organizaie, printre care demne de
remarcat sunt satisfacia n munc, dedicarea
organizaional i inteniile reduse de a prsi
organizaia.
De
asemenea,
consecinele
implicrii se refer i la comportamente
organizaionale dezirabile precum: iniiativ
personal, motivaia de a nva, comportament
extra-rol
i
proactiv.
Efecte
pozitive
semnificative ale implicrii au fost nregistrate i
asupra sntii fizice, asupra strii de bine
psihologice i n ceea ce privete nivelurile de
depresie, distres i tulburri psihosomatice.
Nu n cele din urm, implicarea n munc
este semnificativ deoarece aceasta exercit un
impact
deosebit
asupra
performanei
organizaionale (Schaufeli, 2004). Cei doi
cercettori identific dou procese care se
desfoar n context organizaional i care au
inciden asupra performanei individuale i
organizaionale: (1) un proces de eroziune sau de
deteriorare a sntii n care stresorii
organizaionali i lipsa resurselor de la locul de
munc sunt asociate cu apariia burnout-ului,
care, la rndul lui, e asociat cu reclamaii
(plngeri) privind starea de sntate i atitudini
negative fa de locul de munc; i (2) un proces
motivaional n care existena unor resurse
suficiente la locul de munc este asociat cu
implicarea care, la rndul ei, este relaionat cu
atitudini pozitive fa de locul de munc. Astfel,
implicarea n munc exercit un efect de mediere
asupra relaiei dintre resursele locului de munc,
35
pe de o parte, i atitudinile pozitive orientate spre

munc i comportamentele de la locul de munc,
pe de alt parte.
Stresul ocupaional
Din perspectiv teoretic, importana
consecinelor stresului ocupaional asupra
angajailor i asupra organizaiilor se reflect n
numeroasele definiii i modele elaborate. ntr-o
abordare recent, stresul ocupaional este un
proces cognitiv care rezult din interaciunea
(numit tranzacie) dintre individ i mediul i
care este influenat de sursele de stres, de
maniera n care sunt acestea evaluate de ctre o
anumit persoan i de resursele de gestionare
ale acesteia. Apariia stresului presupune, nainte
de toate, existena unui stimul. Un stimul
devine factor stresor n funcie de caracteristicile
persoanei expuse la acest stimul (Lazarus, 2006,
p. 53), mai precis, dac aceasta este vulnerabil
la stimulul respectiv. De aici deriv importana
diferenelor individuale n ceea ce privete
reaciile la stres deoarece persoane diferite pot
percepe i interpreta diferit caracterul stresant al
unui stimul (Snyder, 2001). Autorii moderni pun
mare accent pe evaluarea cognitiv a situaiilor
stresante de ctre angajai, pe care o definesc
drept proces de categorizare a unei posibile
ameninri n funcie de semnificaia acesteia
pentru starea de bine psihologic (Lazarus &
Folkman, 1998, pp. 52-53). n funcie de
evaluarea obinut, angajatul genereaz diverse
mecanisme de coping, modaliti prin care
gestioneaz situaiile stresante. Pentru lucrarea
de fa s-a optat pentru prezentarea teoriei
explicative elaborate de Lazarus deoarece
cercetarea i coninutul itemilor chestionarului
administrat se refer la problematica surselor de
stres
ocupaional.
Modelul
cognitivcomportamental este cea mai potrivit abordare a
proceselor prin care stimulii din mediu devin
stresori i a mecanismelor conexe prin care se
realizeaz tranzacia dintre angajat i mediul su
de lucru.
Satisfacia n munc
Satisfacia n munc definete ceea ce
angajaii simt fa de locul lor de munc n
general i fa de anumite aspecte ale postului n
particular. Satisfacia n munc relev msura n
care angajailor le place sau nu postul de munc
pe care l ocup. Satisfacia n munc poate fi
privit ca sentiment general fa de job sau ca o
constelaie de atitudini orientate spre diferite
36
aspecte sau faete ale jobului (Spector, 1997,

p. 2). Abordarea general (global) a satisfaciei
este folosit atunci cnd cercettorii vor s
identifice efectele satisfaciei. Abordarea
faetelor
jobului
este
utilizat
cnd
managementul dorete s afle care pri ale
acestuia produc satisfacie i pe care trebuie s le
mbunteasc. Studierea faetelor ofer o
imagine mai realist asupra conceptului deoarece
un angajat poate avea sentimente diferite fa de
diverse faete.
Implicarea n munc
Implicarea reprezint o stare mental
pozitiv, de implinire care apare n contextul
muncii i care este caracterizat prin vigoare,
dedicare i absorbire. Aceasta este o stare
afectiv i cognitiv persistent i omniprezent
i nu una de moment, legat de un anumit obiect,
eveniment,
individ
sau
comportament
(Schaufeli, 2004, pp. 4-5). Cele trei aspecte sunt
nucleul implicrii. Vigoarea se caracterizeaz
prin niveluri ridicate de energie i rezilien
mental i dorin de a depune efort n
activitile de serviciu n ciuda dificultilor
ntmpinate. Dedicarea reprezint implicare
puternic n munc. Munca are semnificaie
pentru angajaii dedicai, munca i inspir, le
ofer provocri noi, de aceea acetia i
ndeplinesc sarcinile cu mndrie i entuziasm.
Absorbirea se caracterizeaz prin concentrare
total i preocupare fa de activitile de munc.
Angajaii absorbii de munca lor sunt att de
concentrai asupra a ceea ce fac (i att de
entuziasmai de sarcinile pe care le au de
ndeplinit), nct uit de ceea ce se ntmpl n
jur, le este greu s se detaeze de munca lor.
Pentru ei, timpul trece foarte repede (Schaufeli,
2004, p. 5). Aadar, aceti angajai se identific
n mare msur cu munca lor.
Relaia dintre stresul ocupaional,
satisfacia n munc i implicarea n
munc
O cercetare realizat de Mikkelsen, Ogaard

& Lovrich (2000) arat c stresul ocupaional
prezint corelaii negative semnificative cu
satisfacia n munc (r = -.24, p < .01) i cu
ataamentul organizaional afectiv (engl.
affective organizational commitment; r = -.10, p
< .05). Acest studiu examineaz interrelaiile
dintre (1) variabilele independente: solicitrile
postului, climatul organizaional orientat spre
nvare (engl. learning climate) i reclamaiile
(plngerile) privind sntatea subiectiv (engl.

subjective health complaints), (2) variabila de
mediere (engl. intermediate variable): stres
ocupaional i (3) variabilele dependente:
satisfacie n munc i dedicare organizaional.
Rezultatele studiului arat c 27% din variana
variabilei dependente, satisfacia n munc, este
nvare, de un pattern de reacii depresive (stil
de coping pasiv, depresiv) i de stresul
ocupaional. Procentul este mai mic pentru
cealalt variabil dependent, astfel c 20% din
variana variabilei dedicare organizaional este
nvare, stres ocupaional i coping activ.
Concluziile acestei cercetri evideniaz
impactul stresului ocupaional asupra satisfaciei
n munc i a dedicrii organizaionale. n
accepiunea cercettorilor stresul ocupaional
este asociat cu caracteristici ale mediului de
lucru i cu anumite caracteristici individuale,
precum stilul de coping. De aceea, calitatea vieii
la locul de munc poate fi mbuntit prin
practici de management al resurselor umane
axate pe aceste caracteristici individuale i de
mediu (Mikkelsen, 2000).
Un alt studiu arat c dou surse de stres
prezint corelaii cu satisfacia n munc i cu
dedicarea organizaional. Ambiguitatea rolului
coreleaz semnificativ cu satisfacia (r = -.68),
iar conflictul de rol i ambiguitatea rolului
coreleaz cu dedicarea (r = -.43 i r = -.57).
Ambiguitatea rolului este un predictor negativ
puternic al satisfaciei n munc, n timp ce
ambiguitatea rolului i conflictul de rol sunt
predictori negativi moderai ai dedicrii
organizaionale. Rezultatele acestui studiu
sugereaz c satisfacia n munc nu este prezis
de sursa de stres, conflict de rol. Alte variabile
predictori ai satisfaciei sunt identitatea sarcinilor
i importana sarcinilor (Glisson & Durick,
1988). n ceea ce privete dedicarea
organizaional, cel mai bun predictor este
educaia, caracteristica individual a angajailor.
Angajaii n vrst, cu studii mai puine i cu un
sim al competiiei ridicat nregistreaz niveluri
mai ridicate de dedicare organizaional (Morris
& Sherman, 1981 apud Glisson, 1988). Vrsta i
vechimea n organizaie au fost asociate pozitiv
cu dedicarea (Glisson, 1988).
Cercetarea realizat de Curry, Wakefield,
Price & Mueller (1986) arat c o alt surs de
stres, ncrcarea muncii, este un predictor al
satisfaciei. Angajaii care consider c volumul
de munc este cel potrivit sunt mai satisfcui

dect cei care cred c au prea mult sau prea puin
de lucru. ncrcarea muncii nu coreleaz cu
dedicarea organizaional.
O cercetare recent (Vrg, Zaboril, Sulea
i Maricuoiu, 2009) arat c exist corelaii
semnificative ntre furie i scalele implicrii n
munc (vigoare r = -.21, dedicare r = -.17 i
absorbire r = -.15, p < .05) i anxietate i
dimensiunile implicrii (vigoare r = -.25,
dedicare r = -.30 i absorbire r = -.17, p < .05).
Corelaiile dintre implicare n munc i furie,
respectiv anxietate sunt, de asemenea,
semnificative: r = -.19, respectiv r = -.26, p <
.05. Aadar, angajaii care experimenteaz
sentimente de anxietate i furie manifest o
implicare n munc mai sczut deoarece acetia
se caracterizeaz printr-un nivel redus de
entuziasm, percep mediul de lucru ca fiind ostil
i conflictual i au dificulti n finalizarea
sarciunilor ntruct capacitatea lor de concentrare
scade considerabil.
n ceea ce privete relaia implicrii n
munc cu emoiile de la locul de munc,
rezultatele cercetrii au artat c angajaii care
triesc emoii pozitive la locul de munc prezint
o implicare mai ridicat. Corelaiile dintre scalele
implicrii n munc i starea afectiv pozitiv la
locul de munc sunt pozitive i moderate:
.35. De asemenea, corelaia dintre constructul
global implicare n munc i starea afectiv
pozitiv la locul de munc este pozitiv i
moderat: r = .47, p < .05. Cercetarea asocierii
dintre aceste dou concepte vine n completarea
unor cercetri anterioare care au ajuns la
concluzia c angajaii care triesc intens emoii
negative la locul de munc sunt mai degrab
introveri, obinuiesc s aplice rar un stil activ de
adaptare la dificulti i vor reaciona ntr-o mai
mare msur prin fug deoarece triesc
sentimente de fric la locul de munc (de
exemplu planific s prseasc organizaia, i
iau zile libere sau concedii medicale, pentru a
reduce sentimentul de insecuritate, evit
comunicarea direct cu cei fa de care simt
frica), n comparaie cu cei care au caracteristici
opuse (Pitariu, Vrg, Sulea & Zaboril, 2008
apud Vrg i colab., 2009).
Referitor la datele demografice ale
participanilor la cercetare, au fost identificate
corelaii scazute, dar semnificative, ntre vrst i
dedicare (r = .16, < .05), respectiv absorbire (r =
.17, p < .05). Alte cercetri anterioare au obinut
37
corelaii foarte slabe ntre vrst i vigoare (ntre

r = .00 i r = .28), dedicare (r = .02 i r = .28) i
absorbire (ntre r = .00 i r = .27) (Schaufeli &
colab., 2006 apud Vrg i colab., 2009).
Acelai tip de corelaii au fost obinute ntre
vechime n munc i subscalele implicrii:
.19, p < .05 i vechime n organizaie i
dimensiunile implicrii n munc: vigoare r = .21
i absorbire r = .17, p < .05. Corelaiile dintre
implicare n munc, pe de o parte, i vrst,
vechime n munc i vechime n organizaie, pe
de alt parte, sunt, de asemenea slabe, dar
semnificative statistic (p < .05): r = .17, r = .19,
respectiv r = .17. Singurele corelaii cu p > .05
sunt cele nregistrate ntre vrst i vigoare: r =
.14 i vechime n organizaie i dedicare: r = .09.
n ceea ce privete genul i nivelul de educaie
nu au fost identificate corelaii semnificative pe
nicio scal a implicrii n munc (Schaufeli &
colab., 2006; Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007 apud
Vrg i colab., 2009).
Literatura de specialitate nu prezint
rezultate foarte concludente privind relaia dintre
stres ocupaional i satisfacie n munc,
respectiv implicare n munc. Cercetrile
anterioare au studiat doar trei surse de stres
(ambiguitatea rolului, conflictul de rol i
suprancrcarea cantitativ a muncii). Studiul de
fa urmrete extinderea acestor cercetri.
Astfel, obiectivul este de a examina toate cele
trei dimensiuni ale implicrii n munc, alturi de
sursele de stres menionate (ambiguitatea rolului,
conflictul de rol i suprancrcarea cantitativ a
muncii) i alte surse de stres (suprancrcarea
calitativ a muncii, dezvoltarea carierei i
responsabilitatea pentru ceilali) i variabilele
demografice (vrst, gen, nivel de educaie,
vechime n munc, vechime n organizaie, la
care se adaug i nivelul organizaional: funcie
de conducere sau de execuie). Pe lang aceste
variabile designul cercetrii presupune un model
explicativ ce include i satisfacia n munc. Mai
precis, vor fi studiate: (1) corelaiile dintre
faetele stresului ocupaional i cele ale
satisfaciei n munc, respectiv ale implicrii n
munc; (2) predictorii dimensiunilor satisfaciei
n munc, respectiv ale implicrii n munc i (3)
efectul de moderare al variabilelor demografice
asupra relaiei dintre faetele stresului
ocupaional i cele ale satisfaciei n munc,
respectiv ale implicrii.
Prin urmare, au fost formulate urmtoareale
ipoteze pe baza studiilor avute n vedere:
38

corelaii puternice cu satisfacia n
munc.
corelaii slabe, dar semnificative cu
implicarea n munc.
Studiul corelaiilor dintre variabile este
important la nivel organizaional deoarece
existena relaiei liniare indic ce alte variabile sunt
problematice (i n ce grad) dac se constat c
una din variabile este n afara limitelor normale.
Dac ipoteza se confirm, atunci managementul
trebuie s aib n vedere i nivelurile de satisfacie
i de implicare atunci cnd n organizaie se
nregistreaz un nivel ridicat de stres.
predictor al satisfaciei n munc.
predictor al implicrii n munc.
Identificarea predictorilor este semnificativ
pentru organizaie: se pot estima nivelurile de
satisfacie i de implicare dac se cunoate
nivelul de stres ocupaional. Acest aspect are
implicaii practice deosebite asupra demersurilor
de diagnoz i dezvoltare organizaional:
identificarea predictorilor indic elementele
asupra crora trebuie s se intervin pentru a
realiza schimbarea organizaional.
efect moderator n relaia dintre stresul
ocupaional i satisfacia n munc.
efect de moderare n relaia dintre stresul
ocupaional i implicarea n munc.
Identificarea efectelor de moderare este
important pentru a cunoate ce variabile (1)
intervin n relaia dintre variabila independent,
stres ocupaional i variabilele dependente,
satisfacie n munc i implicare n munc i (2)
afecteaz direcia i intensitatea relaiei dintre
cele dou tipuri de variabile. Dac ipoteza se
confirm, organizaiile vor avea o imagine
complet a elementelor care influeneaz relaia
dintre stres ocupaional i satisfacie, respectiv
implicare n munc. n plus, acest aspect are
consecine practice semnificative ce in de
formularea unor strategii de abordare a
angajailor n funcie de aceste date.
Obiectiv explorativ. Explorarea relaiilor
dintre subdimensiunile variabilelor stres
ocupaional, satisfacie n munc i
implicare n munc.
Metod
Participani
Cercetarea are la baz un eantion de
angajai din diferite medii organizaionale
romaneti. Acesta cuprinde un numr de N = 238
de angajai, cu urmtoarele caracteristici: 67 de
gen masculin (28.15%), 171 de gen feminin
(71.85%), 26 cu studii medii (10.92%), 109 cu
studii universitare (45.80%) i 103 cu studii postuniversitare (43.28%), cu experien n
organizaie de la 1 lun la 24 ani (M = 2.72, SD
= 3.407), cu vechime n munc de la 1 lun la 24
de ani (M = 7.05, SD = 5.312) i cu vrsta
cuprins ntre 19 i 47 de ani (M = 28.61, SD =
5.828, Me = 28). Participanii pot fi mprii n
patru categorii de vrst: 19-30 de ani (66.81%),
31-40 de ani (28.99%) i 41-47 de ani (4.20%).
Categoria de vrst cea mai bine reprezentat
este cea de 21-30, n timp ce n categoria de
vrst 41-47 de ani se ncadreaz cele mai puine
persoane.
n organizaiile n care s-a realizat
cercetarea, chestionarele au fost administrate att
personalului cu funcii de execuie, ct i
personalului cu funcii de conducere (majoritatea
manageri de nivel sczut sau mediu).
Participanii cu funcii de execuie reprezint
76.47% din eantionul total, n timp ce
participanii cu funcii manageriale constituie
23.53%.
Procedur
Aplicarea celor trei chestionare s-a realizat
n varianta creion-hrtie, fr limit de timp
pentru
completare,
ns
majoritatea
participanilor au terminat n 15-20 de minute.
Participanilor li s-a adus la cunotin scopul
cercetrii i caracterul voluntar i anonim al
participrii i s-a obinut de la acetia
consimmntul informat. Fiecare participant a
completat individual chestionarele fr a fi
asistat pe parcursul completrii i apoi a returnat
setul de chestionare ntr-un plic sigilat,
nesemnat, mpreun cu datele demografice:
vrst, gen, vechime n munc, vechime n
organizaie i tipul de funcie ocupat: de
conducere sau de execuie. Datele obinute au
fost prelucrate prin intermediul programului
statistic SPSS 19.
n momentul centralizrii rezultatelor,
chestionarele cu mai mult de 10 % rspunsuri
lips (2 chestionare) au fost integral eliminate.
Astfel, din cele 240 de seturi de chestionare
colectate, 238 au fost incluse n cercetare. Cele
cu mai puin de 10 % rspunsuri lips au fost

supuse unui tratament al datelor lips, astfel c
rspunsul care lipsea a fost nlocuit cu media
rspunsurilor pe aceeai subscal. n total au fost
nregistrate 88 de raspunsuri lips, care au fost
tratate n aceast manier.
Instrumente
Stres ocupaional. Pentru a msura nivelul

de stres din organizaii a fost utilizat Stress
Diagnostic Survey (SDS, Ivancevich &
Matteson, 1980). Chestionarul de msurare a
stresului ocupaional a fost, mai nti, tradus n
limba romn i apoi distribuit spre completare.
Scala de evaluare a stresului ocupaional,
format din 30 de itemi, descrie tensiunea pe
care o resimt angajaii i care este produs de
ambiguitatea rolului, conflictul de rol,
suprancrcarea
cantitativ
a
muncii,
suprancrcarea calitativ a muncii, preocuparea
(nelinitea) cauzat de dezvoltarea carierei i de
responsabilitatea pentru ceilali. Chestionarul
msoar frecvena acestor surse de stres (sau
stresori) prin intermediul a cte cinci itemi, pe o
scal Likert pe apte puncte. Participanii
cercetrii sunt solicitai s noteze 1 n dreptul
itemilor ce descriu o situaie care nu e niciodat
o surs de stres, pn la 7 pentru situaiile care
constituie ntotdeauna surse de stres. Valorile
coeficientului de fidelitate Cronbach Alpha
variaz ntre .68 i .85 pentru cele ase subscale
ale chestionarului, n timp ce pentru scala de
stres ocupaional Cronbach Alpha este .93.
Satisfacie n munc. Satisfacia n munc a
fost determinat cu ajutorul Chestionarului de
evaluare a satisfaciei n munc (Job Satisfaction
Survey, Spector, 1994), n traducere autorizat.
Acesta este alctuit din 36 de itemi care
evalueaz atitudinile cu privire la locul de
munc i anumite aspecte ale acestuia, prin
intermediul a nou subscale: satisfacia cu plata,
relaia cu colegii, natura muncii i comunicarea.
Fiecare dintre aceste faete este msurat prin
cte patru itemi. Pentru nousprezece itemi
scorurile trebuie inversate pentru a obine
rezultate adecvate. Msurarea se face pe baza
scalei Likert pe ase puncte: 1 dezacord
puternic, 2 dezacord moderat, 3 uor
dezacord, 4 uor acord, 5 acord moderat i 6
acord puternic. n ceea ce privete consistena
intern, valorile coeficientului Cronbach Alpha
pentru subscalele satisfaciei n munc sunt
39
urmtoarele: .75 satisfacia cu plata, .73

satisfacia cu promovarea, .82 satisfacia cu
supervizarea, .73 satisfacia cu beneficiile
conexe, .76 satisfacia cu recunoaterea
muncii, .62 satisfacia cu condiiile de munc,
.60 satisfacia privind relaia cu colegii, .78
satisfacia cu natura muncii, .71 satisfacia cu
comunicarea. Subscalele satisfacia cu condiiile
de munc i relaia cu colegii se situeaz sub
standardul minim acceptat pentru consistena
intern i anume .70. Pentru scala global a
satisfaciei n munc coeficientul Cronbach
Alpha este .91.
Implicare n munc. Implicarea n munc a
fost msurat prin intermediul Scalei Utrecht de
msurare a implicrii n munc (Utrecht Work
Engagement Scale, Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004),
varianta complet de aptesprezece itemi, pentru
care exist, de asemenea, o traducere autorizat.
Scala Utrecht de msurare a implicrii n munc
UWES-17 vizeaz cele trei dimensiuni
constitutive ale constructului: vigoarea (VI),
dedicarea (DE) i absorbirea (AB). Dedicarea
este determinat prin cinci itemi, n timp ce
celelalte dou subscale sunt formate din ase
itemi fiecare. Participanii din cadrul cercetrilor
care se bazeaz pe acest chestionar sunt rugai s
citeasc cu atenie fiecare afirmaie i s decid
dac au avut vreodat sentimentele descrise fa
de locul de munc. Itemii sunt scorai pe o scal
de frecven Likert pe apte puncte, de la 0
(niciodat), asociat cu lipsa tririi sentimentului
descris, pn la 6 (ntotdeauna). Valorile
coeficientului Cronbach Alpha pentru cele trei
subscale sunt: .83 vigoare, .92 dedicare i .82
absorbire.
Rezultate
Corelaii
Datele statistice evideniaz existena unor
corelaii negative, moderate (n intervalul .30
.70) i sczute (sub .30) ntre satisfacia n munc
i stresul ocupaional. Implicarea n munc
prezint, de asemenea, corelaii negative,
moderate i mici cu variabila independent. Spre
deosebire de corelaiile stresului cu satisfacia n
munc, cele dintre stres i implicare sunt
preponderent mai mici i au un nivel de
semnificaie mai sczut. Intercorelaiile dintre
aceste variabile msurate n studiu sunt
prezentate n Tabelul 1.
Astfel, ambiguitatea rolului coreleaz
negativ, moderat cu satisfacia cu supervizarea
(r = -.45), beneficiile conexe (r = -.32),
40
recunoaterea muncii (r = -.40), relaia cu colegii

(r = -.39), natura muncii (r = -.41) i
comunicarea (r = -.59), la un nivel de
semnificaie p < .001. Corelaiile sunt mici ntre
variabila independent i satisfacia cu plata,
promovarea i condiiile de munc. n ceea ce
privete implicarea, corelaiile sunt sczute ntre
ambiguitatea rolului i vigoare (r = -.26, p <
.001), respectiv absorbire (r = -.20, p < .01) i
moderate ntre ambiguitatea rolului i dedicare (r
= -.32, p < .001).
Conflictul de rol coreleaz negativ, moderat
cu dedicarea (r = -.33, p < .001). Corelaiile
sursei de stres sunt sczute fa de vigoare (r = .26, p < .001) i absorbire (r = -.20, p < .01).
Corelaiile sunt moderate ntre conflict de rol i
satisfacia cu plata (r = -.34), supervizarea (r = .46, p < .001), beneficiile conexe (r = -.39, p <
.001), recunoaterea muncii (r = -.42, p < .001),
relaia cu colegii (r = -,47, p < .001), natura
muncii (r = -.41, p < .001) i comunicarea (r = .64, p < .001) i mici ntre sursa de stres i
satisfacia cu promovarea (r = -.26, p < .001) i
condiiile de munc (r = -.29, p < .001).
Corelaiile dintre suprancrcarea cantitativ
a muncii i satisfacia n munc sunt mici,
moderate i semnificative. Cele dintre sursa de
stres i vigoare, respectiv dedicare sunt mai
sczute, n timp ce absorbirea nu coreleaz deloc
cu suprancrcarea cantitativ a muncii (r = -.10,
p >.05).
n ceea ce privete responsabilitatea pentru
ceilali, aceasta coreleaz doar cu satisfacia cu
supervizarea (r = -.24, p < .001), relaia cu
colegii (r = -.28, p < .001) i comunicarea (r = .30, p < .001). Datele statistice arat c
responsabilitatea
pentru
ceilali
i
suprancrcarea calitativ a muncii nu coreleaz
cu implicarea.
Analiza de regresie
Pentru a evidenia efectul predictiv al
subscalelor stresului ocupaional a fost realizat
o analiz de regresie liniar simpl pentru fiecare
variabil criteriu. n cadrul analizei de regresie,
variabila dependent a fost reprezentat de cte o
subscal a satisfaciei n munc (satisfacia cu
plata, promovarea, supervizarea, beneficiile
conexe, recunoaterea muncii, condiiile de
munc, relaia cu colegii, natura muncii i
comunicarea), respectiv a implicrii n munc
(vigoare, dedicare i absorbire). Variabilele
independente au fost n pasul unu: variabilele
demografice ale eantionului: vrst, gen, nivel
de educaie, vechime n munc, vechime n

organizaie i nivel organizaional (funcie de
conducere sau de execuie), iar n pasul doi:
sursele de stres ocupaional ambiguitate de rol,
conflict de rol, suprancrcare cantitativ,
suprancrcare calitativ, dezvoltarea carierei i

responsabilitatea pentru ceilali. Aadar, pentru
analiza de regresie liniar simpl au fost testate
dou modele. Rezultatele obinute se regsesc n
Tabelul 2.
Tabelul 1. Intercorelaiile dintre variabile

Corelaii
VARIABILA 1
1. Ambiguitatea
rolului
2. Conflictul de
rol
3. Suprancrcarea
cantitativ
4.
Suprancrcarea
calitativ
5. Dezvoltarea
carierei
6. Responsabilitatea pentru
ceilali
7. Plata
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
.480** .615** .544** .574** .641** .556** .578** .427** .384** .482** .587** .532** .587** .280** -.236** -.336** -.358** -.180** -.271** -.045
**
9. Supervizarea -.452
17. Dedicarea
.765** -
8. Promovarea -.143* -.255** -.202** -.084
10. Beneficiile
conexe
11. Recunoaterea
muncii
12. Condiiile
de munc
13. Relaia cu
colegii
14. Natura
muncii
15.
Comunicarea
16. Vigoarea
**
-.318
-.455
**
-.394
**
**
-.429
**
-.267
**
-.314
-.134
-.417** .067
.473** -
-.394
**
**
-.242
.409** .373** -
-.326
**
-.065
.655** .468** .408** -
-.402** -.423** -.399** -.288** -.336** -.088
.625** .466** .684** .628** -
-.261** -.294** -.372** -.242** -.185** -.034
.208** .221** .276** .280** .452** -
-.393** -.472** -.521** -.353** -.432** -.275** .295** .232** .612** .281** .517** .386** -.406** -.406** -.359** -.196** -.364** -.098
.279** .209** .589** .322** .482** .330** .595** -
-.588** -.644** -.523** -.400** -.564** -.301** .344** .337** .617** .416** .578** .397** .600** .583** -.255** -.263** -.155* -.111
**
-.324
-.329
**
**
-.397** .029
**
-.185
-.038
-.514
.003
18. Absorbirea -.203** -.211** -.097
-.010
-.339** -.073
.176** .249** .316** .346** .384** .278** .245** .351** .323** .252** .280** .278** .335** .360** .295** .236** .365** .397** .739** .160* .168** .220** .291** .259** .218** .120
.210** .254** .708** .687** -
Nota: * p < .05, ** p < .01.
Datele statistice arat c ambele modele

introduse n analiza de regresie liniar sunt
viabile pentru variabilele criteriu. De exemplu, n
ceea ce privete satisfacia cu recunoaterea
muncii, pentru primul model, F (6, 231) = 6.68,
p < .001. Acesta descrie 15% din variana
variabilei
dependente,
satisfacia
cu
recunoaterea muncii: R2 = .15. Variabilele cu
valoare predictiv sunt vrsta (corelat negativ:
= - 2.18, p < .05), genul (corelat pozitiv: =
4.02, p < .001) i nivelul educaional (corelat
negativ: = - 4.12, p < .001). Coeficienii
asociai acestor variabile independente arat c
angajaii mai tineri, cei de gen feminin i cei fr

studii superioare sunt mai satisfcui de modul n
care este apreciat munca n organizaie. n cazul
celui de-al doilea model alctuit din sursele de
stres ocupaional, F (12, 225) = 9.82, p < .001.
Modelul descrie 34% din variana satisfaciei cu
recunoaterea muncii: R2 = .34. Predictorii care
contribuie la estimarea corect a satisfaciei cu
recunoaterea muncii sunt genul (corelat pozitiv:
= 2.29, p < .05), nivelul de educaie (corelat
negativ: = - 3.00, p < .01), ambiguitatea rolului
(corelat negativ: = - 2.21, p < .05),
suprancrcarea cantitativ (corelat negativ:
41
= - 3.49, p < .01) i responsabilitatea pentru

ceilali (corelat pozitiv: = 3.75, p < .001).
Datele statistice indic o satisfacie sczut a
angajailor fa de recunoaterea muncii n
situaiile n care exist un nivel crescut de stres
generat de asumarea unor roluri neclare i de un
volum prea mare de lucru. Valoarile
coeficientului al variabilei responsabilitatea
pentru ceilali denot c angajaii cu un nivel
ridicat de stres cauzat de responsabilitatea pentru
ceilali vor resimi o satisfacie mai mare legat

de felul n care este recunoscut munca lor. Prin
urmare, stresul determinat de asumarea
responsabilitii pentru ceilali favorizeaz
satisfacia angajailor fa de recompensele nonfinanciare ale muncii pn la un anumit nivel
optim. Dac nivelul de stres depete acest
prag, satisfacia cu recunoaterea muncii va urma
o curb descendent.
Tabelul 2. Rezultatele analizei de regresie liniar

Satisfacia cu plata
Satisfacia cu beneficiile conexe
Satisfacia recunoaterea muncii
Satisfacia cu condiiile de munc
42
Vrsta
Genul
Nivelul educaional
Vrsta
Genul
Nivelul educaional
-.45**
.24***
-.25***
-.16**
-.37*
.14*
-.19**
-.13*
-.30***
.20*
R2
.19***
Vrsta
Nivelul educaional
Conflictul de rol
-.36*
-.16*
-.13*
.19*
-.28*
-.39***
.27**
.08**
Genul
Nivelul educaional
.17**
-.19**
-.24*
-.27**
-.15*
Genul
Nivelul educaional
Nivelul educaional
Conflictul de rol
-.18**
-.23***
-.15*
-.33**
.18*
Vrsta
Genul
Nivelul educaional
Genul
Nivelul educaional
-.38*
.25***
-.25***
.13*
-.17**
-.20*
-.27**
.29***
.15***
Vrsta
Genul
Nivelul educaional
Vechimea n munc
Vrsta
Genul
Vechimea n munc
-.50**
.23***
-.12*
.53**
-.16**
-.39*
.13*
.46**
-.14*
-.36***
.26**
.13***
.30***
.29***
.07*
.30***
.10**
.26***
.34***
.28***
Satisfacia cu relaia cu colegii
Satisfacia cu natura muncii
Satisfacia cu comunicarea
Dedicarea
Absorbirea
Not:
Genul
.18**
-.34***
-.24***
-.39***
-.17*
.11***
Genul
Nivelul educaional
Vrsta
.20**
-.14*
.44**
-.27**
-.29***
.25**
.07**
Genul
Nivelul educaional
Conflictul de rol
.14*
-.18**
-.20*
-.35***
-.24***
-.22***
.15*
.08**
Genul
Genul
.20**
-.21**
-.13*
.13*
-.15*
.26**
-.46***
.17*
.08**
Genul
Genul
.29***
.29***
.21*
-.40***
.09**
.23***
.38***
Deleted: ,
.32***
.53***
.38***

* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
Analiza de moderare
Pentru a avea o imagine complex asupra
rezultatelor obinute, se impune examinarea
rolului moderator pe care l au variabilele
demografice asupra relaiei dintre stres i
satisfacie, respectiv implicare. Pentru a pune n
lumin acest efect de moderare a fost efectuat
cte o analiz de regresie pentru fiecare variabil
dependent. n cadrul analizei de regresie,
variabila criteriu a constat n cte o subscal a
satisfaciei n munc (satisfacia cu plata,
relaia cu colegii, natura muncii i comunicarea),
respectiv a implicrii n munc (vigoare,
dedicare i absorbire). Variabilele independente
au fost reprezentate n pasul unu de cte o surs a
stresului ocupaional (ambiguitate de rol, conflict
de rol, suprancrcare cantitativ, suprancrcare
calitativ,
dezvoltarea
carierei
i
responsabilitatea pentru ceilali) i de cte o
variabil demografic (vrst, gen, nivel de
educaie, vechime n munc, vechime n

organizaie, nivel organizaional: funcie de
conducere sau de execuie), iar n pasul doi de
interaciunea (produsul) dintre sursa respectiv
de stres i variabila demografic. Prin urmare,
pentru analiza de moderare, realizat prin
regresie, au fost supuse testrii dou modele.
Datele statistice arat c exist 24 de situaii
n care apare efectul de moderare. Rezultatele
analizei de moderare sunt prezentate n
Tabelul 3. pentru fiecare dintre aceste situaii. Nu
au fost obinute efecte de moderare pentru
satisfactia cu plata si comunicarea. De asemenea,
nivelul organizational nu are efect moderator.
dependent (vigoare) i variabilele independente
(dezvoltarea carierei i gen) are validitate. Al
doilea model, cel care nfieaz produsul dintre
sursa de stres (dezvoltarea carierei) i variabila
demografic (gen) semnaleaz existena
efectului moderator: ( = -1.155, p < .001).
Introducerea
produsului dintre variabila
43

2
plus explicativ: R = .064, F (1, 234) = 19.821,
p < .001.
dependent (satisfacia cu natura muncii) i
variabilele
independente
(suprancrcare
calitativ i vechime n munc) este valid; iar
modelul care nfieaz interaciunea dintre
sursa de stres (suprancrcare calitativ) i

variabila demografic (vechime n munc) indic
prezena efectului de moderare: ( = -.514, p <
.01). Introducerea produsului dintre variabila
plus explicativ: R2 = .027, F (1, 234) = 6.875, p
< .01.
Tabelul 3. Rezultatele analizei de moderare
Ambiguitatea rolului x Vechimea n organizaie
R2
R2 (adj.)
Suprancrcarea cantitativ x Vechimea n organizaie
R2
R2 (adj.)
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
Nivelul educaional
R2
R2 (adj.)
Genul
R2
R2 (adj.)
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

Nivelul educaional
Responsabilitatea pentru ceilali x Nivelul educaional
R2
R2 (adj.)
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
Nivelul educaional
R2
R2 (adj.)
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
44
Pas 1
Pas 2
-.13
-.27
-.07
-.44
.44*
.03
.02*
.04*
-.19
-.06
.04**
-.29
-.49
.48*
.02
.05*
Pas 1
Pas 2
-.43
-.91
-.11
-.41
.61*
.01
.21***
.22*
-.39
.13
.16***
-.88
-.16
.57*
.02
.08*
Satisfacia cu beneficiile
conexe
Pas 1
Pas 2
-.04
.49
-.22
-.08
.65*
.02
.04**
.06*
Satisfacia cu
recunoaterea muncii
Pas 1
Pas 2
-.37
-.95
-.19
-.54
.74*
.02
.19***
.21*
Vechimea n munc
Suprancrcare calitativ x Vechimea n munc
R2
R2 (adj.)
Vechimea n munc
R2
R2 (adj.)
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

Vrsta
Responsabilitatea pentru ceilali x Vrsta
R2
R2 (adj.)
Vechimea n munc
Responsabilitatea pentru ceilali x Vechimea n
munc
R2
R2 (adj.)
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
Vrsta
Suprancrcarea calitativ x Vrsta
R2
R2 (adj.)
Genul
Suprancrcarea calitativ x Genul
R2
R2 (adj.)
Vechimea n munc
Suprancrcarea calitativ x Vechimea n munc
R2
R2 (adj.)
Satisfacia cu condiiile de
munc
Pas 1
Pas 2
-.25
-.08
.07
.41
-.41*
.02
.06***
.07*
-.21
.10
.04*
.04
.56
-.59**
.03
.07*
Satisfacia cu relaia cu
colegii
Pas 1
Pas 2
-.27
.39
-.06
.21
-.73*
.02
.07***
.08*
-.27
-.05
.07*
-.09
.23
-.36*
.02
.08*
Satisfacia cu natura
muncii
Pas 1
Pas 2
-.20
.44
.05
.41
-.76*
.02
.03**
.05*
-.18
.15
.05**
-.20
.01
.03*
.41
.58
-.71*
.02
.07*
.01
.44
-.51**
.03
.05*
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
45
Conflictul de rol
Vrsta
Conflictul de rol x Vrsta
R2
R2 (adj.)
Vrsta
R2
R2 (adj.)
-.40
.00
.15***
Genul
Ambiguitatea rolului x Genul
R2
R2 (adj.)
-.24
.12
Conflictul de rol
Genul
Conflictul de rol x Genul
R2
R2 (adj.)
-.24
.09
Genul
Suprancrcarea cantitativ x Genul
R2
R2 (adj.)
Genul
R2
R2 (adj.)
Conflictul de rol
Vechimea n munc
Conflictul de rol x Vechimea n munc
R2
R2 (adj.)
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
Vrsta
R2
R2 (adj.)
Genul
R2
R2 (adj.)
Vechimea n munc
R2
R2 (adj.)
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
46
Vigoarea
Pas 2
.42
.22
.78*
.02
.06***
.08*
Pas 1
-.26
-.04
.07***
.07***
-.13
.13
.03**
-.39
.14
.17***
-.25
-.07
.07***
.27
.32
-.81*
.01
.16*
.66
.70
-1.01**
.04
.11**
-.36
.47
-.64*
.02
.09*
-.64
.68
-.88**
.04
.06**
.60
.72
-1.16***
.06
.23***
-.04
.24
-.43*
.02
.09*
Dedicarea
Pas 2
.11
.36
-.76*
.01
.26***
.27*
Pas 1
-.53
.06
-.51
.13
.27*
-.53
.06
.26***
-.05
.39
-.53*
.01
.29*
-.35
.39
-.43*
.02
.28*
Absorbirea
Pas 2
.19
.56
-.60*
.02
.08***
.09*
Pas 1
-.33
.26
Genul
R2
R2 (adj.)
Not:
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
Discuii
Obiectivul principal al acestui studiu a fost
examinarea relaiei dintre sursele de stres
ocupaional i variabilele dependente, satisfacia
i implicarea n munc, identificarea corelaiilor
dintre variabile, a predictorilor i a efectelor de
moderare. Rezultatele cercetrii au artat c, att
corelaiile dintre stres i satisfacie, ct i cele
dintre stres i implicare sunt negative, moderate
i sczute, ceea ce nseamn c de fiecare dat
cnd nivelul de stres crete, satisfacia i
implicarea tind s scad. De asemenea, sursele
de stres constituie predictori ai satisfaciei n
munc i ai implicrii n munc. Nu n ultimul
rnd, variabilele demografice au efect moderator
mai degrab asupra satisfaciei dect asupra
implicrii.
Datele statistice obinute confirm, n unele
cazuri, cercetrile pe baza crora s-a ntemeiat
studiul de fa. De cele mai multe ori ns,
rezultatele difer, fie n ceea ce privete
intervalele n care se ncadreaz valorile
indicatorilor pentru corelaii, fie cnd vine vorba
despre predictorii care exercit un rol moderator
asupra relaiei dintre variabile. Din aceast
perspectiv, lucrarea de fa confirm i
actualizeaz informaiile existente n literatura de
specialitate. n continuare, este detaliat o
prezentare mai nuanat a acestor aseriuni.
Astfel, aa cu arat cercetarea lui Mikkelsen
(2000), stresul ocupaional prezint corelaii
negative semnificative cu satisfacia n munc i
cu implicarea n munc. Totui, corelaiile
obinute n aceast lucrare sunt mai ridicate dect
cele ale cercettorilor. La nivel global, dac
nivelul de stres ocupaional crete, atunci
satisfacia i implicarea se diminueaz ntr-o mai
mare proporie.
Dup cum arat i Glisson (1988), corelaiile
dintre ambiguitatea rolului i satisfacia n munc
sunt negative i semnificative. Totui, din
rezultatele cercetrii de fa reiese c aceast
surs de stres nu coreleaz cu satisfacia att de

puternic precum demonstreaz cercettorii mai
sus menionai. Dimpotriv, corelaiile dintre
ambiguitatea rolului i satisfacia cu plata,
promovarea i condiiile de munc se ncadreaz
n intervalul specific corelaiilor mici. Corelaiile
dintre ambiguitatea rolului i implicare sunt, de
asemenea, mai sczute fa de cele identificate de
Glisson (1988). Acest aspect implic o scdere
mai lent a satisfaciei i a implicrii n condiiile
n care ambiguitatea rolului devine mai
pregnant.
conflictul de rol prezint corelaii mai sczute cu
implicarea n munc. n plus, potrivit datelor
statistice, dintre toate sursele de stres, conflictul
de rol coreleaz cel mai bine cu scalele
satisfaciei n munc. Cea mai mare corelaie n
raport cu dimensiunile satisfaciei n munc s-a
nregistrat ntre subscala conflict de rol i
satisfacia cu comunicarea (r = -.64, p < .001).
Aceast corelaie se apropie de limita superioar
a intervalului caracteristic corelaiilor moderate,
ceea ce nseamn c un nivel ridicat de stres
ocupaional generat de roluri conflictuale
condiioneaz puternic scderea satisfaciei cu
comunicarea din organizaie.
Cercetarea de fa confirm parial
concluziile
legate
de corelaia
dintre
suprancrcarea cantitativ a muncii i
implicarea n munc (Curry, 1986). Corelaiile
sunt sczute (r = -.16, p < .05 pentru vigoare i r
= -.19, p < .01 pentru dedicare), aadar, dac
volumul de munc este mare, vigoarea i nivelul
de dedicare scad ntr-un procent destul de mic.
Absorbirea, ntr-adevr nu coreleaz cu variabila
independent, prin urmare nu exist nicio relaie
ntre cele dou.
Responsabilitatea pentru ceilali are un
impact nesemnificativ asupra satisfaciei
angajailor n munc. Excepie face doar
satisfacia cu supervizarea, relaia cu colegii i
comunicarea, variabile cu care se relaioneaz
47
destul de slab. ntre responsabilitatea pentru

ceilali i implicarea n munc nu exist corelaii
semnificative.
Dezvoltarea carierei coreleaz slab i
moderat cu satisfacia n munc i cu implicarea
n munc. Atunci cnd stresul provocat de lipsa
posibilitilor de evoluie profesional scade,
satisfacia i implicarea cresc.
Corelaiile slabe i moderate dintre
suprancrcarea calitativ a muncii i satisfacia n
munc sugereaz c dac angajaii nregistreaz
niveluri ridicate de stres cauzat de realizarea unor
activiti prea solicitante, atunci satisfacia
acestora scade. Din contr, lipsa corelaiilor dintre
suprancrcarea calitativ a muncii i implicare
arat c implicarea se menine la acelai nivel,
indiferent de dificultatea muncii depuse.
Rezultatele privind variabilele cu valoare de
predicie arat c stresul ocupaional este
predictor pentru satisfacia n munc i
implicarea n munc. Variabilele demografice
incluse n analiza de regresie liniar au valoare
predictiv pentru satisfacia n munc. Pentru
implicare, doar genul i vechimea n organizaie
sunt predictive.
Rezultatele analizei de regresie liniar
confirm concluziile studiului Mikkelsen (2000)
potrivit crora un procent semnificativ din
variana satisfaciei n munc i a implicrii este
explicat de stresul ocupaional. Pentru implicarea
n munc, procentul este mai mic, aa cum
afirm i cercettorii moderni. Prin urmare,
stresul este un predictor mai puternic pentru
satisfacie dect pentru implicare.
ambiguitatea rolului i conflictul de rol nu
reprezint predictori pentru implicare. Acetia nu
influeneaz gradul de implicare al angajailor.
De asemenea, concluziile studiului amintit difer
de cele ale prezentei cercetri, de vreme ce
conflictul de rol are valoare predictiv asupra
satisfaciei astfel nct poate determina nivelul
variabilei dependente. n acord cu studiul amintit,
ambiguitatea rolului reprezint un predictor
negativ puternic pentru pentru satisfacie.
Aa cum arat Curry (1986), suprancrcarea cantitativ a muncii este un predictor
puternic al satisfaciei. Volumul de lucru al
angajailor are un impact puternic asupra
nivelului de asatisfacie al acestora.
Cercetarea de fa analizeaz i stresorii
suprancrcarea
calitativ
a
muncii,
responsabilitatea pentru ceilali i dezvoltarea
carierei, pe lng sursele de stres menionate
48
anterior. Datele statistice arat c acetia sunt

predictori puternici ai implicrii n munc. Pe de
o parte, un nivel ridicat de stres provocat de lipsa
posibilitilor de dezvoltare a vieii profesionale
va genera scderea implicrii n munc. Pe de
alt parte, creterea gradului de tensiune
provocat de asumarea responsabilitii pentru
munca celorlali i de realizarea unor sarcini care
depesc nivelul de pregtire aduc cu sine
creterea gradului de implicare pn la un punct,
dincolo de care, dac sursele de stres se
intensific, implicarea n munc scade.
n ce privete variabilele demografice,
vrsta nu este un predictor al implicrii aa cum
arat Glisson (1988). De asemenea, vechimea n
organizaie (corelat negativ) este predictor doar
pentru dedicare, una dintre cele trei dimensiuni
ale acestei variabile criteriu. Astfel, vechimea n
organizaie influeneaz gradul de implicare al
angajailor n munc. Din cercetarea de fa
rezult c genul este predictor pentru toate cele
trei subscale ale implicrii. Mai precis, angajaii
de gen feminin triesc mai frecvent un sentiment
de mplinire n contextul muncii.
Rezultatele referitoare la efectul de
moderare sugereaz c relaia dintre stres i
satisfacie, respectiv implicare n munc trebuie
privit n integralitatea sa, pe ct posibil. n acest
sens, efectul de moderare al variabilelor
demografice faciliteaz interpretarea datelor cu
mai mare acuratee. Dintre toate situaiile
identificate, este interesant c numai genul are
rol moderator n relaia dintre sursele de stres i
cele trei subscale ale implicrii n munc, n timp
ce vrsta i vechimea n munc exercit un efect
de moderare doar n relaia dintre stres i
vigoare, respectiv dedicare.
Aadar, cercetarea arat c influena
stresului ocupaional asupra nivelului de
satisfacie i de implicare din organizaii trebuie
privit cu pruden deoarece aceasta nu mai are
amploarea demonstrat cu ctiva ani n urm.
Intensitatea consecinelor stresului ocupaional
asupea atitudinilor pozitive din organizaie
precum cele de satisfacie i implicare n munc
este mai redus.
Limite i concluzii
Cercetarea de fa prezint anumite limite
referitoare la instrumentele utilizate i la
eantionare.
Un prim neajuns este legat de chestionarul
de evaluare a stresului ocupaional, pentru care
nu s-a realizat o traducere dup metode deja

consacrate, n diade de psihologi, prin aplicarea
retroversiunii asupra chestionarului tradus din
limba englez. Practica cea mai uzitat cere ca
doi psihologi s traduc chestionarul din limba
englez n limba romn i ali doi s asigure
retroversiunea. Itemii din limba englez obinui
n aceast etap trebuie comparai cu itemii
chestionarului iniial. Dac cele dou versiuni
corespund atunci versiunea n limba romn este
considerat ca adecvat instrumentului original.
Un alt dezavantaj este lipsa unor demersuri
de adaptare a chestionarului la populaia
romneasc, astfel c nu exist date despre
fidelitatea i validitatea chestionarului pentru
Romnia. n plus, nu a fost realizat o analiz
factorial confirmatorie pentru a verifica
ipotezele deja validate de Ivancevich (1980).
De asemenea, trebuie remarcat c
chestionarul Stress Diagnostic Survey nu
evalueaz i severitatea perceput a stresului
(intensitatea)
i
semnificaia
atribuite
evenimentelor stresante, ci doar frecvena de
apariie a unei situaii tensionate n activitatea
angajailor. Ar fi necesar s se msoare i aceast
dimensiune de vreme ce severitatea stresului
reprezint o realitate care ar avea o influen
considerabil asupra rezultatelor cercetrii.
Concluziile studiilor realizate cu Scala
Utrecht de msurare a implicrii n munc pe
populaia romneasc recomand utilizarea
variantei scurte de 9 itemi, care e mai potrivit
pentru diagnoz n organizaiile romneti. De
aceea, o direcie pentru cercetri viitoare este i
testarea corelaiilor i realizarea unor analize de
regresie i de moderare cu rezultatele obinute ca
urmare a utilizrii variantei UWES-9.
n ceea ce privete eantionul, acesta
prezint o anumit disproporie ntre nivelurile
de management (23.53% dintre participani) i
cele de execuie (76.47% dintre participani).
Totui, aceast discrepan este uzual la nivel
organizaional, unde managementul reprezint
un procent mic n comparaie cu angajaii fr
funcii de conducere.
O alt limit legat de lotul de participani
este aceea c numrul de participani de gen
feminin este semnificativ mai mare (71.85%).
De asemenea, nu exist o distribuie echilibrat
nici pe categoriile de vrst. Cea mai mare parte
a participanilor se ncadreaz n categoria de
vrst 19-30 (66.81%), n defavoarea celorlalte
dou categorii. Acest fapt a rezultat din lipsa
unei selecii mai riguroase a participanilor la
cercetare astfel nct s reias un eantion

controlat pe variabilele gen i vrst.
Un alt aspect care impune interpretarea
rezultatelor cu pruden este sectorul din care au
fost obinute datele. Pentru aceast cercetare,
aplicrile au fost colectate doar din organizaii
din mediul privat. De aceea, pentru a surprinde
mai adecvat corelaiile dintre variabile,
predictorii satisfaciei n munc i efectul de
moderare al datelor demografice, ar trebui s fie
inclus n cercetare un lot (similar ca mrime) de
participani angajai n organizaii din mediul
public.
Cercetri viitoare ar trebui s in cont de
aceste limite astfel nct rezultatele obinute s
aib o relevan sporit pentru tiin.
n pofida limitelor studiului, rezultatele
raportate constituie un reper important pentru
realizarea unor cercetri mai aprofundate pe
populaia romneasc, pentru a contura cu mai
mare precizie relaia dintre stresul ocupaional,
satisfacia n munc i implicarea n munc.
Cercetarea de fa surprinde stadiul actual al
relaiilor dintre stres, satisfacie i implicare i
gradul de influen pe care l exercit variabilele
independente.
Referine
Cartwright, S. & Cooper, C. L. (1997), Managing
Workplace Stress, Thousand Oaks: SAGE
Publications.
Curry, J. P.; Wakefield D. S.; Price J. L. & Mueller C.
W. (1986), The Causal Ordering of Job
Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment,
Academy of Management Journal, 29, 847-858.
Glisson, C. & Durick, M. (1988), Predictors of Job
Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment in
Human
Service
Organizations,
Public
Administration Quarterly, 33, 61-81.
Jones, F. & Bright, J. (2001), Stress. Myth, Theory and
Research, Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Lazarus, R. S. (2006), Stress and Emotion: a New
Synthesis, New York: Springer Publishing
Company.
Lazarus, R. S. & Folkman, S. (1998), Stress, Appraisal
and Coping, New York: Springer Publishing
Company.
Mikkelsen, A.; Ogaard, T. & Lovrich, N. (2000),
Modeling the Effects of Organizational Setting
and Individual Coping Style on Employees
Subjective Health, Job Satisfaction and
Commitment, Public Administration Quarterly,
24, 371-398.
Snyder, C. R. (2001), Coping with Stress: Effective
People and Processes, New York: Oxford
University Press.
49
Spector, P. E. (1997), Job Satisfaction: Application,

Assessment, Cause, and Consequences, Thousand
Oaks: SAGE Publications.
Stamatios, A.; Antoniou, G. & Cooper, C. L. (2005),
Research Companion to Organizational Health
Psychology,
Cheltenham:
Edward
Elgar
Publishing Limited.
Schaufeli, W. & Bakker, A., (2004), UWES Utrecht
Work Engagement Scale. Preliminary Manual, 160;
retrieved
from
50
http://www.fss.uu.nl/sop/Schaufeli/Test%20Manu
als/Test_manual_UWES_English.pdf
Vrg, D; Zaboril, C; Sulea, C. i Maricuoiu, L.
(2009), Adaptarea n limba romn a Scalei
examinarea validitii i a fidelitii, Psihologia
Resurselor Umane, 7, 58-74.
Rolul resurselor personale n starea de bine a angajailor: implicarea n munc

i epuizarea profesional
Delia Vrg1, Diana Miruna Pascu, Mdlina Mioc, Isabela Elena Dragu,
Andrei epe-Onea, Emma Petruc
Abstract
The study is based on the extended Job Demands-Resources model and Self-Determination Theory to identify
the role of personal resources. The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of self-efficiency and
psychological needs in relationship with work engagement and burnout. Data was collected using an evidence type
questionnaire applied to a sample of 221 employees of a production company (82.1% women). The hypotheses
were tested by conducting a multiple hierarchical regression analysis. Results show that personal resources help to
explain the involvement in work (vigor, dedication and absorption) and professional burnout (exhaustion and
depersonalization). Thus, self-efficacy is positively associated with work engagement and burnout as well as their
dimensions; the need for autonomy and competence contribute to work engagement and burnout. The findings
highlight the importance of employee personal resources in adapting to the organizational dynamic.
Keywords: personal resources, self-efficiency, psychological needs, involvement in work, burnout
Rsum
L'tude est base sur les emplois-ressources des exigences modles et thorie de l'autodtermination pour
identifier le rle des ressources personnelles. Le but de cette tude est d'examiner le rle de l'auto-efficacit
besoins et psychologique en relation avec l'engagement de travail et l'puisement professionnel. Les donnes ont
t recueillies l'aide d'un questionnaire applique un chantillon de 221 employs d'une socit de production
(82,1% de femmes). Les hypothses ont t testes par une analyse de rgression multiple hirarchique. Les
rsultats montrent que les ressources personnelles contribuent expliquer l'implication dans le travail (vigueur,
le dvouement et l'absorption) et l'puisement professionnel (puisement et la dpersonnalisation). Ainsi, l'autoefficacit est associe positivement l'engagement de travail et l'puisement professionnel ainsi que leurs
dimensions, le besoin d'autonomie et de comptence contribu l'laboration d'engagement et d'puisement. Les
rsultats mettent en vidence l'importance de ses ressources personnelles des salaris s'adapter la dynamique
organisationnelle.
Mots-cls: les ressources personnelles, l'auto-efficacit, les besoins psychologiques, l'implication dans le
travail, l'puisement professionnel
Rezumat
Studiul se bazeaz pe modelul extins al Solicitrilor-Resurselor Postului i teoria autoderminrii n
identificarea rolului resurselor personale. Scopul acestui studiu este de a investiga rolul auto-eficienei i a
nevoilor psihologice n relaionarea cu implicarea n munc i cu epuizarea profesional. Pentru colectarea
datelor s-au folosit probe de tip chestionar aplicate pe un eantion de 221 angajai ai unei companii cu activitate
de producie (82.1% femei). Verificarea ipotezelor s-a realizat prin regresie ierarhic multiliniar. Rezultatele
relev c resursele personale contribuie la explicarea implicrii n munc (vigoare, dedicare i absorbie) i a
epuzrii profesionale (epuizare i depersonalizare). Astfel c, auto-eficiena este asociat pozitiv cu implicarea n
munc i epuizarea profesional, precum i dimensiunile acestora; iar nevoia de autonomie i de competen
aduc o contribuie suplimentar la implicarea n munc i epuizarea profesional. Descoperirile studiului pun n
lumin importana resurselor personale ale angajatului n adaptarea acestuia la dinamica organizaiei.
Cuvinte cheie: resurse personale, auto-eficien, nevoi personale, implicare n munc, epuizare
profesional
1

Adresa de coresponden: dvirga@socio.uvt.ro
51
Introducere
Organizaiile
ncearc
mereu
s
mbunteasc performana angajailor. De
curnd, conductorii organizaiilor i-au dat
seama c doar mbuntind i calitatea vieii
angajailor pot contribui cu adevrat la
performan, respectiv la succesul organizaiei.
De-a lungul timpului, interveniile ce vizeaz
mbuntirea strii de bine a angajailor au intit,
n special, modificarea postului sau a condiiilor
de munc, dar rezultatele nu au fost pe msura
ateptrilor. Astfel, n cercetrile recente, atenia
cercettorilor s-a concentrat pe ocupantul
postului i pe atributele sale personale, a cror
modificare l pot ajuta n configurarea strii de
bine la locul de munc.
Starea de bine la locul de munc este
interpretat, n acest studiu, ca fiind o
funcionare optim a angajailor, ce se manifest
prin implicare mai mare n munc i un nivele
mai sczut de epuizare.
Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner i Schaufeli
(2001) au propus un model explicativ al relaiilor
ce se stabilesc ntre solicitrile postului, resursele
pe care le ofer acesta i starea de bine a
angajatului (operaionalizat prin implicare n
munc, respectiv epuizare profesional), i
anume, modelul Solicitri - Resurse ale Postului
(engl. Job Demands - Resources JD-R). Astfel,
la locul de munc ntlnim dou categorii de
elemente: solicitrile i resursele postului. Prima
categorie, solicitrile postului (engl. job
demands) sunt asociate cu aspectele fizice,
sociale i organizaionale ce necesit un efort
fizic i psihic prelungit i care, dac depete
capacitile adaptative ale angajatului, duce la
epuizare profesional (Schaufeli i Bakker,
2004). A doua categorie, resursele postului (engl.
job resources) ajut la atingerea scopurilor
personale, protejeaz individul de costurile
psihologice i fizice i stimuleaz creterea i
dezvoltarea personal a acestuia (Xanthopoulou,
Bakker, Demerouti, Schaufeli, 2009), favoriznd
apariia satisfaciei n munc i a implicrii n
munc. Solicitrile i resursele postului sunt cele
care pot influena atitudinea muncitorilor fa de
sarcin sau fa de organizaie, dar i starea de
bine pe care un angajat o poate experimenta n
organizaie. Deoarece mediul organizaional i
comportamentul angajatului sunt vaste, modelul
Solicitri - Resurse ale Postului a fost extins cu
un concept nou: resursele personale (engl.
personal resources) (Xanthopoulou, Bakker,
52
Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2009). Resursele

personale sunt aspecte care, alturi de resursele
postului, menin starea de bine a angajatului,
avnd un rol important n rezistena la stres.
Astfel, pornind de la varianta extins a
modelului Solicitri - Resurse ale Postului
(Xanthopoulou,
Bakker,
Demerouti,
&
Schaufeli, 2009), am dorit s identificm rolul
resurselor personale n apariia implicrii n
munc i a epuizrii profesionale, precum i a
dimensiunilor acestora. Studiile anterioare au
investigat resursele personale ca moderatori sau
mediatori ntre cerinele postului i resursele pe
care le ofer locul de munc, pe de o parte, i
starea de bine a angajatului, pe de alt parte.
resursele personale (n special, auto-eficiena i
relaionarea cu implicarea n munc i cu
dimensiunile acestora. De asemenea, ne-am
propus s verificm aportul de cunotere adus de
nevoile psihologice n relaia cu cele dou faete
ale strii de bine.
Motivaia vine din descoperirile lui
Ouweneel, Le Blanc i Schaufeli (2012), care
atest c, dei resursele specific locului de
munc prezic implicarea n munc, acestea sunt
depite de factori ce in de natura individului,
precum emoiile pozitive sau alte resurse
personale ale acestuia. Astfel c, naintnd pe
aceast cale, am exclus resursele locului de
munc i solicitrile acestuia i am plasat
resursele personale ale angajailor ca factori de
interes n explicarea epuizrii profesionale i a
implicrii n munc, la nivel individual.
Implicarea n munc i epuizarea
profesional
Implicarea n munc (engl. work

engagement) a beneficiat de o atenie deosebit
din partea cercettorilor n ultimii ani. Muli
autori din comunitatea academic internaional
au scris despre acest subiect n ultimul deceniu.
n prezent, exist dou coli importante care au
abordat implicarea n munc. Maslach i Leiter
(1997), din perspectiv american, au definit
implicarea n munc ca fiind la polul opus al
epuizrii profesionale (engl. burnout) sau partea
pozitiv a acesteia. Acetia au definit epuizarea
profesional ca o eroziune a implicrii n munc,
unde energia se transform n epuizare,
implicarea n cinism i eficacitatea n
ineficacitate. Aadar, n opinia lor, implicarea n

munc este caracterizat de energie, implicare i
eficacitate profesional, care reprezint opusul
dimensiunilor epuizrii profesionale (Chughtai
& Buckley, 2008). Aceast perspectiv
sugereaz c inexistena epuizrii profesionale
nseamn, de fapt, implicare n munc i un scor
mic la una din dimensiunile epuizrii
profesionale ar reprezenta un scor mare la
dimensiunea corespondent pentru implicarea n
munc.
Schaufeli i Bakker (2004) au promovat
perspectiva european, probabil cea mai
rspndit n prezent, prin care au msurat
implicarea n munc i epuizarea profesional
independent, utiliznd instrumente diferite.
Autorii consider c implicarea n munc se
manifest ca o stare atitudinal - motivaional
pozitiv de mplinire determinat de locul de
munc, caracterizat de vigoare, dedicare i
absorbie. Pe scurt, angajaii implicai n munc
au un nivel ridicat de energie i entuziasm i sunt
foarte absorbii de munca lor, asfel nct uneori
timpul pare c zboar (Bakker, 2009). Cea mai
important diferen ntre aceast perspectiv i
cea sugerat de Maslach i Leiter (1997) este
adugarea dimensiunii absorbie vigoarea i
dedicarea fiind vzute ca dimensiunile opuse
epuizrii
i
cinismului
din
epuizarea
profesional.
Vigoarea se caracterizeaz prin niveluri
ridicate de energie i de rezisten mental n
timpul lucrului, dorina de a investi efort n
munca sa, precum i de persistena chiar i n
faa unor dificulti. Astfel, angajaii care
demonstreaz un grad ridicat de vigoare sunt
motivai de munca lor i vor fi persevereni chiar
dac ntmpin dificulti la locul de munc.
Dedicarea se descrie printr-o puternic stare de
implicare n munc, angajatul experimentnd
sentimente de importan deosebit a muncii,
entuziasm, inspiraie, mndrie i provocare. A
treia dimensiune, absorbia, se refer la a fi pe
deplin concentrat i absorbit de munc, ceea ce
nseamn c timpul trece repede dar, pe de alt
parte, apar uneori dificulti cu detaarea fa de
locul de munc (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004).
Astfel, implicarea n munc este un concept unic,
care definete o stare pozitiv, de bine, de
mplinire n relaie cu munca, caracterizat de un
nivel nalt de energie i de identificare cu munca
efectuat (Bakker & Leiter, 2010).
Dar starea de bine la locul de munc poate
releva, pe lng partea luminoas, reprezentat
de implicarea n munc, i o parte ntunecat,

manifestat prin epuizarea profesional. Astfel,
epuizarea profesional (engl. burnout) este una
dintre cele mai studiate probleme n domeniul
psihologiei organizaionale (Hobfoll, 1989, apud.
Brummelhuis, Hoeven, Bakker, Peper, 2011).
Termenul de "epuizare profesional" a nceput s
fie utilizat iniial n jurul anilor 1970, n special
pentru a descrie fenomenul de epuizare fizic i
emoional asociat cu atitudini negative (Brown,
2012). S-a descoperit c epuizarea profesional
se ntlnete des n ocupaii din domeniul
serviciilor sau care implic contacte numeroase
cu oamenii, ns acest concept a fost ulterior
extins i la alte domenii de activitate.
Epuizarea profesional poate fi definit ca
un rspuns prelungit la stresorii interpersonali
cronici care pot aprea la locul de munc (Kim,
Shin, & Swanger, 2009). Acesta poate aprea
datorit combinaiei dintre solicitrile ridicate ale
locului de munc i resursele sczute pe care le
ofer locul de munc. Maslach (1993) descrie
epuizarea profesional ca fiind un construct cu
trei dimensiuni, i anume: epuizare emoional,
depersonalizare i lipsa eficienei profesionale.
Epuizarea emoional se refer la lipsa energiei,
apariia sentimentului de oboseal i a
sentimentului c resursele emoionale deinute sau epuizat datorit cerinelor locului de munc
(Kim i colab., 2009). Depersonalizarea sau
cinismul se refer la o atitudine distant,
indiferent sau chiar negativ fa de locul de
munc i fa de colegi, pierderea interesului fa
de munc, iritabilitate (Schwarzer & Hallum,
2008). Lipsa eficienei personale se refer la
tendina de evaluare negativ a propriei
performane la locul de munc, reducerea
productivitii sau la imposibilitatea de a face
fa cerinelor locului de munc ceea ce duce la
sentimente de incompeten i stim de sine
legat de locul de munc sczut (engl.
organizational-based self-esteem).
Epuizarea profesional are consecine
negative att asupra angajailor, ct i asupra
organizaiilor. Astfel, printre consecinele
negative asupra angajailor putem aminti: stare
de bine sczut, creterea numrului conflictelor
maritale (Brummelhuis i colab., 2011),
schimbri n atitudine i personalitate, creterea
riscului unor boli, precum bolile cardiovasculare
(Melamed, Shirom, Toker, Berliner, & Shapira,
2006 apud. Schwarzer & Hallum, 2008). n ceea
ce privete consecinele negative asupra
angajatorilor, amintim: performana sczut a
53
angajailor, pensionare prematur (Schwarzer &

Hallum, 2008), absenteism ridicat, creterea
numrului de concedii medicale.
Dei acest concept a fost mult timp studiat
ca fiind un construct tri-dimensional, dup o
perioad au aprut ntrebri legate de ultima
dimensiune, i anume lipsa eficienei
profesionale. De exemplu, n studiile efectuate sa descoperit c ntre epuizarea emoional i
depersonalizare exist o inter-relaionare, dar
lipsa eficienei profesionale nu a fost asociat cu
nici una din aceste dimensiuni (Kim i colab.,
2009). n 2005, Schaufeli i Tarris au realizat o
analiz factorial confirmatorie a dimensiunilor
epuizrii profesionale a crei rezultate a dus la
un model cu doi factori: epuizare emoional i
cinism (denumit nucleul epuizrii profesionale engl. core burnout). Astfel, n acest studiu, am
analizat epuizarea profesional ca dimensiune
bine definit i din perspectiva acestor doi
factori: epuizare i cinism (Bakker, Emmerik, &
Euwema, 2006).
Resursele personale
Resursele personale sunt auto-evaluri

pozitive, flexibile, care se refer la percepia
individului asupra abilitiilor sale de a controla
i de a influena mediul personal n mod eficient
(Bakker, 2009). n studiul de fa, ne-am orientat
asupra a dou tipuri de resurse personale: autoeficiena i nevoile psihologice (conform teoriei
auto-determinrii, Deci & Ryan, 2000).
Motivaia acestei alegeri const n importana
utilizrii acestor resurse personale n mediul
organizaional, fiind specifice fiecrui individ.
Auto-eficiena a fost studiat ca i resurs
personal, pe cnd nevoile psihologice, abordate
ca resurse personale, au intrat de curnd n
atenia
cercettorilor
din
domeniul
organizaional. Studierea mpreun a acestor
resurse personale i indentificarea rolului
fiecreia dintre ele n starea de bine reprezint
scopul acestei cercetri.
Auto-eficiena a fost definit n teoria
cognitiv-social ca fiind ncrederea n
capacitile personale de a executa i organiza
activitile necesare pentru a obine rezultatele
urmrite (Bandura, 1997). Auto-eficiena este un
bun predictor al modului n care oamenii simt,
ct efort investesc n activiti i, de asemenea,
ct de mult persist n lupta cu obstacolele i cu
dificultile (Prieto, Salanova, Martinez,
Schaufeli, 2008). De aceea auto-eficiena poate fi
54
studiat ca un predictor puternic al implicrii n

munc i al epuizrii profesionale.
Studiile anterioare au artat c auto-eficiena
este un factor predictiv n apariia mai multor
aspecte ce in de locul de munc, cum ar fi:
atitudinea fa de locul de munc, formarea
competenelor sau performana la locul de
munc (Chen, Stanley, & Eden, 2001). Mai mult,
unele studii au pus n legtur auto-eficiena cu
implicarea n munc, respectiv cu epuizarea
profesional. De exemplu, Xanthopoulou,
Bakker, Demerouti i Schaufeli (2007) au
realizat un studiu n care au analizat implicarea
n munc n relaie cu trei tipuri de resurse
personale (auto-eficiena, optimismul i stima de
sine bazat pe locul de munc). Autorii au
obinut dovezi empirice pentru susinerea
ipotezei conform creia resursele personale
mediaz relaia dintre resursele de la locul de
munc i implicarea n munc. De asemenea,
studiul lor a adus dovezi empirice asupra faptului
ca resursele legate de post joac un rol activ n
prevenirea epuizrii emoionale, prin activarea
resurselor personale.
ntr-un alt studiu longitudinal, realizat de
Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti i Schaufeli
(2009), s-a investigat relaia dintre resursele
postului, resursele personale i implicarea n
munc. Rezultatele au confirmat relaiile dintre
dimensiuni, artnd c acestea se afl ntr-o
relaie de reciprocitate i c implicarea n munc
i resursele personale sunt predictori pentru
resursele postului (Demerouti & Bakker, 2011).
Elementul distinctiv din studiul realizat de
Libano, Llorens, Salanova i Schaufeli (2012),
ca extensie a modelului Solicitri- Resurse ale
Postului, a fost reprezentat de faptul c sntatea
psihologic a angajailor depinde nu numai de
cerinele i resursele locului de munc, ci i de
resursele personale. Astfel, resursele personale,
n general, i auto-eficiena, n special, reprezint
un element cheie care prezice implicarea n
munc, studiile aratnd c, cu ct auto-eficiena
este mai mare, cu att i implicarea n munc
este mai mare.
Salanova, Llorens i Schaufeli (2011) au
examinat relaia reciproc ntre auto-eficien,
eficiena colectiv i implicarea n munc. Studiul
precizeaz faptul c, dac indivizii sau grupurile
se simt eficieni atunci, pe termen scurt, acest
lucru determin o stare de entuziasm n munc
iar, pe termen lung, va determina creterea
implicrii lor n munc, influennd toate faetele
acesteia vigoare, dedicare i absorbie.
Auto-eficiena este n legatur i cu

dimensiunile acesteia. n studiul su, Gunduz
(2012) a analizat relaia dintre auto-eficien i
epuizarea profesional la consilierii colari.
Rezultatele sale, n urma analizei de regresie,
indic capacitatea de predictor a auto-eficienei
pentru realizri personale i depersonalizare, ca
dimensiuni ale epuizrii profesionale, ns nu i
pentru epuizarea profesional global. Brown
(2012) a fcut o revizuire a studiilor care au
analizat legtura dintre auto-eficien i epuizare
profesional la profesori. Din analiza celor 11
studii identificate, autorul a concluzionat c
majoritatea acestor studii au raportat o legatur
negativ ntre auto-eficien i epuizare
profesional la profesori, ca i construct global,
dar i cu fiecare dintre faetele sale, n special cu
epuizarea i cinismul. Aceste rezultate confirm
ideea c auto-eficien, ca i credin personal,
se construiete pe baza experienei i a strilor
psihologice i afective i, de aceea, afecteaz
Astfel, n acest studiu corelaional
transversal, am urmrit s identificam existena
unei asocieri ntre resursele personale i
epuizarea profesion, respectiv implicarea n
munc. De asemenea, ne-am propus s analizm
i relaia dintre resursele personale selectate i
faetele celor dou constructe: implicarea
emoional i epuizarea profesional.
Pentru aceasta, pornind de la analiza
literaturii de specialitate, am formulat
urmatoarele ipoteze:
H1. Exist o asociere pozitiv ntre autoeficien i implicarea n munc.
H1.a. ntre vigoare i auto-eficien este o
asociere pozitiv.
H1.b. ntre dedicare i auto-eficien este o
asociere pozitiv.
H1.c. ntre absorbie i auto-eficien este o
asociere pozitiv.
H2.
ntre auto-eficien
i
epuizarea
profesional exist o asociere negativ.
H2.a. ntre epuizare i auto-eficien este o
asociere negativ.
H2.b. ntre cinism i auto-eficien este o
asociere negativ.
Locul de munc este arena unde se pot
potena i contracara nevoile angajailor n
termeni de autonomie, competen i
sentimentele despre relaiile cu ceilali.
Satisfacerea nevoilor reprezint un punct de

interes pentru organizaii ce poate fi de folos n
evaluarea impactului motivaional al diferitelor
aspecte organizaionale, cum ar fi proiectarea
postului (Van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste, De
Witte, & Lens, 2008a). n plus, Van den Broeck
i colab. (2008a) specific faptul c cerinele i
resursele postului, ca i caracteristici ale muncii,
sunt n relaie strns cu frustrrile i, respectiv,
satisfacerea nevoilor i, prin urmare, asociate cu
epuizarea emoional i vigoarea, ca dimensiune
a implicrii n munc.
Teoria auto-determinrii (Deci i Ryan,
2000) exploreaz premisa c nevoile psihologice
ale individului au un rol n manifestarea strii de
bine a angajatului. De asemenea, acest teorie
susine c nevoile psihologice ale indivizilor
trebuie s fie satisfcute pentru ca acetia s
funcioneze bine, din punct de vedere psihologic
(Van den Broeck, 2012). Trei trebuine
psihologice sunt considerate eseniale pentru ca
persoanele s se dezvolte, i anume, nevoia de
autonomie, de afiliere i de competen (Deci &
Ryan, 2000), care sunt, de asemenea, menionate
i ca autonomie, sentimentul de apartenen i
competen (Van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste, &
De Witte, 2008b). Nevoia de autonomie se
consider a fi ndeplinit cnd indivizii se simt
liberi s acioneze i ei sunt cei ce decid propriile
aciuni. Nevoia de compenten reprezint gradul
n care fiecare individ i stpnete mediul i
produce rezultatele dorite, iar nevoia de
relaionare se refer la nivelul la care individul se
simte conectat la ceilali. n cadrul teoriei autodeterminrii (Deci & Ryan, 2000), atenia s-a
ndreaptat spre variaiile inter-individuale i
intra-individuale a nivelului de satisfacere a
nevoilor. Angajaii sunt mulumii de satisfacerea
nevoilor atunci cnd i desfoar activitatea n
mod volitiv, cnd se simt parte dintr-o echip i
consider c i pot atinge n mod eficient
obiectivele (Van den Broeck, 2012).
Conceptul de competen este relaionat cu
cel de auto-eficien, dar acestea difer n puncte
eseniale. Auto-eficacitatea se refer la
ateptrile individuale dobndite social de a
iniia aciunile necesare atingerii unui scop
(Bandura, 1997). Satisfacerea nevoii nnscute
de competen reprezint mai degrab
sentimentele de eficacitate prezente, dect cele
din viitor, precum i sentimentele generale, i
mai puin cele specifice. ns, n timp ce autoeficacitatea stimuleaz un comportament prin
care individul se simte eficient, satisfacerea
nevoii de competen este de natur s stimuleze
55
funcionarea indivizilor i bunstarea la un nivel

mai general (Van den Broeck i colab., 2008a).
n ceea ce privete studiile anterioare, n
conformitate cu teoria auto-determinrii, acestea
au artat c satisfacerea nevoilor de baz
funcioneaz ca un mediator ce se interpune ntre
mediul social i funcionarea angajailor (Van den
Broeck, 2012). ntr-un studiu realizat de Van der
Broeck i colab. (2008a) s-a analizat relaia dintre
solicitrile i resursele postului cu epuizarea
profesional i implicarea n munc, avnd ca
variabil mediatoare - nevoile personale.
Rezultatele arat c angajaii care sunt nconjurai
de resurse ale locului de munc experimenteaz n
mai mare msur un sentiment general de libertate
n munc (autonomie), conectare interpersonal
(relaionare) i eficien (competen). Astfel,
nevoile psihologice funcioneaz ca o resurs
personal, ajutnd angajaii s se adapteze i s-i
utilizeze optim sursele motivaionale n mediul de
lucru (Van den Broeck, 2012). Pe baza celor
prezentate mai sus i innd cont de obiectivele
urmrite, au fost formulate urmtoarele ipoteze:
H3. Nevoile psihologice sunt asociate pozitiv cu
implicarea n munc.
H4. Nevoile psihologice sunt asociate n sens
negativ cu epuizarea profesional.
Metod
Procedur i participanii
Studiul de fa a fost realizat n cadrul unei

companii cu profil industrial, de producie, unde
am aplicat o serie de chestionare pentru 320 de
angajai. Au fost utilizate doar 221 din testele
distribuite (69%), deoarece restul bateriilor nu au
fost returnate sau aveau rspunsuri incomplete.
Testarea s-a fcut individual, prin aplicarea
chestionarelor prin metoda creion-hrtie. Mediul
n care s-au completat chestionarele a fost unul
adecvat (far factori perturbatori).
Prin urmare, eantionului de convenien
este format din 221 de participani (82.1%
femei), cu o medie a vrstei de 35 ani.
Participanii la studiu au o medie a vechimii n
munc pe postul ocupat de 35.7 luni, iar 85.4%
dintre ei au contract de munc permanent i
14.6% au contract de munc temporar.
Anonimatul i confidenialitatea datelor au fost
garantate participanilor, conform normelor
deontologice specifice legislaiei romneti.
Instrumentele de cercetare
Auto-eficiena a fost msurat cu Scala autoeficienei generale (The General Self-Efficacy
56
Scale - GSE, Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995) ce

conine 10 itemi. Un item tipic este: "Cnd m
confrunt cu o problem, am capacitatea s
gsesc cteva soluii". Rspunsurile pentru itemi
sunt de tip Likert n 4 trepte de la 1 Dezacord
total, la 4 Acord total. Coeficientul de
consisten intern alpha Cronbach este .88,
pentru eantionul investigat.
Implicarea n munc a fost msurat cu
Scala Utrecht de implicare n munc (Utrech
Work Engagement Scale - UWES, 2002)
dezvoltat de Schaufeli, Bakker, & Salanova
(2006). Instrumentul msoar acest aspect ca
dimesiune global (suma scorurilor de la fiecare
dimensiune), i prin trei sub - dimensiuni ale
acesteia: vigoarea - 6 itemi (exemplu item: "La
munc, m simt plin de energie''), dedicarea - 5
itemi (exemplu item: ''Slujba mea m inspir''),
i absorbia - 6 itemi (exemplu item: ''Cnd am
de lucru, uit tot ce este in jurul meu''). Itemii sunt
evaluai pe o scal de tip Likert cu 7 variante de
la: 0 - Niciodat la 6 - Zilnic. Aceast scal a fost
validat pe populaia romneasc de Vrg,
Zaboril, Maricuoiu & Sulea (2009). n aceea
cercetare s-a demonstrat c cele trei scale ale
implicrii n munc au consisten intern bun,
mai exact, valorile coeficientului alpha Cronbach
sunt situate ntre .70 i .80 (vezi Tabelul 1).
Cronbach pentru scorul global este .87, pentru
eantionul nostru.
Epuizarea profesional a fost msurat cu
Utrecht Burnout Scale (Schaufeli & Van
Dierendonck, 2001). Scala msoar epuizarea
profesional, ca dimensiune general (prin
nsumarea tuturor itemilor) i faetele acesteia:
epuizare emoional (exemplu item M simt
epuizat() profesional din cauza muncii mele) 5 itemi i cinismul/depersonalizarea (exemplu
item M ndoiesc de semnificaia muncii mele)
- 4 itemi. Fiecare item se coteaz pe o scal
Likert n 7 trepte: de la 0 -Niciodat pn la 6 ntotdeauna. Coeficientul de consisten intern
alpha Cronbach pentru dimensiunea global este
.89, pentru eantionul investigat.
Nevoile psihologice legate de munc au fost
msurate cu Scala satisfacerii nevoilor
psihologice legate de munc (Work- related
basic needs satisfaction scale, Van den Broeck,
Vansteenkiste, De Witte, Lens i Soenens,
2011). Scala msoar: nevoia de autonomie
(M simt liber() s mi realizez munca n
modul cel mai potrivit din punctul meu de
vedere) - 6 itemi, nevoia de competen (Am
abilitile necesare pentru a fi un bun angajat)
-6 itemi i nevoia de relaionare (La serviciu,

simt c fac parte dintr-un grup) - 6 itemi.
Fiecare item se coteaz pe o scal: de la 1 Dezacord total pn la 5 - Acord total.
Cronbach pentru ntreaga scal este .85.
Tabelul 1 prezint media, abaterea standard,

consistena intern, dar i corelaiile stabilite
ntre variabilele introduse n studiu.
Dup cum se poate observa din Tabelul 1,
auto-eficiena se asociaz semnificativ i pozitiv
cu implicarea n munc, att ca i scor total (r =
.39, p <.01), dar i cu dimensiunile acesteia:
vigoare (r = .34, p < .01); dedicare (r = .35, p <
.01); absorbie (r = .29, p < .01). n ceea ce
privete asocierea dinte auto-eficien i
epuizarea profesional, aceasta este una
semnificativ dar negativ, att cu dimensiunile
acestuia: cinism (r = -.33, p <.01); epuizare
emoional (r = -.28, p <.01), ct i cu scorul
total (r = -.34, p < .01).
Nevoile psihologice, respectiv autonomia,
competena i relaionarea, se asociaz
semnificativ i pozitiv cu implicarea n munc,
ca i construct global, dar i cu faetele acesteia:
vigoare, dedicare, absorbie. Asocierea dintre
nevoia de autonomie i dedicare (r = .29, p <
.01) este cea mai puternic, pe cnd asocierea
dintre nevoia de relaionare i absorbie (r = .10,
p < .05) este una mai puin puternic. n ceea ce
privete relaia dintre nevoile personale i
epuizarea profesional, ca i construct global, i
cu faetele sale: cinism i epuizare, aceasta este
una semnificativ negativ. Nevoia de
competena i cinismul se asociaz cel mai
puternic (r = -.39, p < .01), pe cnd nevoia de
competena i epuizarea se asociaz cel mai slab
(r = -.18, p < .05).
Variabile controlate: n prima etap a

analizei de regresie, vrsta i sexul au fost
introduse ca variabile de control, deoarece unele
studii anterioare au descoperit diferene bazate
pe vrst / sex ntre niveluri ale strii de bine. De
exemplu, Maslach, Schaufeli i Leiter (2001) au
constatat c nivelul de epuizare a angajailor mai
tineri tinde s fie mai mare dect la cei cu vrsta
de peste 30 sau 40 de ani iar brbaii adesea
obin un punctaj mai mare la cinism. Prieto,
Salanova, Martinez, Schaufeli (2008) au
identificat i ei diferene ntre brbai i femei n
raport cu epuizarea profesional, n sensul c
femeile au manifestat niveluri ridicate de
epuizare i de cinism n comparaie cu brbaii,
probabil i pentru c femeile sunt mai
vulnerabile la impactul unor solicitri percepute
dect brbaii.
Salanova i Schaufeli (2004) afirm c
persoanele mai n vrst i brbaii prezint
niveluri mai ridicate de angajament.
Rezultate
Statistici descriptive
Tabelul 1. Medii, abateri standard, coeficieni alpha Cronbach i coeficieni de corelaie ntre variabile
Variabile
1. Auto-eficienta
2. Vigoare
3. Dedicatie
4. Absorbtie
5. Implicare in munca
6.Cinism
7. Epuizare emotional
8. Epuizare profes.
9. N. de Autonomie
10. N. de Competenta
11. N. de Relationare
SD
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
34.75
12.54
13.46
13.54
39.55
5.89
9.67
15.37
19.20
22.49
19.52
4.61
5.08
5.14
4.44
12.65
5.79
7.31
12.04
3.59
4.80
4.63
(.88)
.34**
.35**
.29**
.39**
-.33**
-.28**
-.34**
.22**
.26**
.13*
(.78)
.71**
.57**
.87**
-.34**
-.40**
-.44**
.21**
.16*
.16*
(.73)
.59**
.89**
-.47**
-.44**
-.50**
.29**
.20**
.15*
(.69)
.81**
-.34**
-.31**
-.35**
.26**
.16*
.10*
(.87)
-.43**
-.43**
-.49**
.29**
.19**
.12*
(.75)
.75**
.91**
-.28**
-.39**
-.24**
(.83)
.95**
-.33**
-.18*
-.20**
(.89)
-.35**
-.31**
-.24**
(.73)
.44**
.48**
(.88)
.61**
(.76)
N=221; *p<0.05; **p<0.01
Analize de regresie ierarhic
ntrebarea central a acestui studiu a fost

dac resursele personale prezic implicarea n
munc, respectiv epuizarea profesional i
dimensiunile acestora. Am rulat iniial dou
analize de regresie multiliniare ierarhice, unde
implicarea n munc i epuizarea profesional au

fost tratate ca variabile dependente. Pentru
ambele variabile dependente am parcurs acelai
algoritm: n primul pas, am introdus doua
variabile demografice (vrst, gen). Dup ce am
controlat influena variabilelor vrst i gen, am
introdus auto-eficien (ca resurs personal). n
57
pasul trei, am introdus nevoile psihologice:

nevoia de autonomie, competen i relaionare
(respectiv nevoile personale ca resurse).
conform Tabelului 2, variabilele demografice nu
au contribuit la variana variabilei dependente. n
pasul al doilea, auto-eficiena explic 14% din
variana criteriului, respectiv a implicrii n
munc (R = .14, p < .01). n a doua ecuaie,
auto-eficiena este un predictor semnificativ ( =
.38, p < .01) i este n relaie pozitiv cu
implicarea n munc. Tot n acest pas, variabila
vrst devine predictor semnificativ ( = .17, p
< .05) . Introducerea nevoilor psihologice n
pasul trei duce la o cretere a varianei de 6% (p
< .01) n explicarea variabilei dependente. n al
treilea pas, nevoia de autonomie este un
predictor semnificativ ( = .22, p <.01) i este n
relaie pozitiv cu implicarea n munc.
Variabila vrsta rmne un predictor
semnificativ ( = .19, p < .05) i n pasul trei.
conluzionm c implicarea n munc, este
explicat de ctre varibilele auto-eficien i
nevoia de autonomie n proporie de 21%, unde
nevoile psihologice au o contribuie important.
Aceste date sprijin ipoteza H1 conform
creia auto-eficiena este asociat pozitiv cu
implicarea in munc, aceasta fiind un predictor
semnificativ pentru implicarea n munc. De
asemenea, datele susin parial ipoteza H3
deoarece doar nevoia de autonomie este

predictor pentru implicarea n munc.
n ceea ce privete epuizarea profesional,
conform datelor din Tabelul 2, variabilele
demografice nu au prezis variabila dependent,
deci vrsta i genul nu sunt predictori
semnificativi pentru epuizarea profesional. n
pasul doi, auto-eficiena explic 11% din
variana criteriului (R = .11, p <.01). n a doua
ecuaie, auto-eficiena este un predictor
semnificativ ( =-.34, p <.01) i este n relaie
negativ cu epuizarea profesional. Adugarea
nevoilor personale n pasul trei duce la o cretere
a varianei de 9% (p < .01) n explicarea
epuizrii profesionale. n a treia ecuaie, nevoia
de autonomie este un predictor semnificativ ( =
-.22, p < .01) i este n relaie negativ cu
epuizarea profesional. Astfel, lund n
considerare toate datele, conluzionm c
epuizarea profesional este explicat de ctre
varibilele auto-eficien i nevoia de autonomie
n proporie de 23%, unde nevoile psihologice au
o contribuie important. Aceste date vin n
sprijinul ipotezei H2, conform creia autoeficiena este asociat negativ cu epuizarea
profesional, aceasta fiind un predictor
semnificativ pentru epuizarea profesional. De
asemenea, aceste date susin parial H4 deoarece
doar nevoia de autonomie este predictor pentru
Tabelul 2. Analizele de regresie ierarhica care prezic implicarea n munc i epuizarea profesional
Pasul 1
Vrsta
Gen
Pasul 2
Vrsta
Gen
Auto-eficiena
Pasul 3
Vrst
Gen
Auto-eficien
N. de Autonomie
N. de Competen
N. de Relaionare
Implicare n munca
R
.01
-.01
.12
.14**
.17*
.03
.38**
.06**
.19*
.03
.31**
.22**
.03
.03
Epuizare profesionalb
R
.01
.10
.05
.11**
.03
.04
-.34**
.09**
.02
.04
-.23**
-.22**
-.15
-.01
F
Total R
Adjusted R
5.70**
.21
.19
7.39**
.23
.20
N=221; *p < .05; **p < .01 a Scor total Implicare in munc; b Scor total Epuizare profesional
Pentru o analiz mai detaliat, am apelat la o

58
a doua serie de analize de regresie n care am
tratat separat, ca variabile dependente,

dimensiunile implicrii n munc (vigoare,
dedicare, absorbie) i ale epuizrii profesionale
(cinism, epuizare) (vezi Tabelul 3). Astfel, n
ceea ce privete vigoarea, ca variabil
dependent, variabilele demografice nu au
contribuit la variana rezultatelor. n pasul doi,
auto-eficiena contribuie cu 13% la variana
variabilei vigoare (p < .01). n a doua ecuaie,
vigoarea. Vrsta devine predictor semnificativ
( = .17, p < .05) n pasul 2. Introducerea
nevoilor psihologice n pasul trei duce la o
cretere a varianei cu 3% (p < .01) n
variabilitatea vigorii, ca variabil dependent. n
a treia ecuaie, nici una dintre nevoile
psihologice nu sunt predictori semnificativi. n
ceea ce privete vigoarea, datele ofer dovezi
empirice pentru a susine ipoteza H1.a. ce afirm
c auto-eficiena este n asociere pozitiv cu
aceasta.
Pentru dedicare, ca variabil dependent, n
pasul 1, se observ n Tabelul 3 c variabilele
demografice nu au contribuit la variana acesteia.
n pasul doi, auto-eficiena contribuie cu 12% la
variana variabilei dependente (R = .12, p <
predictor semnificativ ( = .35, p < .01) i este n
relaie pozitiv cu dedicarea. Vrsta devine
predictor semnificativ ( = .17, p < .05).
Adugarea nevoilor psihologice n pasul al
treilea aduce o contribuie de 6% (p < .01) la
variana dedicrii. n a treia ecuaie, nevoia de
autonomie este un predictor semnificativ ( =
.23, p < .01) pentru dedicare. De asemenea, autoeficiena este un predictor semnificativ pentru
dedicare. Astfel, avem dovezi empirice ce acord
suport pentru ipoteza H1.b. ce menioneaz o
relaie de asociere pozitiv ntre auto-eficien i
dedicare i parial pentru H3, pentru ca doar
nevoia de autonomie este predictor pentru
dedicare.
n ceea ce privete absorbia, variabilele
demografice au contribuit la dispersia
rezultatelor cu 3% (R = .03, p < .05). Vrsta
este un predictor semnificativ i se asociaz n
sens pozitiv cu absorbia ( = .16, p < .05). n
pasul doi, auto-eficiena contribuie cu 7% din
variana absorbiei (p < .01). n a doua ecuaie,
absorbia. Vrsta rmne predictor semnificativ
( = .20, p < .05). Adugarea nevoilor
psihologice n pasul trei aduce o contribuiie de

5% (p < .01) la variana variabilei dependente. n
a treia ecuaie, nevoia de autonomie este un
predictor semnificativ ( = .22, p < .01). Autoeficiena i vrsta rmn predictori semnificativi.
concluzionm c absorbia, ca dimensiune a
implicrii n munc, este explicat de ctre
variabila vrst, auto-eficien i nevoia de
autonomie n proporie de 18%, unde nevoile
psihologice au o contribuie important.
Rezultatele obinute sprijin ipoteza conform
creia resursele personale (n special autoeficiena i nevoia de autonomie) sunt predictori
semnificativ pentru implicarea n munc. Astfel,
avem date empirice care s sprijine ipoteza H1.c.
i parial pentru H3, pentru c doar nevoia de
autonomie e predictor pentru absorbie.
n ceea ce privete cinismul, variabilele
contribuie cu 11% din varian cinismului (p <
n relaie negativ cu cinismul. Introducerea
nevoilor psihologice n pasul trei aduce o
contribuie de 11% ( R = .011, p <.01) la
nevoia de competena este un predictor
variabila cinism ( = -.32, p < .01). Autoeficiena rmne un predictor semnificativ i n
pasul trei. Astfel, cinismul este explicat de ctre
nevoile personale (auto-eficien i nevoia de
competen) n proporie de 24%, iar nevoia de
competen aduce o contribuie semnificativ.
Aceste rezultate aduc dovezi empirice pentru a
sprijini ipoteza H2.b i parial pentru H4, pentru
ca numai nevoia de competen este predictor
pentru cinism.
Pentru epuizarea emoional, variabilele
contribuie cu 8% din varian (R = .08, p <
n relaie negativ cu epuizarea emoional. n
pasul trei, adugarea nevoilor personale aduce o
contribuiie de 8% (R = .08, p < .01) la
nevoia de autonomie este un predictor
variabila epuizare ( = -.28, p < .01). Autoeficiena rmne un predictor semnificativ i n
59
urma analizei sprijin ipoteza H2.b. i parial

pentru H4, pentru c doar nevoia de autonomie
este predictor pentru epuizarea emoional.
pasul trei. Astfel, epuizarea emoional este

explicat de nevoile psihologice n proporie de
16%, iar nevoile psihologice i mpart egal
contribuia cu auto-eficiena. Datele obinute n
Tabelul 3 Analizele de regresie ierarhica care prezic dimensiunile implicarii n munc (vigoare, dedicare i absorbie) i ale
epuizarii profesionale (epuizarea i cinismul)
Implicare n munc
Vigoare
Pasul 1
Vrsta
Gen
Pasul 2
Vrst
Gen
Auto-eficiena
Pasul 3
Vrst
Gen
Auto-eficien
N. de Autonomie
N. de Competen
N. de Relaionare
F
Total R
Adjusted R
Dedicare
.02
.02
.13*
Absorbie
.00
.13**
.12**
.03*
.06**
3.03*
.18
.1
.08**
.05
.10
-.28**
.11**
.04
.10
-.21**
-.09
-.32**
.02
10.44**
.24
.22
R
.02
.11**
.05*
4.70*
.12
.08
.05
.09
-.34**
.21**
-.02
.20**
.22*
.04
-.02
5.72**
.15
.13
R
.01
.07**
.20*
-.01
.27**
.10
.01
.28**
.23**
.05
.00
Epuizare
.09
.07
.16*
-.05
.08
.02
.35**
.20*
.08
.32**
.11
-.01
.12
Cinism
.03*
-.02
.04
.18*
.07
.36**
.18
.16
.08**
.04
.10
-.21
-.28**
.04
-.07
6.21**
.18
.16
N=221; *p<.05; **p<.01
Discuii
resursele personale (respectiv, auto-eficien i
explicarea implicrii n munc i a epuizrii
profesionale. n urma rezultatelor obinute,
obiectivele acestui studiu au fost atinse, astfel c
auto-eficiena i nevoile psihologice, n special
nevoia de autonomie i de competen, explic o
parte din variana implicrii n munc i epuizrii
profesionale, precum i a dimensiunilor acestora.
Rezultatele studiului nostru relev faptul c
auto-eficiena este un predictor pentru implicarea
n munc, dar i pentru fiecare dintre
dimensiunile sale: vigoare, dedicare i absorbie.
Astfel, cu ct angajatul i percepe capacitile ca
fiind n concordan cu sarcina, cu att el devine
mai implicat i investete efort n munca sa.
Acest rezultat se afl n concordan cu alte
studii anterioare, precum cele realizate de
Xanthopoulou i colab. (2007 i 2009) care au
60
identificat o relaie ntre implicarea n munc i

resursele persoanale (respectiv, auto-eficiena),
dar i cu cele realizate de Salanova, Llorens i
Schaufeli (2011) care prezint auto-eficiena ca
un element important n apariia implicrii n
munc. Lund aceste aspecte n considerare,
putem afirma c, pe msur ce un angajat crede
c rezultatele sale vor fi pozitive, cu att acesta
va fi mai dedicat muncii sale, experimentnd
sentimente de entuziasm i inspiraie. Aceasta
nseamn c, dac angajaii sunt auto-eficieni,
acetia se simt bine la locul de munc i pot s
manifeste un interes crescut pentru munca lor,
fiind mai implicai.
Dac un nivel crescut al auto-eficienei duce
la implicare n munc, un nivel sczut al
acesteia, face ca energia s se transforme n
epuizare i implicarea n cinism, acestea din
urm fiind dimensiuni ale epuizrii profesionale
(Maslach i Leiter, 1997).
Studiile anterioare realizate, precum cel al
lui Gunduz (2012) i Brown (2012), indic o
relaie ntre auto-eficien i dimensiunile

epuizrii profesionale (epuizare emoional i
depersonalizare). Astfel c, un nivel al autoeficienei sczut ajut angajatul s experimenteze
sentimente de incompeten, nesiguran, de
nencredere n capacitile proprii i, implicit, s
ajung n stare de epuizare emoional, fizic i
detaare, cu alte cuvinte s experimenteze
epuizarea profesional. n acelai sens, alte
studii, precum cel al lui Sundin din 2007 (apud.
Makoniene & Norvile, 2012) susin c un nivel
ridicat al auto-eficienei i al satisfaciei la locul
de munc coreleaz negativ cu epuizarea
profesional. n concluzie, studiul nostru relev
rolul de predictor al auto-eficienei n raport cu
epuizarea profesional (ca i construct global,
dar i cu dimensiunile acesteia: epuizarea
emoional i depersonalizarea).
Trecnd dincolo de auto-eficien, nevoile
psihologice au un rol semnificativ n starea de
bine a angajailor. Rezultatele studiului de fa
au confirmat puterea predictiv a nevoii de
autonomie, ca resurs personal, pentru
implicarea n munc (global), dar i pentru
absorbie i dedicare, ca dimensiuni ale acesteia.
Astfel, angajaii cu o nevoie ridicat de
autonomie pot manifesta un comportament
volitiv i auto-aprobator, caracterizat de
ncredere n capacitile proprii. Un astfel de
comportament poate genera un grad ridicat de
concentrare, detaare de factorii perturbatori,
entuziasm i, implicit, dedicare i absorbie n
sarcinile de lucru. Replicarea unei asocieri dintre
nevoia de autonomie i implicarea n munc este
cu att mai important, cu ct n studiile
anterioare s-a artat c nevoile psihologice, ca
resurse personale, mediaz efectul altor variabile
asupra implicrii i epuizrii, cum ar fi
insecuritatea postului, ca i solicitare a postului
(Elst, Van den Broeck, De Witte i De Cuyper,
2012). Acest lucru sugereaz c resursele
personale pot fi elemente tampon care pot s
atenueze impactul scolicitrilor postului asupra
strii de bine a angajailor.
Astfel se explic de ce angajaii se simt mai
puin epuizai i mai viguroi la locul de munc.
ndeplinirea nevoilor personale duce la o
energizare a angajatului i la scderea nivelului
de epuizare profesional.
Pe de alt parte, n studiul de fa, ne-am
propus s identificm n ce msur resursele
personale explic direct variana epuizrii
profesionale i a dimensiunilor acesteia. Dintre
resursele personale, n studiul nostru, am
identificat faptul c, pe lng auto-eficien,

nevoia de autonomie este un predictor pentru
dimensiunea epuizare emoional, iar nevoia de
competen este un predictor pentru cinism. n
ceea ce privete satisfacerea nevoii de
autonomie, aceste rezultate sunt conforme cu
cele obinute n studiu realizat de Fernet, Austin,
Trepanier & Dussault (2012) ce analizeaz
relaia ntre cele trei nevoi psihologice i
dimensiunile epuizrii profesionale. Rezultatele
obinute relev faptul c nevoia de autonomie
contribuie semnificativ n apariia epuizrii
emoionale, n timp ce nevoia de competena i
de relaionare explic cinismul i lipsa eficienei
profesionale. n plus, studiul realizat de Fernet i
colab. (2012) a subliniat importana nevoii de
autonomie n apariia epuizrii profesionale,
existnd o relaie negativ ntre aceste variabile.
Acest lucru sugereaz faptul c angajaii simt c
locul lor de munc le "fur" oportunitatea de a
face parte din procesul de decizie i libertatea de
munc, iar acest lucru face ca ei s
experimenteze tensiune, frustrare, iritabilitate i
epuizare emoional. Astfel, studiul nostru relev
rolul de predictor al nevoii de autonomie n
apariia epuizrii profesionale i a dimensiuni
epuizare emoional a acesteia.
De asemenea, studiul nostru a identificat
nevoia de competen ca fiind asociat cu
dimensiunea cinism sau depersonalizare a
epuizrii profesionale. Acest rezultat este diferit
de alte studii realizate, ce sugereaz c nevoia de
relaionare este un predictor pentru cinism,
deoarece
cinismul
este
componenta
interpersonal a epuizrii profesionale care
implic o atitudine indiferent sau negativ fa
de alte persoane (colegii de la locul de munc)
(Leiter, 1991; Maslach & Leiter, 2008 apud.
Fernet i colab., 2012). O posibil explicaie
pentru rezultatul nostru este faptul c
nesatisfacerea nevoii de competen poate genera
sentimente de nencredere n propriile capaciti
de gestionare, rezolvare a sarcinilor i la un
randament sczut al muncii prestate n
discordan cu efortul depus. n plus, aceste
aspecte pot determina atitudini negative sau de
detaare fa de propria munc i colegi.
Astfel, angajaii care au o nevoie de
competen n mic msur satisfcut
experimenteaz trirea strii de depersonalizare,
manifestnd indiferen fa de colegi i detaare
fa de munc. Iar, angajaii care au nesatisfcut
nevoia de autonomie la locul de munc pot
ajunge la epuizare emoional mult mai frecvent.
61
La nivel conceptual, auto-eficiena se

suprapune parial (dar nu in toate situaiile) peste
nevoia de competen, ceea ce poate produce un
efect de mascare al efectului variabilei nevoie de
competen generat de prezena anterioar a
auto-eficienei. Dar, nu trebuie s neglijam n
interpretare nici semnificaia conceptelor. Autoeficiena se refer la credina individului c va
reui n diferite activiti viitoare, pe cnd
satisfacerea nevoii de competen se refer la
eficiena n activiti concrete, prezente. Ar fi de
interes, pe viitor, cercetarea mai aprofundat a
relaiei dintre cele dou concept, chiar n termeni
cauzali, n sensul c o auto-eficacitate sczut
este asociat unui nivel mai sczut al nevoii de
competen, deoarece o atitudine de nencredere
n propriile fore generalizat poate determina
satisfacerea sczut a nevoii de competen.
Rezultatele studiului nostru nu au identificat
variabilele gen i vrst ca fiind predictori
semnificativi pentru implicare n munc i
epuizarea profesional, cu o singur excepie.
Acest excepie a fost dimensiunea absorbie a
implicrii n munc, unde vrsta a fost predictor
semnificativ. Eantionul nostru majoritar feminin
poate s ne ofere o posibil explicaie a acestei
situaii atipice, fa de rezultatele obiunute n
alte studii. De asemenea, n acest studiu, nevoia
de relaionare nu este asociat cu epuizarea
profesional sau cu implicarea n munc
(inclusiv cu dimensiunile acestora). Acest
rezultat se poate datora faptului c aceast
nevoie a angajailor este satisfcut: angajaii,
lucrnd de mai muli ani ntr-un colectiv mare,
au satisfcut aceast nevoie i, astfel, aceasta nu
se asociaz semnificativ nici cu apariia epuizrii
profesionale, dar nici cu apariia implicrii n
munc.
Limite i direcii viitoare de

cercetare
Trebuie s lum n considerare cteva limite
importante ale studiului. n primul rnd,
aspectele studiate au fost msurate prin
chestionare de tip auto-raportare, fapt ce duce la
creterea riscului de dezirabilitate social a
rspunsurilor. n ceea ce privete participanii
studiului, putem identifica o limit important, i
anume: participanii acestui studiu provin dintr-o
singur companie, neexistnd o heterogenitate
ocupaional, ceea ce limiteaz generalizarea
rezultatelor acestui studiu.
De asemenea, studiul este corelaional i nu
62
ne ofer indicii solide pentru a susine

cauzalitatea relaiilor dintre variabile. Realizarea
unui studiu longitudinal poate fi o direcie de
cercetare viitoare care ar putea ajuta i la
generalizarea rezultatelor, i la identificarea cu
certitudine a relaiilor cauzale ntre variabilele
investigate, cum ar fi relaia cauzal dintre autoeficien i nevoia de competen.
n plus, n acest studiu nu am inut cont de
influenele din afara organizaiei, i anume de
impactul vieii familiale asupra angajatului.
Studierea interfeei dintre familie i organizaie,
n special aspecte legate de rolul resurselor
familiale n creterea implicrii n munc i
reducerea epuizrii profesionale, pot fi direcii
viitoare de cercetare, n explicarea relaiei dintre
resursele personale i implicarea n munc,
respectiv epuizarea profesional.
n ceea ce privete resursele personale, am
analizat doar dou dintre acestea, nelund n
considerare alte resurse personale care ar putea
explica o alt parte a varianei implicrii n
munc i a epuizrii profesionale. O posibil
limitare a cercetrii s-ar regsi i n faptul c am
folosit un instrument de evaluare a autoeficienei generalizate i nu o scal care s
msoare auto-eficiena specific activitii
profesionale. Luarea n considerare a altor
resurse personale (precum capitalul psihologic i
personalitatea) poate fi o alt direcie viitoare de
cercetare n acest domeniu.
Implicaii practice
Rezultatele studiului nostru au pus n lumin
importana direct a resurselor personale ale
angajatului, n special auto-eficiena i nevoile
psihologice, n apariia implicrii n munc i a
epuizrii profesionale. Astfel, ca implicaie
practic, organizaia poate ine cont de resursele
personale ale angajailor, pentru a implementa
modaliti de cretere i dezvoltare a acestora iar,
n cele din urm, att organizaia, ct i angajatul
vor beneficia de o mbuntire a strii de bine i,
implicit, la o cretere a performanei n munc.
De asemenea, angajarea persoanelor din
organizaie n activiti ce satisfac nevoile lor
psihologice, n special nevoia de autonomie,
duce la creterea implicrii n munc i se
asociz cu stri pozitive legate de munc.
Concluzionnd, n urma rezultatelor
obinute, exceptnd anumite limite ce pot fi
controlate pe viitor, putem infera c studiul de
fa aduce contribuii semnificative pentru a
pune n valoare aportul angajatului, prin

resursele personale, la dinamica i dezvoltarea
organizaiei.
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A Review of Empirical Studies Investigating Antecedents and Consequences

of Collective Learning Behaviors in Hospitals
Florina D. Spnu1, Adriana S. Bban
Abstract
This study is a systematic review of the field research conducted in medical settings investigating collective
learning behaviors. The review was driven by several research foci. Our main interest was in identifying
antecedents and consequences of collective learning in hospitals. We also report results on the types of research
questions addressed, research designs used, and types of medical teams investigated. Twelve studies met our
inclusion criteria. Our findings revealed that highly contextualized studies that use different ways of measuring
learning, different ways of conceptualizing medical teams, and different research methodologies, discuss similar
antecedents. Variables like leadership behaviors, unit interpersonal climate, and hierarchical position were found
to play a role in explaining organizational learning in hospitals across studies. We also found that despite an
intense public discourse on the link between collective learning processes and patients safety and medical
organizations performance, few studies actually report empirical data supporting this relationship.
Keywords: organizational learning, team learning, collective learning, hospitals, systematic review
Rsum
Cette tude est un review systmatique de la littrature qui examine les antcdents et les consquences de
lapprentissage collectif dans les hpitaux. De mme, nous rapportons des rsultats concernant le type de
questions de recherche adresss, des designs de recherche utiliss et les types dquipes mdicales examines.
Douze tudes ont rempli les critres dinclusion. Une srie dantcdents communs sont discuts par des tudes
bien contextuelles qui utilisent diverses modalits doprationnalisation de lapprentissage, de conceptualisation
des quipes mdicales, mais aussi des mthodologies diffrentes de recherche. Des variables comme le style de
leadership, le climat interpersonnel de lquipe et la position hirarchique ont un rle important pour expliquer
lapprentissage collectif dans les hpitaux. Lanalyse des tudes prouve que, malgr un discours public intense
sur la relation entre lapprentissage collectif et la sret des patients ou la performance des hpitaux, il y a peu de
donnes empiriques qui soutiennent cette relation.
Mots-cls: Apprentissage organisationnel, apprentissage en quipe, apprentissage collectif, hpitaux,
review systmatique.
Rezumat
Acest studiu este un review sistematic al literaturii care investigheaz comportamente de nvare colectiv
n organizaii medicale. Review-ul a avut mai multe obiective. Obiectivul principal a fost de a identifica
antecedeni i consecine nvrii colective n spitale. De asemenea, raportm rezultate cu privire la tipul de
ntrebri de cercetare adresate, design-uri de cercetare utilizate, i tipuri de echipe medicale investigate.
Doisprezece studii au ntrunit criteriile de includere. O serie de antecedeni comuni sunt discutai de studii foarte
contextualizate, care utilizeaz modaliti diferite de operaionalizare a nvrii, de conceptualizare a echipelor
medicale, dar i metodologii de cercetare diferite. Variabile precum stilul de leadership, climatul interpersonal al
echipei i poziia ierarhic au un rol important n explicarea nvrii colective n spitale. Analiza studiilor relev
faptul c, n ciuda unui discurs public intens despre legtura dintre nvarea colectiv i sigurana pacienilor sau
performana spitalelor, exist puine date empirice care s susin aceast relaie.
Cuvinte cheie: nvare organizaional, nvare n echip, nvare colectiv, spitale, review sistematic
1
Department of Psychology, Babe-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Adresa de corespondenta: florinaspanu@psychology.ro
65
Introduction
Mistakes and mishaps are a reality in
healthcare as in any other industry. In the UK,
10% of the patients admitted to hospitals every
year suffer some kind of harm due to adverse
medical events (NHS, An Organization with a
Memory, 2000). In the US, about 7,000 patients
die annually as a result of medication errors only
(Kohn, Corrigan & Donaldson, 2000). Half of
the adverse events that happen in hospitals are
preventable (NHS, 2000), provided that hospitals
develop their capacity to learn from their past
experiences (Aspden, Corrigan, Wolcott &
Erikson, 2004; Aspden, Wolcott, Bootman &
Cronenwett, 2006; Woodward, Randall, Hoey &
Bishop, 2004; Edwards, 2012).
Learning from medical failures and
mishaps
Although organizations can learn from
positive experiences, most often they learn by
reflecting on what went wrong in a particular
situation (Argyris, 2000). This implies that a key
step in facilitating collective learning is detecting
failures - the mismatch between an intended
outcome and the actual outcome. One important
progress in exploiting failures as learning
opportunities in healthcare was made through
implementing anonymous error reporting
systems (Mahajan, 2010; Cohen, 2000), but this
kinds of formal collective learning instruments
are not easily accepted by health professionals
(Iedema, Allen, Sorensen & Gallagher, 2011;
Waring, 2005). A qualitative study investigating
why doctors do not use centralized error
reporting systems found that fear of being
blamed, a busy agenda, doubts about the utility
of it, and also the believe that completing reports
is the job of nurses and administrative personnel,
were among the most common themes in
doctors discourses (Waring, 2005). Thus formal
error reporting systems might not always work
as expected in medical organizations. At the
same time, field research suggests that collective
learning tends to be a rather social, informal
process (Edmondson, 1999; 2002), in which a
key ingredient is the willingness to openly
address the causes leading to failure, so that they
would be avoided in the future.
Collective learning implies that people are
ready to engage in interpersonally risky
behaviors (Edmondson, 2002; 2004a). Admitting
ones own failure might be interpreted as
66
incompetence, unprofessionalism or even

laziness (Edmondson, 2004b), while discussing
someone elses failure might be interpreted as
lack of collegiality or even a way of bringing
discredit on someone (Leape, 2006). Collective
learning is difficult to achieve in any kind of
organizations (Singer & Edmondson, 2008), but
even more difficult in organizations in which the
main objective is to provide medical assistance,
and in which patients lives are at stake (Caroll
& Edmondson, 2002). Committing a medical
error can have very serious consequences for
patients health and their families well-being. At
the same time, admitting a medical error can
have very serious implications for health
professionals careers, and hospitals reputation.
Medical organizations have often been
described as working environments dominated
by a culture of fear and defensiveness (Leape,
1994; Waring, 2005; Leape et al., 2009; FirthCozens, 2001). Although health professionals
often have to team-up in order to perform highly
complex tasks that require intensive coordination
and teamwork (Rosen et al., 2008; Salas, Rosen
& King, 2007), it was found that engaging in
effective communication, even in matters
relevant to patients well-being, is rather
problematic (Reeves et al., 2009; Leape et al.,
2009). In a study investigating communication
patterns among health professionals, Reeves et
al. (2009) found that it is very common for
doctors to directly address residents and nurses,
but that it is less likely for residents and nurses to
speak openly when interacting with doctors.
These characteristics of medical organizations
set the premises of a professional context that is
more likely to block, rather than nurture
collective learning, and suggests that collective
learning might have different characteristics in
hospitals, in comparison with other professional
cultures that are less hierarchical, and in which
fear and blame are less of a stigma.
Collective learning processes in
organizations
The interest in how organizations capitalize
on their own and other organizations experience
in order to improve performance or to innovate
was initiated in the late 60s and early 70s
(Edmondson, 1996a; Edmondson & Moingeon,
1998). Driven by organizational consultants
interested in designing learning organizations,
early theoretical perspectives on organizational
learning described it as a macro-level,
organization-wide phenomenon (Fiol & Lyles,

1985; Levitt & March, 1988; Edmondson &
Moingeon, 1998). Recent field research found
evidence that different units (e.g. teams,
departments) within the same organization have
different learning rates and display different
learning behaviors and processes (Edmondson,
1996b; 1999; 2002; 2003; Sole & Edmondson,
2002; Wong, 2004), supporting the hypothesis
that collective learning in organizations is a
local, group-level phenomenon (Edmondson,
2002). Recent studies refer to organizational
learning when conceptualized as unit-level
phenomenon as collective learning, group
learning or team learning (Edmondson, 1999;
2002; Knapp, 2012).
Collective learning in real work groups has
been defined as the process through which team
members reflect upon their actions, and use
experience to improve future performance
(Edmondon, 1999; 2002; Wong, 2004;
Edmondson, Dillon & Roloff, 2007). Evidence
from different organizational settings suggest
that variables such as leaders values and
behaviors (Edmondson, 1999; Wong, Tjosvold,
& Lu, 2010), team interpersonal climate
(Edmondson, 1999; Carmeli & Gittell, 2009;
Kostopoulos & Bozionelos, 2011; Post, 2012),
team characteristics (Gibson & Vermeulen,
2003), or task characteristics (Edmondson, 1999;
Edmondson, 2002) are related to team learning
in work groups. Edmondson (1999) investigated
the relationship between a supportive, coachingoriented leadership style and collective learning
in work groups from a manufacturing company.
The author found that leaders coaching
behaviors were associated with members
willingness to engage in collective learning
behaviors such as asking questions, asking for
feedback, sharing information or experimenting.
The relationship was found to be mediated by
team psychological safety the shared belief that
one can engage in interpersonal risky behaviors
such as admitting mistakes or asking for help,
without being judged and rejected by coworkers
(Edmondson, 1999; 2004a). Psychological safety
was also found to mediate the relationship
between leadership style and team learning in a
sample of 101 teams from multiple industries in
China (Wong et al., 2010). Carmeli and Gittell
(2009) investigated the link between
psychological safety and collective learning
operationalized as learning from failures in
finance, electronic and software companies, and
found evidence that psychological safety predicts

learning. In a study of 156 work teams from the
pharmaceutical and medical products industries,
Gibson and Vermeulen (2003) found that team
diversity impacts collective learning, and
Edmondson (1999; 2002) reported results of
qualitative data suggesting that tasks
characteristics might also influence the types of
learning behaviors most frequently adopted in
real work teams.
Several field research studies found
evidence for the link between team learning and
team performance (Edmondson, 1999; Wong,
2004; Van der Vengt & Bunderson, 2005). In a
study of 57 teams in the oil and gas industry,
Van der Vengt and Bunderson (2005) found that
collective learning practices predict teams
performance. Similar results were found by
Wong (2004) studying 78 teams working in a
variety of industries, and Edmondson (1999)
investing team learning in 53 units in a
manufacturing company.
Aims and New Contributions

Our aim was to integrate the results of the
existing field research conducted in hospitals and
investigating organizational learning as a unitlevel, collective process. The final purpose was
to capitalize on the findings of the existing data,
and develop a conceptual framework that would
further inform field research on the topic. Our
initial research focus was on identifying
antecedents and consequences of organizational
learning in hospitals, and possible explanatory
mechanisms. When engaged in the review
process, it became evident that integrating the
findings of such diverse literature would be very
difficult without simultaneously considering
conceptual and methodological aspects of the
papers reviewed. We therefore decided to report
and reflect also on aspects such as: the types of
research questions addressed, the types of
research methods used, the ways of
operationalizing collective learning behaviors
and processes, and the types of medical teams
investigated.
Although other review papers have been
published on organizational learning or team
learning, they reflect on conceptual aspects (Fiol
& Lyles, 1985; Huber, 1991; Edmondson &
Moingeon, 1998; Knapp, 2010; Kozlowski,
Chao & Jensen, 2010), they integrate research
conducted on work groups from a variety of
67
professional domains (Kayes & Burnett, 2006;

Edmondson et al., 2007), or they take a different
perspective and report on collective learning as
an output instead of a process (Argote & MironSpector, 2011).
Our main contribution resides in the fact
that we capitalize on the results of a highly
contextualized and descriptive literature, and
develop a framework that is meant to inform a
more positivistic, hypotheses testing approach.
Our work is also relevant for organizational
development in hospitals, as we identify
variables that were found to facilitate
organizational learning across different studies,
in different types of medical teams.
Working Definition and Inclusion

Criteria
We define collective learning behaviors as
practices or actions taken by team members,
through which they share information and reflect
on their collective and individual behaviors
within the team, and develop new knowledge
and understandings in order to improve teams
performance. This definition is consistent with
Fiol and Lyles (1985) definition of
organizational learning, but sets the target of
analysis at the team level, as suggested by the
meso-level approach to collective learning in
organizations (Edmondon, 1999; 2002). The
definition informed the inclusion criteria that we
have used in analyzing and selecting the papers
reviewed. Given the diverse terminology used
when referring to collective learning in
organizations in recent research (Knapp, 2010),
we decided to include in the analysis studies
investigating organizational learning, team
learning, group learning and collective learning.
We selected papers that investigate collective
learning as a process as opposed to an output
of it (Fiol & Lyles, 1985; Huber, 1991; Argyris,
2000; Edmondson, 1999), and also as a grouplevel
phenomenon
(Edmondson,
1999;
Edmondson, 2002), having a clear interpersonal
component that distinguishes organizational
learning from individual learning (Fiol & Lyles,
1985; Senge, 1994; Edmondson et al., 2007,
Knapp, 2010). For example, we rejected the
study by Pisano, Bohmer and Edmondson (2001)
investigating the link between organizational
learning and performance in minimally invasive
cardiac surgical teams. Although both the
68
medical setting, and the working definition of

organizational learning used in the study
qualified it for inclusion, the authors
operationalize collective learning as reduction in
the procedure time which we consider to be an
output of the learning process, and an indicator
of unit performance. The same authors, reported
on the same set of data in a different study
(Edmondson, Bohmer & Pisano, 2001) focusing
on engaging in open communication, collective
reflection practices, and experimenting as
indicators of team learning. This second study
was included in the review. Another example of
a study that we excluded is the paper by Waring
(2005) investigating why physicians do not use
error reporting systems. The author interviewed
28 doctors from different departments, focusing
on individual believes and perceptions. Error
reporting is described as an isolated, individual
behavior, and no investigation or reference is
made to how health professionals interact and
collectively reflect on how to exploit this in
order to improve future performance the
distinctive feature of collective learning in
organizations (Fiol & Lyles, 1985; Argyris,
2000; Edmondson, 1999; Edmondson et al.,
2007).
Method
A systematic review methodology was used.
Systematic reviews are particularly appropriate
when the research field is still young, and the
existing data need to be integrated in order to
inform about the theoretical and methodological
issues that should be addressed in the future
(Pettigrew & Roberts, 2006).
We used a two steps strategy to identify
papers. First, we conducted a systematic search
of abstracts published in seven electronic
databases: PsycARTICLES, PubMeD, Sage
Journals, Taylor & Francis, Science Direct
(Psychology, Medicine & Dentistry, Nursing and
Health Professions), Emerald, and SpringerLink.
We used eight combinations of key words
resulted
from
mixing
organizational/team/group/collective
learning
AND hospital/medicine. The search included
papers that were electronically published before
May 2012. Whenever the search engine offered
this possibility, we restricted the search to
articles published in English.
A total number of 1397 titles resulted in the

search. After removing the duplicates, 1118
single titles were analyzed using the list of
predetermined inclusion criteria. The journal
articles considered for review had to: 1) be
written in English, 2) be published in peerreviewed journals, 3) report empirical data, 4) be
collected in hospital settings, 5) have exclusively
health professionals as study participants or use
sources of data (e.g. document analysis) that
would
allow
inferences
about
health
professionals learning behaviors, and 6) identify
or describe learning at group level and refer to it
as a process, as opposed to an output. We
included studies that used qualitative,
quantitative and mixed-methods research.
We excluded papers published in other

language except English, papers reporting on the
efficiency of medical procedures or treatments,
theoretical papers, syntheses or commentary
papers on collective learning in organizations,
papers presenting empirical data on individual
learning and teaching, or on training and
professional development of health professionals
as
individuals,
empirical
studies
on
organizational or team learning conducted in
other kinds of organizations except hospitals,
and papers presenting empirical results of studies
conducted in hospitals on other research topics
(e.g. health behavior, social work, economy).
The selection process is sequenced in Figure 1.
Combined (non-duplicate)
1118
Discarded after title review (1026)
Non- English (53)
Not related to the medical field (71)
Retained for abstract

review (92)
Reporting research on medical

procedures and treatment (238)
Discarded after
abstract review: not
conducted in hospitals
or theoretical papers
(50)
Medical school curriculum and teaching

(325)
Medical personnel professional training
and development (75)
Retained for full-text

review (42)
Reviews or theoretical papers on medical

issues (35)
Reporting results in other research areas
(psychology, education, social work,
economy, nutrition) (229)
Retained after full-text
review (6)
Titles added based on

the reference lists of
the full-text reviewed
articles (6)
Discarded after fulltext review: not peerreviewed, not reporting

empirical data, not
conceptualizing
learning as an
interpersonal
phenomenon (36)
Total number of articles

reviewed (12)
Figure 1. Description of the steps followed in selecting the articles reviewed.
69
After title review, 92 papers were selected

for abstract review. Fifty of them were
discarded based on the information provided in
the abstracts. The vast majority of papers
rejected at this step were theoretical papers or
they were presenting empirical data collected in
other organizational settings. Forty-two papers
were retained for full text analysis, 36 of which
were also rejected because they were not
reporting empirical data although this was not
clear from the abstract they were not
investigating collective learning activities but
individual learning, or they were not published
in peer-review journals. Six articles were
retained for review at this stage.
Second, we used the reference lists of the 6
articles selected in order to identify additional
articles that might have met our predefined
criteria and were not identified in the search we
conducted in the seven databases mentioned.
Forty-eight single titles were identified this
way. Twenty-eight of them were rejected after
abstract review. The rejected articles were
commentary papers, were not studying
collective learning as a process, or they were
not published in peer reviewed journals.
Another 14 titles were rejected after full text
review. In the end, 6 papers were selected as
meeting our inclusion criteria and were added
to the final list. The complete list of the 12
articles, in chronological order, and our
findings are presented in Table 1.
Results
Research methods used
Out of the 12 studies that met our inclusion

criteria, 2 used exclusively qualitative data
collection and analysis methods (Lipshitz &
Popper, 2000; Waring, Harrison, & McDonald,
2007), 6 used mixed methods designs
(Edmondson, 1996b; Edmondson et al., 2001;
Tucker et al., 2002; Edmondson, 2003; Tucker
& Edmondson, 2003; Drach-Zahary & Pud,
2010), and 4 used quantitative designs
Tucker et al., 2007; Hirak et al., 2012). Many of
the studies are predominantly exploratory and
highly descriptive (e.g. Lipshitz & Popper,
2000; Waring et al., 2007; Tucker et al., 2002;
Edmondson, 2003; 1996; Edmondson et al.,
2001).
70
Operationalization of Medical Teams
Seven of the studies report results on mixed

medical units, and 5 report results on nurse units.
None of them report results on doctors only.
When they report results based on data collected
in mixed medical units, some studies investigate
whole departments (e.g. Lipshitz & Popper,
2000; Drach-Zahary & Pud, 2010), while others
report results on long-term, stable teams with
very few members. For example Edmondson et
al. (2001) and Edmondson (2003) report results
from cardiac surgical teams with only five
members. Some studies report data on one or
two medical departments (Waring et al., 2007;
Lipshitz & Popper, 2000), while others report
data on multiple teams. For example,
Edmondson (2003) reports data on 16 medical
departments, while Hirak et al., (2012) report
data on 55 medical units. In most cases the
medical teams that were investigated were
selected based on availability criteria, which also
influenced the way collective learning processes
were operationalized and measured.
Operationalization of Collective Learning
The number of ways in which

organizational learning is measured almost
equals the number of studies included in the
review. In some cases organizational learning is
measured as error communication and analysis
(Edmondson, 1996b). Other studies report on
collective learning as engaging in second-order
problem solving behaviors (Tucker et al, 2002;
Tucker & Edmondson, 2003). In some cases,
engaging in behaviors like experimenting new
methods/ ways of doing things, engaging in
open communication, and reflection on current
practices are used as main indicators of learning
(Edmondson, 2003; Tucker et al., 2007).
Overall, most studies select either one or
several behaviors and processes previously
described in the literature as indicating
collective learning. A rather new and interesting
perspective is taken by Drach-Zahary and Pud
(2010) who describe the efficiency of collective
learning in terms of the chain of continuity
from the people reporting errors, to those
analyzing them, and further on to the people
implementing the results of the analysis.
Predictors of Collective Learning
Despite the diversity of methodological

approaches and conceptualizations of collective
learning and medical teams, there are several
antecedents of organizational learning that have
been identified and described across multiple
studies,
such
as
leadership
behavior
(Edmondson, 1996b; Lipshitz & Popper, 2000;
Edmondson, Bohmer & Pisano, 2001;
2006; Hirak et al., 2012), unit interpersonal
climate (Edmondson, 1996b; Lipshitz & Popper,
2000; Edmondson et al., 2001; Edmondson,
2003; Nembhard & Edmondson, 2006; Tucker,
2007; Hirak et al., 2012), hierarchical status
(Edmondson et al., 2001; Tucker et al., 2002;
2006; Waring et al., 2007), and work and task
characteristics (Lipshitz & Popper, 2000, Tucker
et al., 2002; Tucker & Edmondson, 2003;
Nembhard & Edmondson, 2006; Tucker, 2007).
Leadership Behaviors
Half of the studies reported on the role of

leadership behaviors in facilitating or blocking
collective learning processes. Edmondson
(1996b) conducted a mixed methods study
investigating factors influencing error reporting
rates in 8 nurses units. She found a high
association between unit error rates and coaching
behaviors displayed by the head nurse (r = .74),
and also the quality of the interpersonal climate
within the unit (r = .74). When exploring the
causes of these surprising results using
ethnographic interviews and observation, she
found that error reporting varied based on actual
error rates, but also based on the willingness to
report errors. Nurses were more likely to
acknowledge errors and report them in the units
in which the head nurse was working side by
side with all the other nurses, focused on
identifying solutions to problems, as opposed to
finding someone to blame, was perceived as part
of a team and someone who is willing to help if
addressed with a problem. This kind of
leadership behavior helped creating a work
climate in which nurses felt safe to report errors.
Lipshitz and Popper (2000) used
ethnographic methods to explore the types of
learning mechanisms used in two hospital
departments. They suggest that collective

learning was facilitated when the head physician
was using behaviors through which he invited
department members to communicate openly,
was receptive to suggestions from them, and was
open to discuss his owns doubts and errors.
Edmondson et al. (2001) also used
ethnographic methods to explore the factors that
lead to the long-term success of a new minimally
invasive cardiac surgery procedure. The authors
investigated 16 mixed medical units and found
that team members were more likely to engage
in open communication during the procedure,
experiment with new ways of doing things, and
were more willing to openly reflect on their
performance in the teams in which the head
surgeons got involved in selecting team
members, communicated the reasons why the
team members were selected and the roles and
responsibility of each of them, initiated dry runs,
asked for feedback and help from team
members, encouraged them to experiment new
things, and modeled reflection on teams
performance. In a different study, Edmondson
(2003) found that these kind of behaviors
displayed by the head surgeon were highly
correlated (r = .70) with easiness to speak up
reported by the team members (Edmondson,
2003).
Nembhard
&
Edmondson
(2006)
investigated the link between leaders
inclusiveness and members willingness to
engage in quality improvement efforts in 44
neonatal intensive care units. Leaders
inclusiveness defined as behaviors displayed
by the physician-in-charge through which he or
she invites and appreciates all team members
contributions
was found to predict
engagement in quality improvement work
defined as the willingness to participate in efforts
to improve units performance , at team level (
= .41). The relationship was found to be totally
mediated by psychological safety.
Similar
results were found by Hirak et al. (2012) in a
longitudinal study. The authors investigated the
impact of leaders inclusiveness on learning from
failures in 55 work units in an Israelian hospital,
and showed that leaders inclusiveness impacts
psychological safety, which in turn predicts
learning from failures measured four months
later.
71
Table 1. Results of the review conducted on 12 papers investigating collective learning processes in medical
settings.
Paper
Research
Questions
Research
Design
Operationaliza
tion of
Collective
Learning
Findings
nurse units error

communication
and error
analysis
Observed error rates vary across units of the

same hospital.
Reported error rates depend on actual error
rates, but mostly on the willingness to engage
in error reporting.
Willingness to engage in error reporting is
facilitated by a climate of mutual trust among
unit members.
Coaching behaviors displayed by the head
nurse facilitates a working climate in which
nurses are not afraid to acknowledge problems
and errors.
Units that reported higher error rates perceived
themselves as having higher performance.
Ethnograp department analysis of, and

& What kinds of
organizational
hic study
reflection on
learning
practices
mechanisms do
embedded into
medical
day to day
departments use?
activities (e.g.
What kind of
rounds,
organizational
meetings,
culture
periodic
characteristics
reviews)
sustain these
learning
mechanisms?
Different learning practices are used with

different intensity and frequency in different
departments.
Task interdependence seems to be related to
engaging in learning practices, especially in
Learning practices are facilitated by a climate
of transparency and issue orientation. Heads of
the units help create such a climate.
New knowledge created rarely crosses
departments boundaries, and it is rarely
formally documented.
New knowledge is embedded in the practices
and routines of the department.
Mixed
1. Edmondson What unit
(1996b)
properties are
methods
associated with
design
differences in
error rates in nurse
units?
Is there an
association
between perceived
unit performance
and error rates?
2. Lipshitz
Popper
(2000)
Unit of
Analysis
3. Edmondson, What group and Mixed

Bohmer & organizational
methods
Pisano
factors influence design
(2001)
the process of
adoption and
implementation of
a new technology
in surgical cardiac
units?
mixed
surgical
teams
open
communication,
experimenting,
and reflection
Engaging in collective learning behaviors

contributes to the long-term success in adopting
and implementing a new surgical procedure;
Open
communication
among
health
professionals
occupying
different
organizational positions is facilitated by an
interpersonal climate of psychological safety.
The head surgeon facilitates the development of
psychological safe climate,
Organizational support is not related to the
teams success.
What kind of
Mixed
4. Tucker,
Edmondson problem solving methods
&
Spear behaviors do
design
(2002)
nurses use?
Why do nurses
use the problem
solving strategies
that they use?

second order
problem solving
strategies (e.g.
signaling
problems to the
persons in
charge of
solving them in
order to prevent
them in the
future)
Nurses engage in first order problem solving in

90% of cases.
Nurses adopt two kinds of first order problem
solving strategies: 1. do whatever it takes to
solve the problem on the spot. 2. ask for help
from people you trust, even if they might not be
able to/ in charge with providing assistance.
Nurses engage in on the spot problem solving
strategies due to lack of time, due to the
relunctancy to address colleagues with higher
organizational status, and due to the feeling of
competency that it provides.
72
Paper
Research
Questions
Research
Design
Unit of
Analysis
Operationaliza
tion of
Collective
Learning
Findings
Mixed
5. Edmondson What team and
(2003)
organizational
methods
factors facilitate design
the adoption of a
new surgical
procedure in
multidisciplinary
surgical teams?
What leadership
behaviors
facilitate open
communication in
surgical teams?
mixed
surgical
teams
open
communication,
experimenting,
and reflection
Non-threatening
leadership
behaviors
(acknowledges his/her own mistakes, uses selfdisclosure, does not overreact when others
make mistakes, values members contribution
regardless of position, gives explanations for
decisions, praises team effort, helps coping
with power differences) contribute to success in
adoption and implementation of a new surgical
procedure.
Boundary spanning is highly correlated with
implementation success.
Interpersonal factors (social and emotional) are
more important than technical abilities and
organizational support and resources in
predicting implementation success.
& Under what

Mixed
6. Tucker
Edmondson conditions do
methods
(2003)
nurses respond to design
system failures by
actively seeking to
prevent them in
the future?

second order
problem solving
strategies (e.g.
signaling
problems to the
persons in
charge of
solving them in
order to prevent
them in the
future)
Nurses do not engage in second order problem

solving behaviors due to three main factors:
emphasis on individual vigilance and
responsibility in hospital settings, time urgency
and concerns about units efficiency, the feeling
of empowerment that one has when she/he
manages to solve a problem on the spot.

Tenure and professionals status were associated
7. Nembhard & How do
Edmondson professional
al design
communication, with psychological safety, but not gender and
worked hours.
(2006)
status, leader
reflection on
inclusiveness, unit
past experience The level of psychological safety varies across
membership, and
units, but also across professional status. Health
professionals that hold higher organizational
psychological
safety influence
positions report higher levels of psychological
health
safety.
professionals
Leaders inclusiveness is associated with
engagement in
psychological safety and it moderates the
quality
relationship between professional status and
improvement?
Psychological safety mediates the relationship
between leaders inclusiveness and engagement
in quality improvement.
What patterns of Ethnograp department sharing

Doctors prefer adopting single-loop learning
8. Waring,
Harrison, & behaviors related hic study
information and solutions due to a culture characterized by high
McDonald to patients safety
reflection
tolerance for risk, and appraisal of those who
(2007)
manage to find on the spot and unorthodox
and organizational
learning do
solutions in unusual situations.
surgeons and
Finding on the spot solutions is perceived as an
anesthetists from
indicator of high professionalism. It is
considered implicit that doctors take decisions
surgical
on their own, without consulting other health
departments use?
professionals.
73
Paper
Research
Questions
Research
Design
Unit of
Analysis
Operationaliza
tion of
Collective
Learning
Findings
9. Tucker
(2007)
How does
Correlation nurse units
psychological
al design
safety, problem
solving efficacy
and felt
responsibility
influence nurses
involvement in
system
improvement?
open
communication,
reflection,
experimenting
Hours worked/week is positively associated

with engagement in system improvement
(communicating errors to people in position to
fix them, suggesting potential solutions,
experimenting solutions) by nurses.
Organizational support is negatively associated
with system improvement.
Psychological safety and problem solving
efficacy are positively related with system
improvement, while felt responsibility is
negatively associated.
10. Tucker,
Nembhard,
&
Edmondson
(2007)
How do
Know-what learning activities (distributing
improvement
al design
communication, scientific articles to staff, exchange of
project teams help
reflection,
information with other neonatal intensive care
implementing new
experimenting units, reviews of the literature, site visits to
practices in the
other neonatal intensive care units, using
departments they
workbook with best-practices) were not
work in?
associated with implementation success.
Know-how activities (offering feedback before
actual implementation, inviting staff to
contribute with ideas, pilot runs, dry runs,
project team meetings, and problem-solving
cycles) was associated with implementation
success.
Know-how learning activities mediate between
psychological safety and implementation
success.
What kind of
Mixed
11. DrachZahary
& learning
methods
Pud (2010) mechanisms do design
nurse units use?
How does type of
learning
mechanisms used
impact medication
administration
errors?
12. Hirak, Peng, Does leadership

Carmeli & inclusiveness and
Schaubroeck psychological
(2012)
safety facilitate
learning from
failures in medical
teams?
Does learning
from failures
predict unit
performance?
74
nurse units data collection

and analysis,
generating
solutions,
implementing
solutions
Correlation department open discussion

al Design
of failure;
(longitudin
reflection on
al)
failure;
correcting the
causes that led
to failure
Integrated learning mechanisms (data reporting,

analysis, generating solutions and applying
them are done by all members of the unit) are
negatively associated with medication
administration errors (MAE).
Non-integrated learning mechanism (error
reporting, analysis, generation solutions and
implementation are done by different agents
within the unit) are highly associate with MAE.
Supervisory learning mechanisms (head nurses
identify solutions that are further implemented
by the unit) is not associated to MAE.
Patchy learning mechanisms (unstructured and
inconsistent mechanisms) are positively
associated with MAE.
The relationship between leader inclusiveness
and learning from failure is mediated by
Leadership
inclusiveness
facilitates
psychological safety, which in turn impacts unit
performance. This relationship is stronger in
groups with low performance.
Interpersonal climate
The quality of the unit interpersonal climate

was also found to be associated with collective
learning across multiple studies. Climate refers
to the norms, atmosphere, practices,
interpersonal relationships, enacted rituals and
ways of working developed by a team
(Anderson & West, 1994, p. 81). Edmondson
(1996) found that nurses learn from the way
error reporting was handled in the past by the
unit, and mostly by the head nurse. These
experiences led either to a climate of fear and
defensiveness, or a climate of safety. The rates of
error reported were found to be higher in units in
which members perceived that they share a safe
interpersonal climate.
Lipshitz and Popper (2000) found that a
work atmosphere characterized by openness,
integrity and issue orientation was more likely to
facilitate asking questions and admitting
problems, in opposition to a climate that was
perceived as formal and distant.
Edmondson et al. (2001) also found that
health professionals were more likely to censure
themselves and be afraid to speak openly in
surgical units that were lacking a climate of
psychological safety. Similar findings are
reported by Edmondson (2003). Psychological
safety was found to predict members
willingness to engage in quality improvement
work in neonatal care units ( = .62), to mediate
the effect of leader inclusiveness, and to
moderate the impact of organizational position
on quality improvement efforts (Nembhard &
Edmondson, 2006). Hirak et al., (2012) also
found that psychological safety mediates
between leaders inclusiveness and learning from
failures measured at a four months distance.
Tucker (2007) investigated the impact of
psychological safety on nurses willingness to
engage in system improvement tasks. Using only
one item to measure psychological safety, she
found a positive relationship between the two
variables.
Hierarchical Position
Hierarchical position was also found to

impact learning behaviors across several studies.
Studies reporting on this matter suggest that low
status employees, such as nurses and residents
are more reluctant to engage in open
communication
and
collective
learning
behaviors. Nurses and perfusionists were more
reserved in communicating openly in mixed
surgical units (Edmondson, et al., 2001;
Edmondson, 2003). A supportive leadership
style was found to reduce the perception of
power differences and increase the chance that
low status health professionals would feel safe in
displaying learning behaviors within the team
(Edmondson, 2003). Similar results were
reported by Nembhard and Edmondson (2006)
who found that leaders inclusiveness moderates
the effect of professional status on psychological
safety, which in turn leads to engagement in
work improvement in neonatal care units.
In an ethnographic study using interviews
and observation with 80 members of a surgical
department, Waring et al. (2007) suggest that
there might be differences in how different
categories of health professionals engage in
sharing information activities and reflection on
practice activities. The authors found that there is
a shared belief among health professionals that
certified doctors are more entitled to speak their
mind, as opposed to residents and nurses in
matters related to patients care, and that there is
little
communication
between
different
professional groups which leads to undetected
errors. They also found that it is more common
for doctors to use reflection on adverse events as
an individual practice, while residents are more
used to rely on their supervisors as partners in
this process. Nurses are more likely to participate
in collective practices such as incident reporting
and briefings.
Reluctance to address doctors, as a result of
perceived low professional status, was also
suggested as an explanation for why nurses tend
to engage almost excursively in on the spot, first
level problem solving behaviors and not escalade
problems to other high status health
professionals that were more likely to be able to
help (Tucker et al., 2002).
Work and Task Characteristics
Evidence of the impact of workload and

work volume on collective learning behaviors in
real medical teams seems to indicate
contradictory results. Nembhard and Edmondson
(2006) found no relationship between workload
measured as ratio of staff to hospital beds
and engagement in quality improvement efforts
in neonatal intensive care units. Similar results
75
were obtained by Tucker (2007) who found no

relationship between perceived workload and
nurses involvement in system improvement in
37 nurse units, but a positive significant
relationship between hours worked and system
improvement efforts.
Tucker et al. (2002) suggest that one of the
reasons why nurses adopt first-order problem
solving behaviors over second-order problem
solving behaviors is lack of time due to work
volume. The same argument is defended also by
Tucker and Edmondson (2003).
Although no substantial evidence was found
linking task interdependence and learning
behaviors, Lipshitz and Popper (2000) suggest,
based on qualitative analysis of ethnographic
interviews
and observation, that task
interdependence might play a role in health
professionals willingness to participate in
collective learning activities, especially in
Consequences of Organizational
Learning
Few studies investigated organization
learning as an antecedent for organizational
outcomes (Edmondson, 1996; 2003; Edmondson
et al., 2001; Hirak, Peng, Carmeli &
Schaubroeck; 2012). Edmondson (1996b) found
a positive association between detected error
rates and perceived unit performance (r = .76).
Edmondson et al. (2001) and Edmondson (2003)
report on data collected in surgical units,
suggesting that collective learning behaviors are
related to long time success in adoption and
implementation of a new minimally invasive
cardiac procedure. Using a longitudinal design,
Hirak et al. (2012) also found that self reported
data on learning from failures is positively
related to perceived department performance
three months later.
Discussion
The aim of this study was to identify papers
investigating organizational learning as a mesolevel phenomenon (Edmondson, 2002) in
hospitals settings. Twelve studies met our
predefined criteria. The findings revealed a very
diverse literature both from a conceptual, and a
methodological point of view. We have
organized our discussion section in two distinct
parts. Firstly, we reflect on the methodological
76
aspects of the papers reviewed and discuss them

considering the current state of the field research
on the topic of organizational learning in general.
Secondly, we discuss our results comparing them
to the findings of other studies conducted in
different organizational settings. We end this
part by integrating our results in a model
explaining collective learning in healthcare
organizations.
Overview of the Methodological Aspects
To summarize our findings, studies

investigating collective learning in work groups
in hospitals address a variety of research
questions, use a wide range of research methods,
and operationalize learning processes and
medical teams in very different ways. Despite
the differences, and the contextualized
understanding of collective learning from one
study to the other, three conclusions can be
drawn based on the literature we reviewed.
The first conclusion concerns the increasing
number of empirical studies that are conducted
on the topic of collective learning. One of the
most important critiques brought to the
construct, next to the lack of conceptual clarity,
is the scarcity of empirical data (Lipshitz &
Poper, 2000; Pawlowski, 2001; Kozlowski et al.,
2010). Our search of the literature identified 12
studies conducted exclusively in hospital
settings. In 2006, Kayes and Burnetts review of
team learning processes in real work groups
from different organizational settings also
reported on 12 studies. Only one of the studies
(Edmondson, 2003) that met our criteria of
having health professionals as participants and
being conducted in hospitals was also included
in their review. This indicates that there are more
and more studies investigating collective
learning in real organizations which might help
clarify some of the conceptual issues, and
contribute to the development of an evidencebased theoretical model of organizational
learning.
The second conclusion is that field studies
are switching from an exploratory, qualitative
research into testing precise relationships among
variables. When analyzing the papers we
reviewed in a chronological fashion, one can
easily notice how the studies have evolved from
open inquiry approach (e.g. Edmondson, 1996b;
Lipshitz & Popper, 2000; Edmondson, 2003),
into a more positivistic approach, using
quantitative designs to test hypotheses

Tucker et al., 2007; Hirak et al., 2012).
According to Edmondson and McManus (2007)
this indicates the maturation process through
which theory advances in management and
organizational research.
The third conclusion is that recent studies
(Hirak et al., 2012) take a cross-level approach
on collective learning in organizations (Klein &
Kozlowski, 2000). Kozlowski et al. (2010) argue
that the tedious progress that the theoretical and
empirical work on organizational learning has
had over the years, despite the interest from
different disciplines, is due to a conceptual error.
The authors posit that the macro-level
conceptualization of collective learning which
has dominated the field since the 60s brought
little contribution to understanding the
phenomenon. They draw on the meso-level
perspective on organizational learning (House et
al., 1995; Edmonson, 1999; 2002) and the cross
level approach to organizational behavior
(Kozlowski & Klein, 2000; Klein & Kozlowski,
2000) and propose a framework that
simultaneously considers individual and group
level inputs and processes, in conceptualizing
organizational learning.
Overall, although we took a picture of the
research field through the lens of only one
professional domain, our findings clearly
describes the methodological progress in the
field of organizational learning as a result of the
meso-level paradigm, and the empirical work
initiated in the mid 90s.
A Conceptual Framework of Collective
Learning Processes in Medical Settings
Across different studies, several variables

were found to be consistently associated with
collective learning: leadership style, unit
interpersonal climate, and hierarchical position.
Some studies suggested that work and task
characteristics such as number of hours worked
or task interdependence are also related to
collective learning. Few studies reported on the
relationship between collective learning and
healthcare medical teams performance. Figure 2
presents a framework that integrates the
relationships suggested by the studies we have
reviewed.
Both qualitative and quantitative data
support the role of leaders in facilitating
collective learning in hospitals (Edmondson,

1996b; Lipshitz & Popper, 2000; Edmondson et
al. 2001; Edmondson, 2003; Nembhard &
Edmondson, 2006; Hirak et al., 2012). These
results are consistent with data reported in other
industries also (Edmondson, 1999; Cannon &
Edmondson, 2001; Edmondson, 2002; Wong et
al., 2010). Leaders facilitate collective learning
through creating an interpersonal climate in
which members feel comfortable to speak
openly. This mechanisms seems to be consistent
in the medical field (Nembhard & Edmondson,
2006; Hirak et al., 2012), and in other
organizational settings (Edmondson, 1999). A
supportive, coaching-oriented leadership style
seems to be particularly relevant in medical
organizations, especially concerning the
employees who occupy low positions in the
hierarchy. As Kish-Gephart, Detert, Trevino and
Edmondson (2009) argue, there is natural
tendency of low status employee to fear
engaging in open communication when
interacting with a person holding a higher
organizational position. Some of the studies we
reviewed found that leaders who behave as if
they are part of the team and appreciate the
contributions of all teams members can reduce
the perception of status differences, increase the
feeling of safety within the team, and facilitate
members willingness to engage in collective
learning
behaviors
(Edmondson,
2003;
Nembhard & Edmondson, 2006).
The relationships are not as clear when it
comes to work and task characteristics and
collective learning. Some of the studies we
reviewed (Tucker & Edmondson, 2003; Tucker,
2007) suggest that work volume or workload
might impact collective learning. Although the
link is barely mentioned in literature on
organizational learning in general, it might be
relevant in the medical field. The literature on
job demands shows that health professionals are
among the employees experiencing the highest
levels of workload (Wood & Killion, 2007;
Carayon & Grses, 2005), and it appears
plausible that time constraints might prevent
them from engaging in collective learning
practices.
Studies conducted in different industries
suggest that variables such as task complexity
(Kayes & Burnett, 2006), or task routineness
(Wong, 2004) impact collective learning. Only
one study included in our review (Lipshitz &
Popper, 2000) identified task related variables
77
task interdependence as possible relevant in

understanding learning behaviors in medical
teams. One possible explanation for this is the
fact that studies conducted in the medical field
investigate either very specialized medical teams
performing the same specific surgical task
(Edmondson, 2003; Edmondson et al., 2001), or
medical departments as a whole performing
approximately the same wide range of tasks. In
either case, the groups were rather homogenous
in terms of task characteristics.
All of the studies that report data on the
relation between collective learning and team
performance found evidence supporting it
(Edmondson, 1996b; Edmondson, 2003;
Edmondson et al., 2001; Hirak et al. 2012),
which appears to be consistent with findings
from organizations performing in other domains
(Edmondson, 1999; Cannon & Edmondson,
2001; Wong, 2004). Although organizational
learning has often been described as an
antecedent of increased patients safety and
quality of care (NHS, 2000; Kohn et al., 2000;
Aspden et al., 2004; Aspden et al., 2006;
Woodward et al., 2004; Edwards, 2012), only
two of the studies reviewed report on the
Learning -prone
leadership
Behavior
implications of collective learning for patients

directly. Edmondson et al. (2001) and
Edmondson (2003), show that collective learning
is associated with success in adoption and
implementation of a new surgical procedure
number of successful procedures done over a six
months period after the first experience with
using the new procedure in the hospital. The
other two studies (Edmondson, 1996; Hirak et al.
2012) use self reported data to measure team
performance. Patients safety and quality of care,
similar to organizational learning, are constructs
that are rather difficult to operationalize and
measure. Conry et al. (2012) conducted a
systematic review of studies describing
interventions meant to improve quality of care in
hospitals. The authors reviewed 20 papers
published between 2000 and 2010, and
concluded that programs use very different
theoretical backgrounds and different ways of
measuring intervention success. Thus the
difficulty in capturing complex and multifaceted
constructs such as collective learning and quality
of care might be an important reason for the lack
of empirical data linking the two.
Interpersonal
Climate
Perception of
Status
Professional Status
Work Characteristics
(workload, work
volume)
Collective
Learning
Behaviors
Unit
Performance
Task Characteristics
(task interdependence)
Figure 2. Conceptual Framework of Organizational Learning in Hospitals.
Final Remarks
Several of the antecedents of collective
learning are well understood and supported by
findings of studies in many industries. Empirical
data from work groups in various organizational
settings found evidence for the relationship
between leadership style or the quality of the
78
interpersonal climate and collective learning.

Studies investigating these relationships in
hospitals are mostly qualitative, reflecting the
early stages of development of field research in
organizational learning in general, and further
testing of these relationship using quantitative
design are needed in order to refine an
evidenced-based model of organizational
learning (Edmondson & McManus, 2007). The

impact of professional status seems to be
especially relevant in the medical context, but
whether its impact can be reduced through the
contribution of the leader requires additional
exploration. Also, several other work
characteristics, task characteristics, and unit
characteristics are rather unexplored in medical
organizations, although some qualitative data
suggests that they might influence learning in
medical teams.
Support was found for the link between
learning and team performance in a variety of
industries, although it is still rather unclear how
collective learning impacts the quality of medical
services. Another aspect that requires additional
exploration is the type of learning behaviors and
their relevance for performance. In most cases,
learning was used as a global construct and
operationalized as a conglomerate of different
collective practices: error communication, error
analysis, asking for feedback, sharing
information,
reflecting
on
actions,
experimenting. It is not clear how different
learning behaviors considered separately might
influence performance.
Our work is not without limitations.
Although we conducted a systematic search of
several international databases that cover
publications with a wide spectrum: psychology,
organizational studies, and medicine, our initial
selection of papers resulted in only a small
number of papers that met our criteria. The
papers we selected based on our first strategy
made references to other studies that did not
result in our initial systematic search of
databases. For this reason we decided to apply
the second strategy of identifying papers by
using the references lists of the studies initially
selected. This led us to identifying half the
studies we reviewed supporting the hypothesis
that there are studies that might have met our
criteria that were not listed in the databases we
used.
Acknowledgement:
This work was possible with the financial
support of: Investing in people! PhD scholarship,
Project co-financed by the European Social
Fund,
SECTORAL
OPERATIONAL
PROGRAMME
HUMAN
RESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT 2007 2013. Babe-Bolyai
University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
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Mtiers, caractristiques et valeurs sociales attribues a la masculinit

et a la fminit
Crisanta-Alina Mazilescu1, Bernard Gangloff2
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to study, on a population of students of technical universities, the representation of
masculinity and femininity, and assignments made for these representations in terms of social value and jobs.
We observe, on the one hand, the characteristics associated with femininity, characteristics that are generally
oriented to emotional support, and on the other hand the characteristics of masculinity that have to do with power
and aggression. In terms of social value, characteristics associated with femininity are considered more desirable
than socially useful, while the characteristics associated to masculinity are assessed at the same time useful and
socially desirable. Finally, the attribution of jobs to gender characteristics obtained in previous stages, confirm
the link between male professions and characteristics of masculinity and female professions and femininity
characteristics.
Keywords: gender, femininity, masculinity, social value, trades
Rsum
Lobjectif de cet article est dtudier, sur une population dtudiants/es en sciences techniques, les
reprsentations de la masculinit et de la fminit ainsi que la valeur sociale et les mtiers attribus la
masculinit et la fminit. Les rsultats montrent que les caractristiques associes la fminit sont
gnralement orientes vers le soutien motionnel, la masculinit tant davantage lie au pouvoir et
lagression. Pour la valeur sociale, les caractristiques associes la fminit sont considres comme davantage
dsirables que comme socialement utiles, alors que les caractristiques associes la masculinit sont tout autant
values comme utiles que comme dsirables. Enfin, en ce qui concerne lattributions des mtiers aux
caractristiques de genre, les rsultats confirment la mise en relation des mtiers masculins avec les
caractristiques masculines et des mtiers fminins avec les caractristiques fminines.
Mots-cls: genre, fminit, masculinit, valeur sociale, mtiers
Rezumat
n aceast lucrare ne-am propus s studiem, pe o populaie de studeni ai unei universiti tehnice,
reprezentrile privind masculinitatea i feminitatea i atribuirile ftcute acestor reprezenttri n termeni de valoare
social i de locuri de munc. Rezultatele obinute evideniaz, pe de o parte, caracteristicile asociate feminitii,
caracteristici care, n general, sunt orientate catre un suport emoional, si pe de alta parte pe cele ale
masculinitii care au o legatur cu puterea i agresivitatea. n ceea ce privete valoarea social, caracteristicile
asociate feminitii sunt considerate mai mult dezirabile dect utile social, n timp ce caracteristicile asociate
masculinitii sunt apreciate n acelai timp i utile i dezirabile social. n final, n privina atribuirii de meserii
caracteristicilor de gen obinute n etapele precedente, rezultatele confirm legtura dintre meseriile masculine i
caracteristici de sex masculin, i meseriile feminine i caracteristicile de sex feminin..
Cuvinte cheie: gen, feminitate, masculinitate, valoarea social, meserii
1
2
Dpartement de Formation Didactique de lUniversit Polytechnique de Timisoara, alina.mazilescu@gmail.com

Laboratoire Parisien de Psychologie Sociale Universit Paris 10, bernard.gangloff@univ-rouen.fr
83
Introduction
Les strotypes rpondent un besoin de
simplification dans
le traitement
des
informations: lhomme se centre sur certaines
caractristiques, le regroupent en catgories et
ralise des gnralisations qui conduisent aux
strotypes (Poulin-Dubois & Serbin, 2006). Les
strotypes lis la nature fminine ou
masculine des individus sont des plus frquents.
Cette diffrence de nature conduit attribuer aux
hommes et aux femmes des comportements,
aptitudes, prfrences ou des personnalits qui
leur sont spcifiques et qui servent de point de
dpart pour les strotypes de genre (Wiggins &
Holzmuller, 1981).
Parmi les premires grandes tudes sur les
diffrences des traits de personnalit selon le
genre, on peut citer les recherches de Maccoby et
Jacklin (1974) qui tentent montrer que les
hommes seraient plus assertifs et moins anxieux
que les femmes; ou encore les travaux de
Feingold (1994), travaux selon lesquels les
femmes seraient moins assertives que les
hommes, mais plus grgaires, plus anxieuses,
plus confiantes et plus maternelles que leurs
homologues masculins. Plusieurs auteurs ont
aussi mis en vidence des diffrences de genre
bass sur les traits du Big Five, notamment en ce
qui concerne le Neuroticisme, avec des scores
plus levs chez les femmes que chez les
hommes (Lynn & Martin, 1997; Kling, Hyde,
Showers & Buswell, 1999), mais aussi en ce qui
concerne
lExtraversion,
le
Caractre
Consciencieux et lOuverture aux expriences
(McCrae & Costa, 1989; Feingold 1994 ;
McClure, 2000).
Costa, Terracino et McCrae (2001)
considrent cependant que ces diffrences
proviennent davantage de lintriorisation de
strotypes que de facteurs proprement
biologiques. Et il est effectivement mis en
vidence que les reprsentations sur la
masculinit
et
fminit
refltent
des
changements historiques et des influences
socioculturelles. Dans une mta-analyse Twenge
(1997) observe ainsi que sur la priode 19701995, soit en seulement 25 ans, le score de
masculinit a augment pour les femmes (r=.74
pour les scores du Bem Sex Rol Inventory -M),
alors que le score de fminit est rest inchang.
Les strotypes de genre ont une influence dans
de nombreux domaines. Et parmi ceux-ci, on
peut citer lorientation professionnelle. Mme si
84
la libert de choisir une carrire et une activit

professionnelle existe aussi bien pour les garons
que pour les filles, les strotypes associs la
division au travail influencent en effet les
orientations de carrire. Les parents et
lensemble de la socit entretiennent les
strotypes de genre et encouragent les
orientations de leurs enfants vers les professions
considres
caractristiques
dun
genre
(Fontayne, Sarrazin & Famose, 2000). Aussi les
orientations vers des mtiers atypiques, c'est-dire non traditionnels du point du genre sontelles quantitativement rs limites (cf. Cameron,
2001 ; Charrier, 2004; Guichard-Caudic, Kergoat
et Vilbrod, 2008; Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs et
Tamkins, 2004; Ott, 1989; Williams, 1995).
Ces strotypes proviennent souvent dune
liaison qui est tablie entre les mtiers et les
qualits ncessaires pour y russir: russir dans
un mtier dit masculin ncessiterait des qualits
masculines, et russir dans un mtier dit
fminin ncessiterait des qualits fminines.
Ainsi, des caractristiques comme tendre, doux,
affectueux, caractristiques habituellement
considres comme lies la fminit, seraient
ncessaires, cest--dire utiles (nous faisons ici
rfrence la thorie de la valeur), pour russir
dans les mtiers dits fminins.
Linterprtations des traits fminins et
masculins en terme dutilit sociale renvoie la
thorie de la valeur sociale des personnes
(Beauvois, 1995; Beauvois, Dubois et Peeters,
1999; Dubois, 2005; Dubois et Beauvois, 2001;
Cambon, 2002; Le Barbenchon, Cambon et
Lavigne, 2005). Les traits dcrivent ce que sont
les gens, mais surtout parlent de la valeur des
gens dans des rapports sociaux donns. La valeur
a deux formes: la dsirabilit sociale (affects que
lon ressent) et lutilit sociale (la valeur des
gens dans le fonctionnement social).
Notre tude se propose danalyser les
reprsentations sur la masculinit et fminit
dun groupe dtudiants/es en sciences
techniques, la valeur sociale et les mtiers quils
attribuent la masculinit et la fminit.
Mthode
Notre chantillon fut constitue dtudiants
et tudiantes inscrits en premire et deuxime
anne d'universit technique et rpartis en trois
groupes: 45 tudiants dans le premier
(17 hommes et 28 femmes), 30 tudiants dans le
2me (14 hommes et 16 femmes) et 40 tudiants
le troisime (20 hommes et 20 femmes). Ils ont

particip cette tude sur la base du volontariat,
dans le cadre d'un module optionnel
d'enseignement destin leur apprendre
enseigner les matires techniques l'cole.
Les membres du premier groupe ont tabli
une liste des 5 caractristiques quils associaient
la fminit et 5 caractristiques quils
associaient la masculinit. Ces caractristiques
ont t regroupes en catgories en fonction des
traits synonymes identifis et les participants du
deuxime groupe ont alors indiqu, sur une
chelle de 7 points, la dsirabilit et lutilit
sociale des personnes caractrises par chacune
des catgories labores. Quant aux participants
du troisime groupe, ils ont mis en rapport les
caractristiques associes la fminit et la
masculinit avec des mtiers: la consigne qui
leur fut donne a alors t dindiquer, pour des
listes de caractristiques donnes, 3 5 mtiers
pour lesquels ils considraient que ces
caractristiques taient valoriss.
Rsultats
Caractristiques associes la fminit
et masculinit
La premire analyse fut centre sur les

caractristiques que les tudiants d'une universit
technique associaient la fminit et la
masculinit. Elle a conduit deux hirarchies,
l'une pour la fminit, la seconde pour la
masculinit. Ces hirarchies ont t ralises sur
la base de la frquence des caractristiques que
les participants avaient indique respectivement
pour la fminit et la masculinit. En raison du
grand nombre de termes synonymes, les
caractristiques (N = 205) ont t regroupes en
catgories et les catgories ont t hirarchises
par frquence dapparition.
Nous prsentons ci-dessous les principales
catgories obtenues, dune part globalement (sur
l'ensemble des participants), dautre part en
fonction du genre des participants.
Analyses globales
Lanalyse des caractristiques associes la

fminit (tableau 1) met en vidence un set de
caractristiques renvoyant essentiellement au
domaine du soutien motionnel (affectueuse,
aimante, attentionne, maternelle, protectrice) et

aux interactions avec les autres (agrable,
plaisante, charmante, gentille, aimable, sociable).
La fminit est considre par les tudiants en
sciences techniques comme une mlange des
caractristiques
psychologiques
traditionnellement considres comme fminines
(par exemple affectueuse, tendre, dlicate), mais
aussi des caractristiques physiques (belle). Les
catgories les plus frquentes sont composes
tant de caractristiques positives (des qualits),
que de caractristiques ngatives (comme
linstabilit, lmotivit ou la fragilit).
En ce qui concerne la masculinit
(tableau 2), il est observ que les tudiants/es
indiquent gnralement des caractristiques
traditionnellement
considres
comme
masculines. Comme pour les attributions
fminines, filles, on observe, dune part une
mlange de caractristiques psychologiques
(dtermin, insensible, intelligent) et physiques
(robuste, athltique), et dautre part une mlange
des caractristiques positives (intelligent) et
ngatives (dur, cruel). Comme on le voit, les
caractristiques associes la masculinit
renvoient au pouvoir et lagression, ce qui va
dans le sens des strotypes du genre sur la
masculinit.
En ce qui concerne la proportion qualits
dfauts associes respectivement la fminit et
masculinit, on observe une rpartition presque
identique avec, tant pour la fminit que pour la
masculinit, des qualits hauteur de 90% et des
dfauts pour 10%. Il ny a donc pas de
dvalorisation des caractristiques fminines par
rapport aux caractristiques lies la
masculinit.
Influence du genre sur la reprsentation

de la fminit et de la masculinit
Les reprsentations de la fminit et de la

masculinit diffrent selon le genre des
participants:
- en ce qui concerne la fminit (tableau 3),
il y a une diffrence significative entre filles et
garons (2 = 4.73 ; p<.05), dans le sens o les
filles (12.14%) considrent la beaut comme
lune caractristique de la fminit alors que
seulement 3.53% des garons partagent cette
apprciation.
85
Tableau 1. Exemples de catgories des traits associes la fminit

Rang
Catgories
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Etc.
Total
dlicate, fine
belle
intelligente
souriante, heureuse
calme, quilibre
patiente, comprhensive
motive, timide, motionnellement instable
mnagre, travailleuse
spontane
dpendante
sre delle
incertaine
bavarde
ferme, inflexible
Forte
instinctive, intuitive
86
%
16.09%
10.73%
9.75%
6.83%
6.83%
6.34%
4.39%
3.90%
2.44%
2.44%
1.95%
1.95%
1.95%
1.95%
1.46%
1.46%
0.98%
0.98%
0.98%
0,98%
0,98%
0,98%
0,98%
100%
Tableau 2. Exemples de catgories des traits associes la masculinit

Rang
Catgories
1
puissant
2
3
4
5
6
7
responsable, fiable
8
fier, orgueilleux
9
confiant, optimiste
10
digne
11
courageux
12
heureux, blagueur
13
objectif, raliste
14
beau
15
diligent, travailleur
Etc.
Total
- en ce qui concerne la masculinit (tableau

4), on observe que 6.15% des garons y
associent le courage et la dignit alors quaucune
fille ny voient le courage et que seulement
0.71% y associent la dignit (2 = 6.15;
Nombre
d'apparition
33
22
20
14
14
13
9
8
5
5
4
4
4
4
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Nombre d'apparition
30
13
21
22
26
14
7
6
6
5
4
4
3
3
2
%
14.63
6.34
10.24
10.73
12.68
6.83
3.41
2.93
2.93
2.44
1.95
1.95
1.46
1.46
0.98
100%
p<.05 pour courageux; 2 = 4.13, p<.05 pour

digne). Mais les filles considrent que la
confiance en lavenir et loptimisme est une
caractristique de la masculinit, ce qui nest pas
le cas des garons (0%).
Tableau 3. Catgories associes la fminit selon les garons et les filles

indiqu par les
Catgories
garons
dlicate, fine
15.29%
10.59%
Belle
3.53%
4.71%
8.24%
15.29%
5.88%
2.35%
Intelligente
0.00%
0.00%
Tableau 4. Catgories associes la masculinit selon les garons et les filles
indiqu par les
Catgories
garons
Puissant
10.77%
3.08%
12.31%
9.23%
10.77%
3.08%
responsable, fiable
1.54%
fier, orgueilleux
3.08%
confiant, optimiste
0.00%
Digne
6.15%
Courageux
6.15%
Caractristiques auto-centrs et
caractristiques lis aux interactions
avec les autres
Partant du strotype selon lequel que la

indiqu par les

filles
14.29%
9.29%
12.14%
7.14%
5.00%
8.57%
2.86%
4.29%
3.57%
3.57%
indiqu par les

filles
16.43%
7.86%
9.29%
11.43%
12.86%
8.57%
3.57%
4.29%
4.29%
0.71%
0.00%
autres (besoins motionnels/psychologiques ou

physiologiques), nous avons rparti en deux
dimensions les caractristiques initiales que nous
avions obtenues: caractristiques auto-centres et
caractristiques lies aux interactions avec les
autres (cf. tableau 5).
Tableau 5. Rpartition dimensionnelle des caractristiques associes la fminit et masculinit

Associes la
Associes la masculinit
Diffrences
fminit (nbr et %)
(nbr et %)
Auto- centr
83 (40.5%)
140 (68.29%)
2 = 7.10 ; p<.05
Li aux interactions avec les
122 (59.5%)
65 (31.7%)
2 = 8.47 ; p<.05
autres
Diffrences
2 = 13.39 ; p<.05
(2 = 3.61; n.s.)
inter-dimensions
La diffrence entre les deux dimensions

montre que pour la fminit, le nombre de
caractristiques auto-centres ne diffre donc pas
du nombre de caractristiques lies aux
interactions avec les autres. Par contre, pour la
masculinit, les caractristiques auto-centres
sont plus nombreuses que les caractristiques
orientes vers les autres (p<.05).
Par ailleurs, lintrieur de chaque

dimension (auto-centre vs lie aux interactions),
les diffrences entre caractristiques fminines et
caractristiques masculines sont dans les deux
cas significatives: pour la fminit, ce sont les
caractristiques lies aux interactions qui
prdominent (2 = 8.47 ; p<.05), linverse tant
observ pour la masculinit (2 = 7.10 ; p<.05).
87
Dsirabilit et utilit sociale des

caractristiques associes la
fminit et la masculinit
Pour valuer la valeur sociale des
caractristiques associes la masculinit et la
fminit nous avons utilis les 4 chelles
employes par Le Barbenchon, Cambon et
Lavigne (2005) pour oprationnaliser l'utilit et
la dsirabilit sociales, soit deux items faisant
rfrence la russite dans la vie professionnelle
et au salaire (pour valuer lutilit sociale), et
deux items faisant rfrence la capacit davoir
des amis et celle dtre aim (pour valuer la
dsirabilit sociale). Lvaluation sur ces 4 items
a t ralise sur des chelles en 7 points.
Nous avons, partir des rponses obtenues,
ralis deux hirarchies, lune pour lutilit,
lautre pour la dsirabilit, afin daboutir trois
niveaux dutilit (utilit +, utilit 0 et utilit -) et
trois niveaux de dsirabilit (dsirabilit +,
dsirabilit 0 et dsirabilit -). Nous avons, pour

cela, calcul la valeur centre-reduite (les scores
z de la valeur de moyenne des rponses), puis
tabli les bornes + 0.25 et 0.25. Les traits
avec les scores z infrieurs -0.25 ont ainsi t
catgoriss dans la zone polarit ngative (soit
utilit - et dsirabilit -), ceux avec les scores z
situs entre -0.25 et +0.25 dans la zone polarit
neutre et les traits avec les scores z suprieurs
+0.25 dans la zone de polarit positive.
Comme on le voit sur les exemples du
tableau 6, les caractristiques associes la
fminit sont gnralement considres comme
socialement dsirables, mais comme peu utiles
(dun point de vue utilit sociale, les
caractristiques
fminines
sont
plus
frquemment classes comme neutres que
comme positives). Par contre, les caractristiques
associes la masculinit (vois les exemples du
tableau 7) sont juges tout la fois dsirables et
utiles.
Tableau 6. Dsirabilit et utilit sociale des caractristiques associes la fminit

Classe de
Exemples de caractristiques associes la fminit
5.76
D+
dlicate, fine
5.03
D+
belle
5.00
D+
6.32
D+
6.35
D+
6.08
D+
Moyenne
U
4.45
4.27
4.82
4.42
4.44
5.03
Classe
dutilit
U0
U0
U+
U0
U0
U+
D = dsirabilit sociale; U = utilit sociale; (D+, D0, D-) = (dsirabilit +, dsirabilit 0 et dsirabilit -); (U+, U0, U-) =
Tableau 7. Dsirabilit et utilit sociale des caractristiques associes la masculinit

Classe de
Exemples de caractristiques associes la
masculinit
Puissant
5.22
D+
dur, cruel, froce, insensible, indiffrent, froid,
autoritaire
3.83
Ddtermin, ferme, non influenable, tenace
5.66
D+
5.63
D+
5.03
D+
Moyenne U
5.43
Classe
dutilit
U+
5.37
5.82
6.18
4.72
U+
U+
U+
U+
D = dsirabilit sociale; U = utilit sociale ; (D+, D0, D-) = (dsirabilit +, dsirabilit 0 et dsirabilit -) ; (U+, U0, U-) =
Attribution des mtiers en fonction des

caractristiques associs a la fminit et
masculinit
En ce qui concerne lattribution des mtiers

aux caractristiques fminines et masculines, on
88
observe que les caractristiques considres

traditionnellement comme fminines sont
gnralement associes des mtiers fminins
(tableau 8), et inversement que les
caractristiques considres traditionnellement
comme masculines sont gnralement associes
des mtiers masculins (tableau 9).
Si lon met alors en rapport ces associations

avec la valeur sociale des caractristiques
associes la fminit et la masculinit, on
peut dire que les caractristiques attribues aux
mtiers masculins sont socialement dsirables et

utiles, alors que les caractristiques attribues
aux mtiers fminins sont dsirables, mais sans
utilit sociale.
Tableau 8. Pourcentage des mtiers associs aux caractristiques de la fminit

Caractristiques de la fminit
dlicate, fine
belle
% des mtiers
associes
83.7% mF
100% mF
100% mF
97.22% mF
100% mF
100% mF
100% mF
71.05% mF
(mF = mtier fminin).
Tableau 9. Pourcentage des mtiers associs aux caractristiques de la masculinit
puissant
% des mtiers
associes
100% mM
92.15% mM
92.86% mM
61,70% mM

courageux
digne
confiant, optimiste
fier, orgueilleux
responsable, fiable
100% mM
100% mM
86.67% mM
74.07% mM
74.2% mM
84.85% mM
Caractristiques de la masculinit
(mM= mtier masculin).
Conclusion
Lobjectif de cet article tait dtudier, sur
une population dtudiants/es en sciences
techniques, les reprsentations de la masculinit
et de la fminit ainsi que la valeur sociale et les
mtiers associs la masculinit et la fminit.
Les tudiants/es en sciences technique
prsentent la particularit dtre orients et
engags dans une filire universitaire de mtiers
considrs comme masculins. Sur cette
population de futur ingnieurs compose de filles
et de garons, nous avons tudi les
reprsentations de la masculinit et de la
fminit. Notre objectif tait didentifier les
strotypes de genre et de trouver des solutions
susceptibles de diminuer leurs effets sur
lintgration des filles dans les mtiers masculins
choisis.
Comme Spence (1984), qui a dfini le

phnomne de genre comme multifactoriel, nous
avons pris en tude plusieurs facteurs associs
la masculinit et la fminit: traits de
personnalit, attributs physiques, valeurs sociales
et orientations occupationnelles.
En ce qui concerne les traits de personnalit,
les rsultats nous montrent des reprsentations
strotypes de la masculinit et de la fminit.
On observe que les caractristiques de la
fminit sont lies aux soutien motionnel alors
que les caractristiques de la masculinit sont
lies au pouvoir et lagression.
En ce qui concerne les attributs physiques,
les reprsentations sur la masculinit et fminit
diffrent selon le genre des participants: les filles
considrent la beaut comme une
caractristique de la fminit, mais peu des
garons partagent cette apprciation. Par contre
les garons associent le courage et la dignit la
89
masculinit, alors que les filles mettent laccent

sur loptimisme et sur la confiance en lavenir.
Par rapport au strotype selon lequel la
autres nos rsultats montrent, pour la fminit,
un quilibre de rpartition entre les traits autocentrs et les traits orients vers les autres.
Ainsi, limage de la fminit oriente vers les
besoins des autres existe mais elle est issue de
la comparaison avec la masculinit pour qui
dominent les traits auto-centrs.
Sur la question de la dvalorisation du
fminin par rapport au masculin, plusieurs
tudes se rejoignent sur le constat quil y aurait
une dvalorisation du fminin, qui a
probablement ses racines au sein de la socit,
dans la famille, lcole, avec les pairs
(Fontanini, 2009, p.170). Pour autant, dans
notre tude, les diffrences entre les qualits
et les dfauts associes la masculinit et
la fminit ne sont pas significatives. De ce
point de vue, on ne trouve donc pas de
dvalorisation du fminin.
Les rsultats sur les reprsentations des
activits circonscrites la fminit et la
masculinit mettent en vidence que les
caractristiques de la fminit sont mises en
rapport avec des professions comme employe
de maison, serveuse, institutrice, infirmire,
coiffeuse, activits dducation et de la sant,
alors que pour la masculinit sont indiques des
professions prestigieuses comme chirurgien,
juge, directeur dentreprise, mtiers qui sont
lapanage des hommes et confirment aussi le
strotype dassociation des caractristiques
fminines avec des mtiers moins valoriss que
ceux rservs aux hommes.
Lanalyse des caractristiques associes
la masculinit et la fminit, du point de vue
de leur valeur sociale (dsirabilit et utilit
sociale), montre aussi que les caractristiques
de la fminit sont gnralement considres
comme dsirables, celles de la masculinit tant
apprcis en mme temps comme dsirables et
comme utiles.
Tous les rsultats que nous avons obtenus
dans cet tude soutiennent ainsi les approches
normatives lies aux strotypes masculins et
fminins,
o
ce
qui
est
masculin
(caractristiques ou mtiers) a davantage de
valeur sociale que ce qui est fminin.
90
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91
O poveste despre pasiune: Copilul meu sau locul meu de munc?

Studiu comparativ privind antreprenorii i angajaii
Alena Todorov1
Abstract
This study explores comparisons between entrepreneurs (N = 25) and employees (N = 25), in terms of work
motivation, adult attachment styles and burnout. The results showed that among entrepreneurs secure attachment
style is dominant, work motivation is supported by integrated regulation and the level of burnout is kept
balanced by focusing on their personal accomplishments. Among employees the fearful attachment style is
dominant, work motivation is manifested by amotivation, and burnout takes the form of emotional exhaustion.
The results are discussed in terms of theoretical and practical implications, according to the metaphor: the
company - "my child" or just a job.
Keywords: entrepreneurs, employees, adult attachment styles, work motivation, burnout
Rsum
Cette tude explore les comparaisons entre les entrepreneurs (N = 25) et les employs (N = 25), -propos de
la motivation au travail, style d'attachement adulte et burnout. Les rsultats ont montr que chez les
entrepreneurs l'attachement scuritaire est dominant, la motivation au travail est supporte via la rgulation
intgre et le niveau de burnout est maintenu en se concentrant sur des accomplissements personnels. Chez les
employs l'attachement la peur est dominant, la motivation au travail est montre par la non-motivation, et le
burnout prend la forme de fatigues motionnelles. Les rsultats sont discuts en termes d'implication thorique et
pratique, en accord avec le mtaphore : l'entreprise - "mon enfant" ou juste un boulot.
Mots-cls: entrepreneurs, employs, styles dattachement chez ladulte, motivation du travail, puisement
professionnel
Rezumat
Acest studiu exploreaz comparaiile dintre antreprenori (N = 25) i angajai (N = 25), n privina stilurilor
de ataament la adult, motivaiei n munc i nivelul de epuizare profesional. Rezultatele arat c, n rndul
antreprenorilor predomin stilul de ataament securizant, motivaia n munc este susinut prin reglare integrat,
iar nivelul epuizrii profesionale este meninut echilibrat prin centrarea spre realizrile profesionale. n rndul
angajailor predominant este stilul de ataament temtor, motivaia n munc este manifestat prin amotivaie, iar
epuizarea profesional ia forma epuizrii emoionale. Rezultatele sunt discutate n termeni de implicaii teoretice
i practice, potrivit metaforei: firma copilul meu sau doar un loc de munc.
Cuvinte cheie: antreprenori, angajai, stiluri de ataament la adult, motivaie n munc, epuizare
profesional
Antreprenoriatul este un subiect popular att

n rndul studenilor din cadrul facultilor de
afaceri, ct i n cadrul departamentelor de
management i cercetare. Cursurile universitare,
1

Corresponding address: alena.todorov@gmail.com
92
crile i revistele academice abund de subiecte

pe tema antreprenoriatului. Multe guverne din
ntreaga lume consider c antreprenoriatul
reprezint cheia spre dezvoltarea economic.
Dei de multe ori antreprenorii manifest o

form de ataament fa de propria afacere sau
idee de afacere, pe care o descriu ca fiind
copilul lor, exprimnd conexiunea personal i
chiar identificndu-se cu aceasta (Cardon i
colab., 2005), marea majoritate a definiilor
privind antreprenoriatul evideniaz doar
aspectul economic: activitatea antreprenorial
const sintetic n identificarea i valorificarea
unei oportuniti economice de ctre un
ntreprinztor, n vederea obinerii de profit
Ursu (nd., p. 6) sau cu alte cuvinte
antreprenoriatul const n crearea de noi afaceri
(Lafuente i Driga, 2007).
Prin aceast lucrare, vom ncerca s
reducem aspectul misterios al antreprenoriatului
printr-o perspectiv care coincide cu experiena
noastr de zi cu zi utiliznd o metafora
relaional afacerea mea copilul meu.
Metaforele mbin conceptele noi cu structurile
cognitive familiare. Cu ajutorul metaforelor
putem vedea paralelele i aspectele pe care le-am
omis (Cardon, Zietsma, Saparito, Matherne i
Davis, 2005, p. 27). Astfel, cu ajutorul acestei
metafore relaionale vom evidenia importana
sentimentelor n procesele antreprenoriale pentru
a obine o perspectiv auxiliar asupra teoriei
dezvoltrii antreprenoriatului.
Pentru a evidenia ct mai clar rolul pe care
l joac ataamentul n lumea antreprenoriatului,
vom realiza un studiu comparativ privind
antreprenorii i angajaii. Astfel, potrivit
metaforei prezentate anterior, antreprenorii sunt
persoanele care i definesc propria afacere ca
fiind copilul lor, iar angajaii sunt persoanele
care consider c firma n care lucreaz este doar
un loc de munc.
Pentru investigarea ataamentului att n
rndul antreprenorilor, ct i n rndul angajailor
vom utiliza elemente ale teoriei ataamentului.
Originile teoriei ataamentului sunt asociate cu
extinsele publicaii i cercetri ale lui Bowlby
(1969, 1973, 1980 citat de Lyddon i Sherry,
2001), teorie rafinat de Ainsworth (Ainsworth,
1989; Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters i Walls, 1978;
Ainsworth i Bowlby, 1989 citai de Siegert,
Ward i Hudson, 1995). Conform teoriei
ataamentului (Bowlby, 1969; Ainsworth,
Blehar, Waters i Wall, 1978 citai de Manning,
2003) sentimentele de securitate sau de
insecuritate apar din tendina nnscut a copiilor
de a se uita dup persoanele care i ngrijesc (de
obicei prinii) pentru satisfacerea nevoilor de
baz, de refugiu n timp de primejdie i ca baz
sigur pentru explorare. Experienele pe care

copiii le-au avut cu prinii lor vor rezulta n
modele de lucru sau patternuri de ataament care
vor continua s influeneze experienele
interpersonale pe parcursul vieii individului
(Harms, 2011). Aceste modele sunt bazate pe
schemele internalizate, cognitive, emoionale i
comportamentale cunoscute sub denumirea
modele interne de lucru. Aceste modele de lucru
sunt auto-percepute, au un caracter modificabil
n timp, iar astfel se poate ajunge la un mod de
lucru sntos, definit printr-un stil de ataament
securizant (Meredith, 2009).
Pornind de la teorii anterioare, Griffin i
Bartholomew (1994) au definit patru patternuri
ale ataamentului adulilor i ale ateptrilor pe
care adulii le construiesc n termeni de imagini
pozitive sau negative asupra propriei persoane i
asupra celorlali. Cele patru stiluri de ataament
sunt: stilul securizant, stilul preocupant, stilul
evitant i stilul temtor.
Dei multe cercetri privind ataamentul la
aduli i centreaz atenia asupra relaiilor
intime, n ultimul deceniu, cercettorii au artat
c ataamentul poate fi investigat i n cazul
sarcinilor de lucru. Spre exemplu, Pietromonaco
i Barrett (1997 citai de Manning, 2003) au
constatat c stilul de ataament influeneaz
modul n care o persoan se percepe pe sine i pe
ceilali, emoiile negative i pozitive i
sentimentul de apropriere n toate tipurile de
interaciuni interpersonale de zi cu zi.
Multe alte cercetri (Caldwell, 1995; Hahn,
1995; Mcclain, 1996; Neuson, 1998; Kummel,
1999; Corcoran i Mallinckrodt, 2000 citai de
Manning, 2003; Waight, 2006) asupra
ataamentului la aduli au artat conexiunea
dintre stilurile de ataament, atitudinile fa de
munc i comportamentul de la locul de munc.
Astfel, indivizii cu stiluri de ataament diferite
au caracteristici comportamentale diverse la
locul de munc. Spre exemplu, adulii cu
ataament securizant sunt mai sociabili i mai
negativ. Persoanele cu un stil de ataament
evitant au un nivel ridicat al satisfaciei n
munc, similar cu cel al persoanelor cu un stil de
ataament securizant (Hazan i Shaver, 1990;
Hardy i Barkham, 1994; Manning, 2001;
Toepfer, 1996 citai de Manning, 2003).
Persoanele cu un stil de ataament evitant
prioritizeaz munca mai mult dect relaiile
93
interpersonale, att la locul de munc, ct i n

afara lui (Hazan i Shaver, 1990), fiind mai puin
satisfcui de ntreaga lor via, fa de cei cu un
stil de ataament securizant (Toepfer, 1996 citat
de Manning, 2003; Waight, 2006). Cei cu stilul
de ataament preocupant i temtor sunt cel mai
interpresonale (Hazan i Shaver, 1990).
Persoanele preocupante raporteaz mai multe
boli fizice i psihice, anxietate i tensiune
crescut, mai puin persisten n sarcin i mai
puin satisfacie fa de suportul social pe care l
primesc, n comparaie cu cei cu un stil de
ataament securizant (Caldwell, 1995 citat de
Manning, 2003; Manning, 2001). Cei cu un stil
de ataament temtor lucreaz mai puin i sunt
supra-ncrcai n munc, fa de cei cu un stil de
ataament securizant (Vasquez, Durik i Hyde,
2002 citai de Manning, 2003).
Prin urmare, ataamentul se dezvolt nc
din copilrie, urmnd ca patternurile de
ataament s se menin n viaa adult,
manifestate prin diferite comportamente
observabile n relaiile interpersonale. Prin
identificarea i cunoaterea stilului de ataament
dominant se poate interveni la nivelul schimbrii
acestui stil pentru a ajunge la relaii sntoase
att cu propria persoan i cu persoanele din jur,
ct i n relaiile fa de munc. Conform
metaforei prezentate la nceputul lucrrii,
antreprenorii i iubesc afaceriile ca pe proprii
copii, nc din perioada de concepere, pn la
momentul n care acetia i iau zborul maturitate. Antreprenorii manifest fa de
companiile lor un ataament diferit de cel al
angajailor, nc de la ideea de afacere, la
punerea pe picioare a ideii i pn la maturizarea
companiei, momentul de exit. Cu alte cuvinte,
primul obiectiv al cercetrii este de a investiga
stilurile de ataament fa de locul de munc,
ceea ce semnific relaia emoional n legtur
cu munca n rndul celor dou categorii de
subieci. Pentru a atinge acest obiectiv propunem
urmtoarea ipotez de cercetare: 1. Exist
diferene ntre antreprenori i angajai privind
stilurile de ataament: n rndul antreprenorilor
va predomina stilul de ataament securizant, iar
Cuvintele pasiune i succes sunt nelipsite
din orice articol publicat pe subiectul
antreprenoriatului. Dac n cazul antreprenorilor
vorbim despre pasiunea, pe care unii cercettori
(Baron i Hannan, 2002; Branzei i Zietsma,
94
2003 citai de Cardon, Wincent, Singh i

Drnovsek, 2009) o numesc chiar iubire, n cazul
angajailor putem vorbi cel mult despre
angajament organizaional. Pasiunea este poate,
cel mai observat fenomen n procesul
antreprenorial i o caracteristic definitorie a
multor antreprenori de succes (Cardon i colab.,
2009, p. 511). Pasiunea a fost de multe ori pus
n legtur cu unitate, tenacitate, dorina de a
lucra ore suplimentare i persisten n faa
obstacolelor (Bierly, Kessler i Christensen,
2000; Bird, 1989 citai de Cardon i colab.,
2009). Chiar mai mult pasiunea poate alimenta
motivaia n munc, poate spori activitatea
mental i poate furniza sensul muncii de zi cu
zi (Brannback, Carsrud, Elfving i Krueger,
2006, p. 4).
Fiecare antreprenor, pe lng pasiune are
propriile motive pentru care dorete s iniieze o
afacere. Conform lui Marian (2007), principalele
motivaii n antreprenoriat sunt: dorina de
succes, dorina de a fi independent, dorina de
afirmare personal i profesional, insatisfacia
rezultatelor anterioare, dorina de a avea avere,
lipsa unei ocupaii sau a unui loc de munc.
Motivaia n munc a devenit un subiect
clieu n studiile de psihologie organizaional i
a muncii, fiind dezvoltate cele mai multe teorii
dect pe oricare alt subiect, i totui, motivaia n
munc reprezint piatra de temelie n dezvoltarea
teoriei eficienei (Baron, 1991; Steers, Mowday
i Shapiro, 2004 citai de Tremblay, Blanchard,
Taylor, Pelletier i Villeneuve, 2009).
Marea majoritate a teoriilor contemporane
asupra motivaiei susin faptul c oamenii
iniiaz i persist comportamente, n msura n
care consider c aceste comportamente le vor
aduce rezultatele dorite sau obiectivele scontate
(Deci i Ryan, 2000). Una dintre aceste teorii
este teoria autodeterminrii dezvoltat de Deci
i Ryan n anul 1980. Teoria autodeterminrii
este o teorie a dezvoltrii personalitii i a
schimbrii comportamentale auto-motivate
(Gavreliuc, 2011). Cercettorii au fost interesai
de modul n care oamenii integreaz i
internalizeaz motivaia extrinsec, ajungnd si regleze comportamentul, pentru a se angaja
autonom n activitile cotidiene. Teoria
autodeterminrii se centreaz pe natura
motivaiei,
care
reprezint
de
ce-ul
comportamentului (Ryan, Deci i Grolnick,
1995). Diferitele valene ale motivaiei se
regsesc pe un continuum motivaional de la
amotivaie, la motivaia extrinsec, ajungnd la
motivaia intrinsec (Deci i Ryan, 2000). La

captul extrem se afl amotivaia, n care
indivizii nu au nici mcar intenia de a aciona
sau
acioneaz
pasiv.
n
continuarea
extrinsec care se refer la prestarea unei
activiti doar pentru a obine rezultatele sau
recompensa
acelei
activitii.
Motivaia
extrinsec este subdivizat n patru tipuri diferite
de motivaie, ce poate fi relativ controlat de
diferii factori externi sau poate fi relativ
autonom. Aceste subdiviziuni ale motivaiei
extrinseci sunt: reglare extern (realizarea unei
activiti doar pentru a obine o recompens);
reglare introiectat (reglarea comportamentului
prin auto-valorizare neprevzut, de exemplu
stima de sine sau sentimentul de vin); reglare
identificat (realizarea unei activiti deoarece
persoana se identific cu valoarea sau
semnificaia activitii i o accept ca fiind
activitatea proprie) i reglare integrat
(identificarea cu valoarea unei activiti pn n
acel punct n care devine sensul vieii persoanei
respective). La captul extrem opus al
intrinsec denumit i motivaia optim ce
const n interesul pentru o anumit aciune,
exaltare i ncredere ce duce la creterea
performanei, perseverenei n munc i o stare
general de bine a individului (Tremblay i
colab., 2009).
Succesul poate fi definit prin obinerea
rezultatelor dorite n urma aciunilor sau
atingerea obiectivelor scontate (Deci i Ryan,
2000). Cu alte cuvinte, succesul unei persoane
depinde de dorina sa de a avea succes i de
modurile prin care obine acest succes. La locul
de munc succesul este msurat prin atitudinea
pozitiv fa de munc i performan
profesional sporit, ambele fiind constituite i
influenate de diferitele aspecte ale motivaiei n
munc att n rndul angajailor, ct i n rndul
antreprenorilor. Aadar, motivaia este o surs de
schimbare ce poate fi modificat. Conform
acestei perspective, motivaia reprezint un
element important n educaia antreprenorial n
rndul tinerilor, n modificarea atitudinii fa de
locul de munc i fa de profesie n rndul
angajailor i n mbuntirea performanelor
profesionale. Aadar, al doilea obiectiv al
cercetrii este de a investiga motivaia n munc
pentru a putea determina valoarea atribuit
obiectivelor i rezultatelor dorite n rndul
antreprenorilor i angajailor. Pentru atingerea
acestui obiectiv propunem urmtoare ipotez de

cercetare: 2. Exist diferene ntre antreprenori
i angajai privind motivaia n munc: motivaia
n munc a antreprenorilor va avea un nivel mai
ridicat, fa de cea a angajailor.
Dei exist cazul persoanelor care lucreaz
din pasiune, care se identific cu munca lor, fiind
motivate de atingerea succesului, la polul opus se
afl cazul persoanelor care simt c au euat,
considernd c munca lor este fr valoare, c nu
pot face nici o diferen n lume i astfel ncep s
se simt neajutorate, pierznd sperana obinerii
succesului. n cele mai multe cazuri, aceast
perspectiv asupra muncii i vieii duce la
epuizare profesional (engl. burnout) deoarece la
baza epuizrii st nevoia oamenilor de a crede c
viaa lor are semnificaie sau valoare, c lucrurile
pe care le fac sunt utile i importante (Pines,
2004).
Epuizarea profesional reprezint o stare
de epuizare, n care persoana devine cinic cu
privire la valoarea ocupaional i nesigur de
capacitatea de a executa sarcinile (p. 2)
(Maslach, Jackson i Leiter, 1996, citai de
Perry, Penney i Witt, 2008). De asemenea, este
descris ca rezultatul final al eroziunii
emoionale, exprimat printr-o stare de epuizare
la nivel fizic, emoional i mental, i un
sentiment de realizare redus (Pines, 2004). nc
din anii 1970, Maslach i colaboratorii au studiat
ndeaproape conceptul de epuizare profesional
pe care au divizat-o n trei faze: epuizare
emoional,
depersonalizare
i
realizri
profesionale. Epuizarea emoional este descris
ca oboseal sau lips de energie i sentimentul c
resursele emoionale sunt epuizate (Asuncin
Buzzetti Bravo, 2005). Aceast faz poate aprea
mpreun cu frustrare i tensiune n msura n
care persoana nu mai e motivat s i fac
munca (Cordes i Dougherty, 1993). Persoana se
simte epuizat i incapabil de a se recupera
(Maslach, Leiter i Schaufeli, 2001). Aceast
imagine ar fi prima reacie la cerinele stresante
de la locul de munc. Depersonalizarea sau
cinismul se refer la dezvoltarea unei atitudini
negative i insensibilitate fa de oamenii cu care
interacioneaz i fa de colegii de lucru
(Asuncin Buzzetti Bravo, 2005). Acest
comportament duce la conflicte interpersonale i
izolare. La baza depersonalizrii se afl
generalizarea, etichetarea i desconsiderarea
celorlali pentru a evita orice fel de apropiere
care poate fi epuizant (Cordes i Dougherty,
1993; Maslach, Leiter i Schaufeli, 2001). Lipsa
95
realizrilor profesionale se refer la senzaia c

nu se obin rezultatele dorite n urma muncii,
incapacitatea de a realiza munca i tendina de a
se autoevalua ntr-un mod negativ. Astfel se
ajunge la dificulatea de a obine performa n
munc (Cordes i Dougherty, 1993; Maslach,
Leiter i Schaufeli, 2001). Cu alte cuvinte,
angajaii simt c nu funcioneaz la fel de bine
cum au fcut-o la nceputul perioadei de munc
pe acel post, resimind un sentiment constant de
lips de progres, iar persoana se simte
ineficient, astfel crete sentimentul de
inadaptare i inadecvare, iar fiecare proiect nou
este considerat suprasolicitant, copleitor
(Asuncin Buzzetti Bravo, 2005).
Multe dintre cerinele locului de munc i
insuficientele resurse pot fi sumarizate n termeni
de constrngeri. Constrngerile sunt obstacolele
care interfereaz cu realizarea cu succes a
sarcinile de la locul de munc. Aceste
constrngeri coreleaz pozitiv cu rezultatele
nedorite la locul de munc, precum creterea
predispoziiei spre epuizare profesional i
reducerea nivelului de performan i satisfacie
ntr-o gam larg de ocupaii (Penney i Spector,
2005; Taylor i Barling, 2004 citai de Perry,
Penny i Witt, 2008). Antreprenorii se confrunt
cu o serie de constrngeri suplimentare n
comparaie cu angajaii n cadrul unei
organizaii. Ei se bazeaz pe propriile aptitudini,
abiliti i motivaie pentru ca afacerea lor s fie
una de succes. Adesea sunt nevoii s mai aib
nc un loc de munc, n plus fa de munca
pentru propria afacere, astfel ajung s extind la
maxim ziua lor de lucru, s lucreze n izolare,
fr prea mult sprijin din partea colegilor (Jamal,
2007).
Pornind de la aceast perspectiv, al treilea
obiectiv al lucrrii este de a investiga nivelul de
epuizare profesional al antreprenorilor i al
angajailor, pornind de la ipoteza conform creia:
3. Exist diferene ntre antreprenori i angajai
privind nivelul de epuizare profesional: n
rndul antreprenorilor nivelul de epuizare
profesional va fi mai sczut dect n rndul
angajailor.
Metod
Participani
Eantionul. La acest studiu a luat parte un
total de 50 de subieci selectai n funcie de
statutul profesional: angajai (N=25) i
antreprenori (N=25). Pentru a explica ct mai
96
specific repartizarea subiecilor n cele dou

grupuri, este necesar definirea celor dou
categorii profesionale. Conform DEX (1998),
angajatul a fost definit ca persoana care ocup un
post de munc n cadrul unei organizaii, firme
sau cabinet particular, iar antreprenorul sau
ntreprinztorul a fost definit ca persoana care
deine o firm sau un IMM, un cabinet particular
etc. Eantionul este format din participani cu
vrsta cuprins ntre un minim 25 i un maxim
de 40 de ani (M = 30, AS = 5.48), din care 33
persoane sunt femei (66%) i 17 brbai, cu
vechime n munc de minim 3 ani i vechime pe
postul actual ocupat de minim 2 ani. Toi
subiecii ne-au acordat consimmntul de a
participa voluntar la studiul de fa prin citirea i
completarea Formularului de consimire.
Instrumente
Stiluri de ataament au fost investigate prin
instrumentului Relationship Scale Questionnaire
- RSQ (Griffin i Bartholomew, 1994). Pornind
de la clasificri anterioare ale stilurilor de
ataament, Griffin i Bartholomew (1994 citai de
Gavreliuc, 2006), au nuanat abordrile
anterioare, definind patru patternuri ale
ataamentului adulilor. Cei doi autori consider
c adulii i construiesc anumite ateptri,
pornind de la imaginea pozitiv sau negativ fa
de propria persoan i fa de cellalt. Stilul de
ataament se refer la tiparul unei legturi
fuzionate, legtur constituit cel mai adesea prin
modalitile de relaionare cu ceilali, dobndite
n socializarea primar (Gavreliuc, 2006). RSQ
este obinut prin mbinarea a trei instrumente de
investigare a ataamentului: Dimensiunile
Ataamentului (engl. Attachment Measure Hazan i Shaver, 1987), Chestionarul Relaiilor
(engl. Relationship Questionnaire - Bartholomew
i Horowitz, 1991) i Scala Ataamentului la
Adult (engl. Adult Attachment Scale - Collins i
Read, 1990). Instrumentul de cercetare conine 30
de afirmaii cu referire la relaiile apropiate.
Participanii au trebuit s citeasc cu atenie
afirmaiile i s noteze gradul de potrivire al
afirmaie cu sentimentele lor fa de relaiile
apropiate. Scala de notare a rspunsurilor este de
tip Likert de la 1 la 5 (unde 1 = nu mi se
potrivete deloc iar 5 = mi se potrivete total).
Chestionarul RSQ investigheaz 4 dimensiuni
stiluri sau patternuri de ataament: stilul
securizant (5 itemi, ex. Mi se pare uor s m
apropii afectiv de alte persoane), stilul temtor

(5 itemi, ex. mi este greu s depind de ali
oameni), stilul preocupant (4 itemi, ex. mi fac
griji c alii nu m apreciaz n msura n care i
apreciez eu pe ei) i stilul evitant (5 itemi, Este
foarte important pentru mine s m simt
independent/.). Scorurile pentru fiecare pattern
de ataament sunt obinute prin media celor patru
sau cinci itemi, reprezentnd fiecare prototip de
ataament. Pentru a clasifica participanii n
modele de ataament trebuie utilizate scoruri
standard. Aceste scoruri se obin, n primul rnd,
calculnd media pentru fiecare din cele patru
subscale, apoi aceste medii vor fi transformate n
scoruri standard. Coeficienii alfa Cronbach (vezi
Tabelul 1) pentru fiecare subscal ating
urmtoarele valori: ataament securizant ( =
.19); ataament temtor ( = .65); ataament
preocupant ( = .37) i ataament evitant
( = .60).
Motivaia n munc a fost investigat prin
instrumentului Work Extrinsic and Intrinsic
Motivation Scale WEIMS (Tremblay,
Blanchard, Taylor, Pelletier i Villeneuve, 2009).
La baza acestui instrument de cercetare st teoria
autodeterminrii a lui Deci i Ryan (2000 citai de
Tremblay i colab., 2009). Conform definiiei
oferite de Pinder (1998 citat de Tremblay i
colab., 2009), motivaia n munc reprezint un
set de fore de energie care provin att din
interiorul individului, ct i din afara sa, ce
iniiaz comportamente relaionate cu munca i i
determin forma, direcia, intensitatea i durata
(p. 217). Chestionarul conine 18 afirmaii
referitoare la motivul pentru care un individ a ales
s lucreze n actualul locul de munc. WEIMS
este divizat n ase subscale. Fiecrei subscale i
corespund trei itemi din cadrul chestionarului.
Participanii au fost rugai s indice msura n care
fiecare afirmaie corespunde cu motivul pentru
care lucreaz n actualul loc de munc pe o scal
Likert de la 1 la 7 (unde 1 = nu corespunde deloc,
iar 7 = corespunde exact). Cele ase dimensiuni
ale motivaiei n munc, msurat prin
chestionarul WEIMS sunt: motivaia intrinsec (3
itemi, ex. Deoarece mi face mare plcere s
nv lucruri noi), motivaia extrinsec msurat
prin patru dimensiuni: reglare integrat (3 itemi,
ex. Din cauz c acest loc de munc este parte
din viaa mea), identificat (3 itemi, ex.
Deoarece am ales acest gen de munc pentru ami atinge elurile n carier), introiectat (3
itemi, ex. Deoarece doresc s fiu ctigtor n
via) i extren (3 itemi, ex. Pentru venitul pe

care mi-l asigur) i amotivaia (3 itemi, ex. Nu
tiu de ce, ni se ofer condiii de lucru ireale).
Sistemul de scorare al WEIMS se realizeaz
pentru fiecare dimensiune prin suma scorurilor la
itemii aparinnd fiecrei dimensiuni. Coeficienii
alfa Cronbach (vezi Tabelul 1) pentru fiecare
subscal ating urmtoarele valori: motivaie
intrinsec ( = .86), reglare integrat ( = .87),
reglare identificat ( = .76), reglare introiectat
( = .82), reglare extern ( = .79) i amotivaie (
= .69).
Epuizarea emoional a fost investigat prin
varianta tradus a instrumentul de cercetare
Maslach Burnout Inventory MBI (Maslach,
Jackson i Leiter, 1996). Acest chestionar
investigheaz sentimentele i gndurile implicate
n interaciunea persoanelor la locul de munc.
Prima variant a MBI a avut 47 de itemi i
msura 10 tipuri ale epuizrii profesionale,
varianta a doua cu 27 de itemi care msura 4
tipuri de burnout, iar n cele din urm s-a ajuns la
varianta final cu cei 22 de itemi care msoar 3
tipuri de burnout (Cordes i Dougherty, 1993).
Acest instrument a generat un volum mare de
studii i cercetri cu privire la burnout sau
epuizare profesional, fiind primul instrument
validat tiinific pe aceast tem (Maslach,
2003). Participanii au trebuit s citeasc cu
atenie cele 22 de afirmai i s indice frecvena
de potrivire sau ct de des se manifest fiecare
dintre afirmaii. Scala de notare a rspunsurilor
este de tip Likert (de frecven, nu de preferin)
de la 1 la 7 (1 = niciodat pn la 7 = zilnic).
Chestionarul MBI investigheaz 3 dimensiuni
ale epuizrii profesionale: epuizare emoional
(9 itemi, ex. M simt epuizat/ din cauza
muncii), depersonalizare (5 itemi, ex. De cnd
lucrez n acest post am devenit mai nepsator
fa de ceilali) i realizrile profesionale (8
itemi, ex. 9. De cnd lucrez n acest post simt
c i influenez pozitiv pe ceilali). La fiecare
item subiectul poate s obin un scor ntre 1 i 7
puncte (1 niciodat, 2 - de cteva ori pe an sau
mai puin, 3 - o dat pe lun sau mai puin, 4
de cteva ori pe lun, 5 o dat pe sptmn, 6
- de cteva ori pe sptmn, 7 zilnic). Cota
final pentru fiecare dimensiune n parte se
obine prin nsumarea cifrelor corespunztoare
bifate de subiect. Coeficienii alfa Cronbach
(vezi Tabelul 1) pentru fiecare subscal ating
urmtoarele valori: epuizare emoional ( =
.82), depersonalizare ( = .73) i realizri
profesionale ( = .65).
97
Tabelul 1. Statistici descriptive, Valori consisten intren a probelor (alfa Cronbach) i coeficienii de corelaie
r Pearson pentru subdimensiunile variabilelor studiate
Statistici
Variabile
AS
Stiluri de ataament
Securizant (S)
16.58 2.03
Temtor (T)
Preocupant (P)
Evitant (E)
10.96 3.24
11.68 2.58
15.80 3.61
Motivaia n munc
Intrinsec (I)
Reglare integrat (RInte)
Reglare identificat (RId)
Reglare introiectat (RIntr)
Reglare extern (RExt)
Amotivaie (Am)
15.04
13.24
13.06
10.74
12.22
5.72
Subdimensiuni Stiluri
de ataament
(.19)
Subdimensiuni Motivaia
n munc
Subdimensiuni
Epuizare
profesional
RInte RId RIntr RExt AM
EE
- -.02 -.44 .20 .15

.43**
(.65) .14 .61** -.00 -.08
(.37) -.07 .10 .12
(.60) .11 -.03
4.33
5.06
4.92
5.23
4.94
2.87
.17
.05
.09 -.37
RP
-.17 -.24 .30*
.50 .21 .11 .52** .55* .64** -.14

.19 .40** .07 .16
.24 .23 -.20
.18 .17 .09 .44** .42** .41** -.45
(.86) .53** .77** .61**

(.87) .67** .45**
(.76) .66**
(.82)
Epuizare emoional (EE) 25.22 10.50
Depersonalizare (D)
9.68 4.71
Realizri profesionale (RP) 40.92 6.71
.28*
-.03
.22
.17
(.79)
-.09 -.12 -.25 .27

-.23 -.22 -.17 .31*
-.08 -.04 -.19 .19
.18
.14 .12 -.01
.07
.20 .08 -.04
(.69) .67** .58** .47**
(.82) .75** -.34*
(.73) -.30*
(.65)
Legend: N = 50.
* p < .05 ** p < .01
Procedur
Pentru a atinge obiectivele propuse, am
realizat un studiu non-experimental comparativ
privind antreprenorii i angajaii. Pentru a putea
colecta un numr ct mai mare de date, innd
cont de criteriile de selecie ale eantionului
(antreprenori i angajai), am utilizat metoda
chestionarelor online. Alturi de Formularul de
consimire, setul a coninut un numr de 4
chestionare: Chestionar Relaii apropiate
Stiluri de ataament (RSQ varianta tradus i
adaptat); Chestionar MBI (Maslach Burnout
Inventory varianta tradus); Chestionar De ce ai
ales acest loc de munc? (WEIMS varianta
tradus i adaptat) i Datele demografice. Acest
set de chestionare a fost distribuit online prin mai
multe canale de comunicare, precum: Linkedin;
98
Facebook i prin e-mail: grupurile de Yahoo ale

studenilor i masteranzilor la psihologie i emailuri personalizate ctre persoanele de contact
cu statutul de antreprenori (persoane care dein
cabinete individuale: psihologie, traduceri,
notariat). Completarea chestionarelor nu a
depit 20-25 de minute. n scop de recompens,
cei care i-au trecut adresa de e-mail, au primit
profilul psihologic rezultat din chestionarele
completate.
Rezultate
n vederea testrii celor trei ipoteze am
utilizat instrumentul de analiz comparativ:
testul t pentru eantioane independente.
Rezultatele testului t se regsec n Tabelul 1.
Tabelul 2. Statistici descriptive i rezultatele testului t independent ale antreprenorilor (N = 25) i angajailor
(N = 25)
Comparaii antreprenori i
angajai
Media (AS)
Variabile
Antreprenori
Angajai
t (d)
Ataament Securizant
Ataament Temtor
Ataament Preocupant
Ataament Evitant
17.44
9.92
12.00
15.08
(1.7)
(3.0)
(2.7)
(3.5)
15.72
12.00
11.36
16.52
(1.9)
(3.1)
(2.3)
(3.6)
3.27
-2.37
.87
-1.42
(.00)
(.02)
(.38)
(.16)
M. Intrinsec
Reglare integrat
Reglare identificat
Reglare introiectat
Reglare extern
Amotivaie
15.40
15.36
13.80
10.76
11.64
4.68
(3.7)
(3.8)
(4.5)
(5.3)
(5.3)
(1.7)
14.68
11.12
12.32
10.72
12.80
6.76
(4.9)
(5.3)
(5.2)
(5.2)
(4.5)
(3.4)
.58
3.23
1.06
.02
-.82
-2.72
(.56)
(.00)
(.29)
(.97)
(.41)
(.01)
Epuizare emoional
Depersonalizare
Realizri profesionale
21.92 (8.8)
8.96 (4.6)
43.04 (7.2)
28.52 (11.1)
10.40 (4.7)
38.80 (5.5)
1.15 (.02)
.11 (.28)
.98 (.02)
Not. df = 48.

antreprenori i angajai privind stilurile de
ataament: n rndul antreprenorilor va
predomina stilul de ataament securizant, iar
Conform
rezultatelor,
n
rndul
antreprenorilor se regsesc mai multe persoane
cu un stil de ataament securizant (t(48) = 3.27,
p < .01). Acest aspect evideniaz o imagine
pozitiv a antreprenorilor att asupra propriei
persoane, ct i asupra celorlali. Potrivit stilului
de ataament securizant, n comparaie cu
angajaii, antreprenorii sunt mai sociabili i mai
negativ, avnd relaii apropiate cu ceilali.
n rndul angajailor, spre deosebire de
antreprenori se regsesc mai multe persoane cu
un stil de ataament temtor (t(48) = -2.37, p <
.05). Stilul de ataament temtor este la polul
opus fa de stilul de ataament securizant,
deoarece persoanele cu un stil de ataament
temtor nu au o prere pozitiv despre propria
persoan, dar nici despre ceilali i astfel se simt
ambivaleni fa de relaiile interpersonale.
Potrivit caracteristicilor stilul de ataament

temtor, putem afirma c angajaii, spre
deosebire de antreprenori, sunt considerai de
ceilali ca fiind reci i pasivi, au puin stim de
sine i ncredere n mediul social, sunt cel mai
interpresonale.
antreprenori i angajai privind motivaia n
munc: n rndul antreprenorilor motivaia
n munc va avea un nivel mai ridicat, fa de
cea a angajailor.
Potrivit rezultatelor prezentate n Tabelul 1,
antreprenorii, spre deosebire de angajai, i
susin motivaia n munc prin reglare integrat
(t(48) = 3.23, p < .01). Putem afirma c, n cazul
antreprenorilor, forma, direcia, intensitatea i
durata comportamentelor relaionate cu munca se
datoreaz identificrii personale cu valoarea unei
activiti ce poate deveni sensul vieii. Acest tip
de motivaie, dei este o motivaie extrinsec, e
profund internalizat, astfel sarcinile de lucru pot
fi evaluate i raportate la nevoile i valorile
individului.
Spre deosebire de antreprenori, angajaii i
exprim motivaia n munc prin amotivaie
99
(t(48) = -2.72, p < .01). Conform rezultatelor, se

poate afirma c, n sarcinile de munc, angajaii
acioneaz fr intenie sau nu acioneaz deloc,
iar n cazurile n care acioneaz, antrenarea n
sarcinile de lucru se produce ntr-un mod pasiv
executat automat.
antreprenori i angajai privind nivelul de
epuizare
profesional:
n
rndul
antreprenorilor
nivelul
de
epuizare
profesional va fi mai sczut, dect n rndul
angajailor.
Conform analizei rezultatelor, angajaii au
un nivel mai ridicat de epuizare emoional dect
antreprenorii (t(48) = -2.31, p < .05). Aadar,
putem afirma c angajaii sunt mai predispui la
pierderea resurselor emoionale, pierdere
resimit prin sentimente de saturaie i oboseal
emoional datorate muncii pe care o presteaz.
n privina antreprenorilor, pentru acest grup
profesional, realizrile profesionale au o
importan mai mare dect pentru angajai (t(48)
= 2.33, p < .05). Se poate afirma faptul c,
antreprenorii au tendina de a-i evalua pozitiv
activitatea n sarcinile de lucru, au un sentiment
de competen i eficien n munc i resimt
succes profesional.
Discuii
Conform teoriei ataamentului, interaciunile
timpurii dintre copil i ngrijitorul primar sunt
internalizate i encodate ca modele de lucru
interne, cu funcie de predicie a interaciunilor n
relaii apropiate (Kurdek, 2002). La vrsta adult,
aceste modele de lucru ale ataamentului
funcioneaz ca structuri interne pe baza crora
oamenii i organizeaz experienele lor de via
(Bartholomew i Horowitz, 1991). Aadar stilul
de ataament, respectiv modelele interne despre
sine i ceilali, formate n contextul relaiilor de
ataament timpurii, au influen semnificativ
asupra funcionrii intrapersonale: stima de sine
(perspectiva asupra propriei persoane) i
barometru social (perspectiva asupra celorlali);
autoreglare emoional; starea de bine (prin
satisfacerea nevoilor fundamentale de baz,
inclusiv nevoia de apartenen); sntatea
mental; i asupra funcionrii interpersonale a
adultului: singurtatea, n special cea emoional,
i problemele interpersonale (Kurdek, 2002).
Rezultatele primei ipoteze confirm faptul
c n cazul antreprenorilor, vorbim despre un stil
100
de ataament securizant, spre deosebire de

angajai care au un stil de ataament temtor.
Potrivit studiilor ntreprinse de Waight (2006),
90% dintre antreprenori au un stil de ataament
securizant, datorat perspectiva pozitiv asupra
propriei persoane provenit dintr-o stim de sine
ridicat i ncredere n forele i ideile proprii
puse n aplicare prin pasiune i dorin de succes.
De asemenea, conform metaforei prezentate la
nceputul lucrrii, antreprenorul este printele,
iar afacerea lui este copilul su. Att n lumea
antreprenoriatului, ct i n lumea prinilor,
pasiunea contribuie la identificarea i formarea
ataamentului. Astfel, n cazul unui ataament de
tip securizant, o dat cu creterea copilului,
printele i ofer treptat acestuia independen pe
care copilul o va folosi pentru o dezvoltare
sntoas i sigur, securizant (Cardon i
colab., 2005). Cu alte cuvinte, n rndul
antreprenorilor, stilul de ataament securizant
contribuie la succesul afacerii - de la idee, la
crearea i dezvoltarea acesteia, prin imaginea
pozitiv asupra propriei persoane care
favorizeaz asumarea responsabilitiilor ce apar
o dat cu maturizarea copilului- afacerii.
La polul opus al stilului de ataament
securizant, dominant n cazul antreprenorilor, se
afl stilul de ataament temtor, preponderent n
cazul angajailor. Stilul de ataament temtor se
refer la o imagine negativ asupra propriei
persoane i asupra celorlali, un sentiment de
inadaptabilitate i nencredere n propria
persoan i n relaiile cu ceilali, sentimente de
team i fric de respingere (Griffin i
Bartholomew, 1994; Hazan i Shaver, 1990).
Rezultatele studiului de fa sunt susinute de
cercetrile ntreprinse de Kurstedt (2002, citat de
Adams, 2004) care relev faptul c muli angajai
sunt foarte sensibili la sentimentele de team sau
fric ce pot fi provocate n urma aciunilor
supervizorilor, colegilor sau managerilor de nivel
superior. Organizaiile sunt adesea extrem de
competitive i iau frecvent msuri precum
concedierea angajailor sau mutarea angajailor,
care este contrat celor mai bune interese (p. 76).
Aadar, este lesne de neles c vor predomina
reaciile de team i fric n rndul angajailor, ce
vor influena n mod negativ ncrederea n
organizaii i n propria persoan de a face fa la
astfel de situaii i medii de lucru.
Potrivit celei de a doua ipoteze, n cazul
antreprenorilor, motivaia n munc este
susinut de identificarea cu valorile muncii
prestate, identificare ce poate deveni sensul
vieii. Acest lucru poate fi datorat rolului

fundamental pe care l joac pasiunea n
activitile antreprenoriale. Pasiunea poate
alimenta motivaia n munc, poate spori
activitatea mental i poate furniza sensul muncii
de zi cu zi (Brnnback i colab., 2006, p. 4),
antreprenorii ajungnd s considere profesia ca
fiind chemarea lor (Pines, 2004). Dei mult
asemntoare reglarea integrat cu motivaia
intrinsec, totui aceasta este o sudimensiune a
motivaiei extrinseci. Dac n cazul motivaiei
intrinseci, interesul pentru o anumit aciune este
manifestat prin exaltare i ncredere ce duce la
creterea performanei, perseverenei n munc i
o stare general de bine a individului,
comportamentul motivat de reglarea integrat se
realizeaz pentru valoarea sa instrumental
propus cu privire la rezultatele scontate, dei e
un comportament volitiv i valorizat (Ryan i
Deci, 2002). Cu alte cuvinte, n cazul
antreprenorilor, spre deosebire de angajai, pe
lng pasiunea depus n munca lor, intervin i
aciunile de atingere a rezultatelor dorite, mai
exact dezvoltarea i succesul firmei care fac
parte din sfera motivailor extrinseci.
Ryan, Deci i Grolnick (1995) susin c
amotivaia este rezultatul unei lipse de
satisfacere a nevoilor de baz. Aceasta nu
implic doar lipsa unei autonomii (precum n
cazul motivaiei controlate), ci de asemenea
implic lipsa competenei sau a altor factori
nrudii
(p.
627).
Potrivit
teoriei
autodeterminrii, indivizii sunt predispui spre
amotivaie atunci cnd simt lipsa sentimentului
de eficacitate sau control cu privire la rezultatele
dorite - incapacitatea de a regla comportamentul
dorit (Pelletier, Dion, Tuson i Green-Demers,
1990 citai de Deci i Ryan, 2000).
Desconsiderarea capacitii de a aciona duce la
un comportament pasiv la locul de munc.
Pasivitatea nu se refer doar la a nu aciona, ci
i la a aciona dar fr a face lucrurile cum
trebuie i a persista n a le face prost (De Graff
i Kunst, 2010, p.141). Conform lui De Graff i
Kunst (2010), pasivitatea se poate exprima prin
diferite tipuri de comportamente ce pot duce la
eroziunea sntii fizice i psihice: de la a nu
face nimic, la supra-adaptare, agitaie,
comportamente de neputin i chiar violen.
Aadar, putem afirma c n rndul angajailor
amotivaia poate provoca consecine dintre cele
mai negative: de la persisten sczut n sarcini,
la performan redus n munc, manifestat prin
comportamente contraproductive, pn la refuzul
de a aciona sau chiar pn la retragere,

demisionare (Tremblay i colab., 2009).
n ultimele decenii, organizaiile au suferit
schimbri majore datorate industrializrii,
progresului tehnologic i globalizrii ce au
condus la necesitatea organizaiilor de a deveni
mai competitive i mai eficiente prin promovarea
unor restructurri drastice la nivelul proceselor
de lucru, schimbri care au afectat, n principal,
sntatea angajailor (Raigosa Gallego i Marn
Londoo, 2010). Potrivit acestei afirmaii,
angajaii sunt nevoii n cazul schimbrilor de la
nivelul organizaiei s gseasc strategii i
metode noi de a face fa acestor schimbri sau
cerine. Atunci cnd angajatul nu reuete s fac
fa acestor cerine noi, ele se transform n
constrngeri care vin n opoziie cu realizarea cu
succes a sarcinilor de lucru (Perry, Penny i Witt,
2008). Persistena constrngerilor favorizeaz
eroziunea sntii angajatului ce poate lua
diferite forme ale epuizrii profesionale. Acesta
ar fi unul dintre argumentele care susin
rezultatele celei de a treia ipoteze.
Modurile n care antreprenorii fac fa
efectelor locului de munc i modurile de
aborade a sarcinilor i provocrilor depind de
diferitele caracteristici ale strategiilor de coping
cu care antreprenorii intr n lumea afacerilor
(Voltmer, Spahn, Schaarschmidt i Kieschke,
2011, p. 487). Cu alte cuvinte, hotrrea de a
alege cariera de antreprenor i de a dezvolta o
afacere este cel mai adesea n conformitate cu
criterii strict economice, consecinele posibile ale
sntii fiind de puine ori luate n considerare.
Potrivit cercetrilor anterioare (Tetrick, Slack,
Sinclair i DaSilva, 2000 citai de Voltmer i
colab., 2011) i a rezultatelor cercetrii de fa,
putem afirma c n situaiile stresante de la locul
de munc, antreprenorii spre deosebire de
angajai i centreaz atenia asupra realizrilor
profesionale deoarece ncrederea n sine i
ncrederea n cunotinele i abilitile
antreprenoriale reprezint combustibil pentru
succesul profesional al ntreprinztorilor
(Lafuente i Driga, 2009, p. 10).
Limite i sugestii de abordri

viitoare
Limitele studiului pot fi urmrite la nivelul
eantionului cercetat i la nivelul instrumentelor
de cercetare utilizate.
Eantionul a fost la limit din punct de
vedere al numrului de participani, doar 50 de
101
subieci, din care 25 antreprenori i 25 angajai.

O cercetare cu o populaie mai numeroas ar
putea duce la depirea pragului de semnificaie
sub .05, dar i n cazul acelor dimensiuni la care
pragul de semnificaie s-a nregistrat cu puin
deasupra. De asemenea, eantionul ar fi trebuit
s fie mai omogen din punct de vedere al
corelaiei dintre vrst, sex i vechime n munc
i vechimea pe post a subiecilor. O alt limit
ntmpinat la nivelul eantionului ar fi putut fi
depit prin investigarea i repartizarea
subiecilor n funcie de domeniul de activitate
sau specificaiile postului ocupat. Depind
aceast limit, am putea formula concluzii mai
reprezentative i generale att n cazul
antreprenorilor (care pot ocupa fie funcia de
ntreprinztor i/sau alte posturi n cadrul
propriei firme), ct i n cazul angajailor (care
pot ocupa diferite posturi n cadrul locului sau
chiar locurilor de munc). Sugerm ca n studii
viitoare s se in cont de aceste limite deoarece
ele constituie variabile care pot introduce
distorsiuni ale rezultatelor i limite ale
interpretrii lor.
Calitatea instrumentelor de cercetare
utilizate reprezint o alt limit a acestui studiu.
Conform Tabelului 1, n ceea ce privete stilurile
de ataament investigate prin chestionarul RSQ
(Realtionship Scale Questionnaire) consistena
intern a probei atinge valori n intervalul .65 i
.19. Aceste valori ale lui alfa Cronbach, la limita
unor valori adecvate, pot fi datorate att
eantionului foarte mic i a numrului de itemi
redus pentru fiecare subdimensiune, ct i a unor
limite la nivel teoretic privind stilurile de
ataament la adult i a poziiilor de via.
Griffin i Bartholomew (1994 citai de
Siegert, Ward i Hudson, 1995) au avut
incertitudini mari i o perspectiv pesimist
asupra anselor de a dezvolta un chestionar de tip
auto-completare care s fie capabil s msoare
cele patru modele de ataament. La baza
perspectivei lor pesimiste, au stat n primul rnd,
mecanismele psihologice de aprare. ns,
conform Siegert, Ward i Hudson (1995), cea
mai mare problem a scalei RSQ const n faptul
c aceast prob nu este capabil s msoare clar
cele patru stiluri de ataament, iar aceast
problem trebuie rezolvat dac se dorete
utilizarea acestui instrument n msurarea
stilurilor de ataament la adult. n prezentarea
scalei RSQ, Griffin i Bartholomew (1994 citai
de Bckstrm i Holmes, 2001) au sugerat c
fidelitatea destul de sczut a unor sub-
102
dimensiuni poate fi atribuit oglindirii unui item

n mai mult dect o dimensiune. n cercetarea de
fa ne-am asumat aceste minusuri ale scalei
RSQ, dar recomandm ca n studiile viitoare s
se realizeze analiza de itemi sau analiza structurii
factoriale a instrumentului pentru obinerea unor
rezultate acurate.
De asemenea, n investigarea stilului de
ataament recomandm s se in cont de
caracterul modificabil al stilului pe parcursul
vieii i de considerarea utilizrii mai multor
instrumente de cercetare a tipului de ataament:
chestionar cu auto-completare i metode bazate
pe interviu deoarece, conform Siegert, Ward i
Hudson (1995), interviurile sunt instrumente de
cercetare de mai mare ncredere, dect alte
metode de investigare a stilurilor de ataament.
Implicaii teoretice i practice

Privind implicaiile teoretice ale cercetrii
de fa, n primul rnd amintim importana
introducerii stilurilor de ataament la adult n
studiile de psihologie organizaional i a
muncii. Stilurile de ataament, definite ca
modele interne de lucru bazate pe scheme
internalizate,
cognitive,
emoionale
i
comportamentale au caracteristica fundamental
de a se modifica sau schimba (Meredith, 2009).
Astfel, investigarea stilurilor de ataament poate
conduce la intervenii ce promoveaz un mod
sntos de lucru, exprimat prin stilul de
ataament securizant. De asemenea, utilizarea
stilurilor de ataament poate fi util att n
educaia tinerilor antreprenori, ct i n rndul
angajailor cu scopul de a dezvolta i menine un
ataament de tip securizant n relaiile cu munca.
Cnd vorbim despre educarea sau formarea
adulilor, att n rndul antreprenorilor, ct i n
rndul angajailor, un aspect foarte important de
care inem cont este motivaia acestora. Pornind
de la ideea conform creia motivaia este o surs
de schimbare ce poate fi modificat se pot
propune programe de intervenie sau de formare
cu scopul de a identifica valoarea atribuit
obiectivelor i rezultatelor dorite. Potrivit
rezultatelor obinute, n rndul angajailor se poate
aciona la nivelul motivaiei, privind modificarea
atitudinii fa de locul de munc, fa de profesie
i n vederea mbuntirii performanelor
profesionale, iar n rndul tinerilor antreprenori se
poate interveni la nivelul identificrii personale cu
valoarea unei activiti ce poate deveni sensul
vieii sau pasiune ce nate succesul profesional.
Conform rezultatelor privind angajaii i

epuizarea profesional, acetia sunt mai
predispui dect antreprenorii spre primul stadiu
de burnout - epuizare emoional, probabil
datorate condiiilor de lucru suprasolicitante.
Aadar, putem propune unele sugestii de
prevenire a epuizrii profesionale ce pot fi
ntreprinse la nivelul organizaiilor angajatoare:
gsirea unei potriviri ntre caracteristicile
individuale ale angajailor, complexitatea
posturilor
i
caracteristicile
structurii
organizaiilor; dezvoltarea programelor de
mbuntire a strategiilor de a face fa stresului
(strategii de coping) ce poate duce la epuizare
profesional; ncurajarea i sprijinirea strategiilor
individuale de adaptare ca rspuns al
simptomelor de burnout (adaptare dup Glicken
i Janka, 1982). Totui, conform lui Maslach
(2003) cercetrile privind interveniile asupra
modurilor de a face fa epuizrii profesionale
sunt limitate. Motivul principal al numrului mic
de astfel de studii nu este datorat lipsei de
interes, ci dimpotriv dificultilor majore pe
care le implic construirea unui program de
intervenie eficient, gsirea oportunitii de a fi
implementat intervenia i capacitate limitat de
a realiza studii longitudinale de monitorizare
pentru a surprinde impactul avut i pentru a
oferii sugestii de mbuntire ale programelor de
intervenie.
Concluzii
Persoanele cu o perspectiv pozitiv asupra
propriei persoane i asupra celorlali tind s fie
proprietarii sau ntreprinztorii unei afaceri
(antreprenori) n timp ce persoanele cu o imagine
negativ asupra propriei persoane sunt mai puin
probabil s ntemeieze o afacere, devenind astfel
angajai n cadrul unei firme sau organizaii.
Pasiunea, dorina de dezvoltare i succes a
firmei, favorizeaz identificarea antreprenorilor
cu propria afacere, ceea ce susine un nivel
ridicat al motivaiei n munc. n ceea ce privete
angajaii, motivaia n munc ia forma unor
aciuni automate n sarcinile de lucru, ce poate
conduce la comportamente pasive la locul de
munc i sentimente de ineficacitate i lips de
control asupra rezultatelor dorite.
n rndul antreprenorilor, nivelul epuizrii
profesionale este meninut echilibrat deoarece
acetia se simt competeni i siguri pe abilitile i
cunotinele lor pentru a obine succesul dorit i
pentru a se realiza profesional. Eroziunea sntii
angajailor se produce datorit constrngerilor ce

apar n schimbrile organizaionale i a modurilor
ineficiente de a se adapta sau de a face fa acestor
schimbri i cerine noi. Astfel, n rndul
angajailor,
epuizarea
profesional
este
manifestat prin epuizare emoional, prin
pierderea resurselor emoionale, resimit prin
sentimente de saturaie i oboseal emoional
datorate muncii pe care o presteaz.
Considerm c prin utilizarea metaforei
relaionale afacerea mea copilul meu, am
ncercat s oferim o perspectiv nou att asupra
antreprenoriatului, ct i asupra angajatului.
Astfel, conform rezultatelor studiului putem
susine c pentru antreprenori, firma sau
organizaia reprezint copilul lor, n timp ce
pentru angajai aceasta reprezint doar un loc de
munc. Cu alte cuvinte,
n rndul
antreprenorilor, imaginea pozitiv att asupra
propriei persoane, ct i asupra celorlali
favorizeaz o relaie pozitiv i o conexiune
personal fa de locul de munc, motivaia n
munc favorizeaz identificarea cu propria
afacere, iar dorina realizrilor profesionale
confer ncredere n competenele i abilitile
necesare pentru a obine succes, sau cu alte
cuvinte, confer ncredere n creterea i
dezvoltarea propriului copil. n schimb, n rndul
angajailor, relaia fa de munc este una
negativ datorat de o perspectiv negativ att
asupra propriei persoane ct i asupra celorlali,
motivaia n munc se manifest prin lipsa
eficienei i controlului fa de rezultatele dorite
ce favorizeaz comportamente pasive la locul de
munc, iar constrngerile pe care le implic locul
de munc favorizeaz pierderea resurselor
emoionale, sau altfel spus, angajaii nu vd
firma n care lucreaz ca fiind copilul lor cu
toat implicarea pe care o presupune aceast
perpectiv, ci mai probabil vd firma ca oferind
doar un loc de munc i nimic mai mult.
Putem astfel ncheia cercetarea de fa,
susinnd existena diferenelor dintre cele dou
grupe profesionale studiate. Totui, datorit
limitelor cercetrii, aceste rezultate nu pot fi
generalizate pentru ntreaga populaie, dar ne pot
oferi o perspectiv de ansamblu i unele
elemente cheie att la nivel teoretic, ct i practic
n ceea ce privete antreprenorul i angajatul.
Not: Mulumesc conf. univ. dr. Delia Vrg
pentru suportul oferit n coordonarea cercetrii.
103
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105
Florin Alin Sava

Psihologia validat tiinific.
Ghid practic de cercetare n psihologie
2013, Polirom, 368 p.
Una dintre cele mai semnificative probleme

cu care se confrunt psihologia la ora actual
este aceea a confuziei n gndirea publicului (i,
din pcate, a unor practicieni) cu privire la gradul
de adevr al unor afirmaii conexe domeniului
psihologiei. De exemplu, aproape toat lumea a
auzit de mitul Oamenii utilizeaz doar 8% din
capacitatea creierului, o afirmaie pe ct de
scurt, pe att de fals. Desigur, aceast
problem nu este specific doar psihologiei, ci i
altor tiine. Astfel, tratamentele homeopatice au
din ce n ce mai mult popularitate n defavoarea
tratamentelor medicinale (Singh i Ernst, 2008),
iar aproape fiecare ziar conine o rubric
destinat astrologiei n timp ce foarte puine
reviste ofer mcar o rubric lunar destinat
astronomiei (Sagan, 2002).
Cu
toate
acestea,
demersurile
pseudotiinifice pot fi considerate mai pregnante
n domeniul psihologiei, parial datorit
mediatizrii distorsionate a unor rezultate
tiinifice, parial din lipsa unei abordri critice
sau a unor concepte i metode care se bazeaz pe
puine dovezi empirice. Aceast carte ncearc s
rspund nevoii de popularizare a ceea ce
nseamn cu adevrat un demers tiinific n
domeniul psihologiei, mai ales n rndul
practicienilor, n sperana de a-i ajuta s realizeze
msura n care rezultatele unui studiu pot fi
vzute ca avnd dovezi empirice n favoarea unei
abordri, dar i dac aceast abordare este sau nu
validat tiinific.
Nu ntmpltor domnul Sava a decis s
abordeze aceast tem, avnd n vedere
interesele sale pentru metodologia cercetrii n
psihologie, interese ce s-au materializat n 2004
n cartea Analiza datelor n cercetarea
psihologic, manual aflat acum la cea de-a doua
ediie.
Psihologia validat tiinific. Ghid
practic de cercetare n psihologie este
structurat n dou pri, avnd n total opt
capitole. Prima parte, intitulat Fundamentele
cercetrii tiinifice n psihologie, alctuit din
primele trei capitole, se axeaz, n prima faz, pe
educarea cititorilor cu privire la distinciile dintre
psihologia tiinific i cea pseudotiinific,
descriind n detaliu indicatorii unei abordri
pseudotiinifice, respectiv al unei abordri
tiinifice. Trebuie subliniat faptul c, dei
106
aceast carte este adresat persoanelor care au

deja un bagaj informaional din sfera psihologiei,
exprimarea suficient de laic i coninutul
deosebit de important al primului capitol fac ca
acesta s poat fi citit i de ctre persoane care
au o formare educaional conex domeniului.
Cel de-al doilea capitol vizeaz direct
practicienii, prin descrierea n detaliu a
informaiilor necesare pentru a evalua dovezile
unei intervenii, de la elaborarea unei piramide
de ncredere a dovezilor studiilor pn la a
descrie criteriile necesare pentru a evalua un
instrument psihologic. Un aspect plcut al
acestui capitol este c informaiile relevante sunt
trecute i n cadrul unor casete, astfel nct dac
o persoan dorete s gseasc rapid criteriile
minimale pentru a evalua dac o intervenie este
sau nu validat tiinific poate face asta, fr a
citi neaprat i restul capitolului.
Dac primele dou capitole aveau un grup
int mai larg, capitolul 3 este destinat n mare
parte persoanelor interesate n a desfura
activiti de cercetare n psihologie. Cu toate
acestea, acest capitol cuprinde informaii
eseniale cu privire la gradul de generalizare a
concluziilor n funcie de obiectivul studiului n
cauz, dar i la elementele de validitate ale
studiului. Acest fapt ar trebui s fie de interes i
pentru persoanele care nu doresc s se implice n
cercetare, dar care doresc s i dezvolte gndirea
critic pentru a discerne care afirmaii sunt
valide.
Tot n cadrul acestei pri, se aduc
argumente pentru utilizarea abordrii tiinifice
dar se discut i consecinele abordrii
pseudotiinifice. n timp ce autorul descrie
consecinele financiare i etice ale interveniilor
pseudotiinifice, cel mai important contraargument n opinia mea este cel al ptrii
reputaiei psihologiei ca domeniu tiinific. Atta
timp ct exist abordri pseudotiinifice ale
cror rezultate pot fi contestate pe bun dreptate,
psihologia risc s devin un domeniu
marginalizat. De exemplu, dintr-o simpl
cercetare pe un motor de cutare a termenilor
psihologie pseudotiin (engl. psychology
pseudoscience) se va descoperi c printre
primele rezultate apare ntrebarea este
psihologia o pseudotiin?, fapt ce nu se
ntmpl atunci cnd se altur cuvntul
medicin sau fizic pseudotiinei.
Partea a doua vine n completarea celui deal treilea capitol prin detalierea tipurilor de studii
care pot fi desfurate n cercetarea psihologic.
Recenzii
Ceea ce trebuie menionat este c, dei aceast

parte poate fi considerat un adevrat manual de
care un cercettor are nevoie pentru a-i
desfura activitatea, complexitatea ridicat a
temelor abordate este atenuat de abundana de
exemple, dar i a casetelor-sumative menionate
deja, care vin n ajutorul cititorului. Astfel, n
cadrul acestei pri, autorul descrie pas cu pas
aspectele care trebuie luate n considerare n
cercetare, pornind de la studiile experimentale i
non-experimentale (capitolul 4 i respectiv 5),
continund cu studiile de evaluare economic a
serviciilor psihologice (capitolul 6) i, n final,
descriind studiile meta-analitice (capitolul 7). De
remarcat este c ultimul capitol (capitolul 8) este
destinat, n principal, standardelor de publicare a
studiilor, ceea ce se dovedete a fi de foarte mare
utilitate, avnd n vedere faptul c pentru fiecare
seciune a unui articol care urmeaz a fi publicat
sunt descrise recomandrile autorului, dar sunt
date i exemple detaliate.
n cadrul acestei cri, Florin Alin Sava
demonstreaz faptul c, dei este mult mai facil
apelarea la practicile pseudotiinifice pentru a
argumenta c o intervenie este valid, singurul
mod de a atesta c aceasta are efecte benefice
reale este prin a avea o practic fundamentat n
dovezi validate tiinific, indiferent c este vorba
despre domeniul psihologiei clinice sau cel al
psihologiei organizaionale. Astfel, psihologii au
de ales ntre a fi un psiholog de fotoliu (engl.
armchair psychologist) care utilizeaz psihologia
de sim comun, apeleaz la impresii i la
autoritate sau un psiholog autentic ale crui
decizii se bazeaz pe dovezi documentate
tiinific. Un prim pas nspre cea de-a doua
opiune poate fi acela de a citi aceast carte.
Nastasia Slgean
Peter G. Northouse
Leadership: Theory and Practice
Sixth Edition
2013, Editura Sage , 481 p.
ncepnd cu anul 1900, leadership-ul sau

tiina conducerii ale crui rdcini pot fi
ntlnite pe vremea lui Aristotel, a captat
interesul cercettorilor. Astfel, pn n prezent au

fost dezvoltate pn la 200 de definiii ale
conceptului leadership, dar i diferite teorii.
Cartea Leadership: Theory and Practice
Sixth Edition, a crei tem este clar evideniat
nc din titlu, are ca scop s l ajute pe cititor s
neleag
aplicabilitatea
conceptului
de
leadership, dar i teoriile sale fie ele mai
simple sau mai complexe.
Peter G. Northouse, autorul acestei cri, ce
activeaz de 30 de ani n acest domeniu, a editat
i cartea Leadership: Concepts and Practice, dar
a fost i coautorul crii Health Communication:
Strategies for Health Professionals (3rd. Ed.).
Prin intermediul volumului Leadership: Theory
and Practice Sixth Edition se aduc n lumin
noi cercetri, descoperiri i informaii din
domeniul leadership-ului, dar i o imagine
despre cum poate fi leadership-ul aplicat n viaa
real.
Fiind a asea ediie a crii, aceasta se
difereniaz de celelalte prin informaii noi, dar
i printr-un capitol nou ,,Leadership-ul
Supuilor. Cartea este mprit n 16 capitole,
crora autorul le-a acordat acelai nivel de
atenie.
n primul capitol este analizat necesitatea
unei prezentri ample a leadership-ului, trasnd
anumite direcii cu privire la modul n care
prezentarea se va realiza. De exemplu, clarific
problema definirii conceptului leadership,
oferind definiia care elucideaz acest proces, dar
i difereniaz ntre liderii numii de ctre
conducere (engl. assigned leadership) i cei care
se remarc prin intermediul grupului (engl.
emerged leadership). Cu toate c realizeaz
aceast difereniere, teoriile prezentate n
continuare sunt specifice ambelor tipuri.
Capitolele 2, 3, 4 i 5 sunt dedicate
abordrilor
leadership-ului
abordarea
trsturilor, abordarea competenelor, abordarea
stilului, abordarea situaional. Fiecare dintre
aceste abordri prezint puncte tari i puncte
slabe, iar autorul are grij s le evidenieze. De
exemplu, abordarea trsturilor consider
trsturile definitorii pentru a fi lider ca fiind
nnscute, n timp ce abordarea competenelor
susine c orice om poate ajunge lider prin
dezvoltarea unor competene specifice, dar cu
toate acestea menioneaz i importana
atributelor individuale fapt care evideniaz
slbiciunea teoriei. Celelalte dou abordri, ns,
acord mai mare importan la ceea ce liderul
poate face pentru a reui abordarea stilului i
107
Recenzii
cum poate reui un lider n diferite medii

organizaionale cu solicitri ale postului ridicate
abordarea situaional.
Pe lng aceste abordri, au mai fost
dezvoltate i alte teorii, pe care autorul le include
n capitolele 6, 7, 8. Vorbim despre teorii precum
teoria contingenei, teoria atingerii scopului
(engl. path-goal) i teoria schimbului lider
membru. Fiecare dintre aceste teorii prezint
diferite modaliti prin care leadership-ul se
poate evidenia. Astfel, teoria contingenei se
concentreaz pe situaia n care liderul i
desfoar activitatea, teoria path-goal se
centreaz pe modul n care lideri i motiveaz
subordonaii, iar teoria schimbului lider-membru
acord atenie interaciunii dintre lideri i supui.
Urmtoarele cinci capitole au fost dedicate
unor teorii i tipuri de leadership care s-au
remarcat ncepnd cu anii `70 sau mai recent.
Acestea au impresionat prin ritmul rapid prin
care s-au dezvoltat i s-au fcut cunoscute. Cele
cinci capitole corespund urmtoarelor teorii:
leadership-ul transformaional, leadership-ul
supuilor, leadership-ul autentic, leadership-ul de
echip i abordarea psiho-dinamic. Leadershipul transformaional, de-a lungul timpului, s-a
dovedit a fi cel mai popular fiind un proces care
dezvolt i schimb oamenii, n timp ce
leadership-ul supuilor i prezint pe lideri n
ipostaza de supui. n capitolul 11, leadership-ul
autentic prezint un palier nou, care nu este, nc,
bine conturat, dar care prezint totui cteva
puncte tari informaii clare pentru indivizii care
vor s devin lideri autentici; capitolul 12
contureaz un alt tip de leadership, tot mai
popular datorit modului n care se desfoar,
leadership-ul de echip. Abordarea psihodinamic prezentat n capitolul 13, difer de
toate celelalte abordri i teorii prezentate,
deoarece prezint mai multe modaliti prin care
leadership-ul poate fi neles. Aceast abordare
se bazeaz cercetri precum cele ale lui Freud
sau Jung. Important de remarcat este faptul c
autorul nu este subiectiv n prezentarea teoriilor,
indicnd la fiecare dintre teorii att
caracteristicile sale, ct i criticile aduse.
Dar, aceast carte nu se limiteaz doar la a
prezenta teorii ale leadership-ului, ci acord dou
capitole pentru a prezenta relaia leadership-ului
cu genul, dar i cu mediul cultural. Dou idei
care se remarc din acele capitole sunt c
femeile, de exemplu, se evideniaz prin
utilizarea, n cele mai multe cazuri, a unui
leadership de tip transformaional, iar n ceea ce
108
privete cultura, liderii au neles importana

cunoaterii mediului cultural pentru a performa
n sarcini.
Ultimul capitol aduce n discuie o problem
serioas - etica leadership-ului. n cadrul
acestuia, autorul i-a propus s prezinte cteva
dintre problemele etice care pot aprea la nivelul
leadership-ului, dar i caracteristici prin care se
pot identifica liderii etici.
Cartea este foarte bine structurat, oferindu-i
cititorului o imagine ampl i clar despre
leadership i despre modul n care poate fi
aplicat. Capitolele au o structur unitar i un
format care se respect, ntru totul, la nivelul
celor 16 capitole. Astfel, ntr-o prim parte este
prezentat teoria cu punctele sale tari i exemple,
fiind urmat de critici aduse acelei teorii, pentru
ca apoi cititorul s parcurg o parte aplicativ
(exerciii) n urmtoarea parte a capitolului, dar
i exemple de instrumente specifice fiecrei
teorii i o prezentare succint a capitolului. Stilul
de prezentare, flexibilitatea informaiilor sunt
cele care susin faptul c aceast carte poate fi de
un real ajutor att pentru cei care sunt specialiti
n domeniul leadership-ului, ct i pentru cei care
vor s se iniieze n acest domeniu. De asemenea,
prin multitudinea cercetrilor exemplificate,
acest volum poate capta interesul cercettorilor.
Putem concluziona c aceast carte ofer
informaii importante att sub aspect teoretic, dar
mai ales pentru cel practic. Caracterul ei puternic
aplicativ, dar i multitudinea abordrilor
leadership-ului prezentate reprezint o adevrat
baz pentru cei care doresc s activeze n acest
domeniu sau s-l aprofundeze.
Srboiu Floriana
Dan Merzick
The Culture Game
A tool for Agile Managers, 2012,
FreeStandling Press, 314 p
The Culture Game este o carte promisiune, o provocare pentru companiile aflate
n cutarea unui nou tip de cultur
organizaional, avnd ca ax central nvarea
continu. Aceast abordare vine n continuarea
muncii unor pionieri i inovatori n domeniul
Recenzii
nvrii organizaionale. Pornind de la Chris

Argyris & Donald Schon (1978) i de la
conceptul de organizaie care nva (engl.
organizational learning), continund cu Peter
Senge (1994) n The fifth discipline i avnd
ca punct culminant lucrarea Tribal Leadership
scris de Dave Logan, John King i Halle
Fischer-Wright n anul 2008, autorul le mbin
armonios cu valorile i principiile promovate de
Agile Manifesto (2001) reprezentnd un ghid
pentru succesul proiectelor software n secolul
nostru.
Cartea The Culture Game reprezint un
debut pentru Dan Merzick, care aduce n atenie
conceptul de design al culturii unei organizaii,
propunnd utilizarea practicilor de culture
hacking. Merzick propune o paralel metaforic
ntre paradigma prozaic a dezvoltrii de
software i aspectele strict umane implicate n
dezvoltarea unei culturi organizaionale, punnd
alturi domenii aparent disjuncte. Aceast
abordare reprezint o provocare pentru cititorul
mai puin familiar cu aceast industrie, nu sub
aspectul nelegerii, ct, mai ales, sub aspectul
ineditului. Chiar dac tema abordat de autor i
are originea n industria de software, soluiile
oferite au aplicabilitate general, nefiind
caracteristice unei industrii sau unui domeniu de
activitate dintr-o companie. La baza revoluiei
industriei de software se afl conceptul de
software hacking aprut n anii 70, prin scrierea
primelor programe pe calculator pentru uz
personal.
Astfel, apare in mod firesc ntrebarea: dac
avem software hacking, de ce nu am avea culture
hacking? Autorul preia termenul de culture
hacking de la Jim Mc Carthy (2002), introdus n
cartea sa Software for your brain, pe care-l
definete ca fiind modificarea activ, intenionat
i iterativ a normelor culturale existente n
organizaie, cu intenia de a creea o puternic
cultur de nvare. Contribuia original a
autorului const n punerea la dispoziia
cititorului interesat a unui set de instrumente
pentru transformarea culturii organizaiei din
care face parte, oferind acestuia ansa de fi la
rndul lui hacker , indiferent de poziia sau
rolul su n organizaie.
Cartea este organizat n patru pri. Prima
parte reprezint o introducere n conceptele de
baz vehiculate, principiile i valorile Agile,
nvarea tribal, rolul i importana unui mediu
de siguran psihologic, fr de care nvarea
nu poate avea loc. Lectura crii genereaz
ntrebri de tipul: de ce joc (engl. game), ce este

jocul culturii (engl. culture game), care sunt
beneficiile utilizrii conceptului de joc intr-o
organizaie.
Nucleul crii se contureaz n partea a doua
a crii, n care sunt descrise cele 16 instrumente
propuse de autor pentru transformarea culturii
organizaionale. Din setul prezentat se pot alege
acele practici care se potrivesc contextului
organizaiei i abilitii de execuie a membrilor
ei. Nu e ins necesar punerea n practic a
ntregului set de instrumente. n principiu, ele
urmaresc crearea unui climat pozitiv, prin
conferirea unui sens al controlului, progresului i
apartenenei fiecrui individ la organizaia din
care face parte, precum i posibilitatea de a fi
parte a unei cauze sau idei ce transcede propria
persoan.
Instrumentele propuse pentru punerea n
practic sunt rezumate de practicile, cum ar fi:
{Defineste un scop}, {Anun intenie} i
{Gestioneaz vizual}. Modalitatea de nvare a
grupului este prin incercare-eroare, aceasta fiind
incurajat de practicile: {Experimenteaz des} i
{Inspecteaza frecvent}. Aceast modalitate se
bazeaz pe definirea unui set de interaciuni
intragrup, cum ar fi cele descrise de:
{Faciliteaz
edinele},
{Structureaz
interaciunile},
{Gestioneaz
visual} i
{Deschide Spaiul}, precum i a unui set de
reguli, viznd excelenta date determinate de
{Examineaza normele}, {Fii atent} i {Foloseste
Coaching}. Utilizarea jocului este recomandat
pentru facilitarea procesului de nvare prin
practicile: {Fii jucu} i {Jocul edin}.
Nu ntmplator, setul de intrumente propuse
de autor ncepe cu {Definete un scop}. Grupul
sau organizaia ce are definit un scop i
pstreaza mai uor concentrarea n vederea
atingerii obiectivului, oferind un sens muncii.
Pentru obinerea angajamentului, Merzick
pledeaz pentru implicarea tuturor n definirea
scopului. Etapele, aa cum sunt ele descrise de
Merzick, sunt :
1. Intreab folosete toate formele de
comunicare pentru solicitarea feedbackului i
ideilor despre ce poate fi scopul grupului.
Asigur-te c toata lumea e inclus n discuie.
2. Ascult nu condu discuia; doar creaz
cadrul necesar. Ca manager prezent n sal i
deinnd autoritatea, poi s ncurajezi sau nu
discuia. Incearc s nu stai n calea lor.
3. Intlnii-v. Cteva edine sunt necesare
i asigur-te c ele au un facilitator. Cum scopul
109
Recenzii
unui departament sau grup mic depinde de

scopul i elurile organizaiei, ateapt-te s se
pun n discutie scopul larg [...].
4. Pstreaz obiectivitatea. Explorarea unui
scop clar definit poate fi declanator i poate
evoca emoii puternice potenial emoii
negative care exprim frustarea n organizaii.
Las loc pentru manifestare, dar pstreaz
obiectivitatea.
5. Jucai-v. De-a lungul edintelor folosii
jocuri care stimuleaz generarea ideilor,
micarea i acordul. Foloseste practica {Fii
jucu}
6. Realizeaz-l. Nu amna finalizarea.
7. Pstreaz-l scurt. Folosete practica
{Structureaz interaciunile} pentru a formula un
scop scurt i usor de reamintit. (pag. .87)
edinele sunt parte integrant a activitii
oricrei organizaii fiind n acelai timp sursa de
ineficien. Practica {Jocul edin} propune un
mod de a ine edine eficace, gndindu-le ca
jocuri, mai precis, ca avnd caracteristicile unui
joc : cu participare benevol, cu un scop i un set
de reguli clare i prevzute cu posibilitatea
vizual de a urmri progresul pe durata lui.
nvarea ntr-un grup e strns legat de
libertatea de experimentare permis de
organizaie. Prin practica {Experimenteaz des},
Merzick recomand managerilor s ncurajezeze
eecul ieftin i rapid, adic s ncurajeze teste
mici i s descurajeze nvinovirea, valoriznd
nvarea din rezultate.
Partea a treia extinde abordarea conceptual
i ofer informaii i direcii pentru rspndirea
ideii de nvare la nivelul ntregii organizaii
prin folosirea triadelor, plecnd din aproape n
aproape, de la grupuri mici spre cele mari.
La finalul crii, autorii au sintetizat ntr-o
anex materiale de referin. Aceasta conine o
scurt introducere n framework-ul Scrum, ca un
exemplu de game Agile, un interviu despre
experiena utilizrii practicii {Experimenteaza
des} la Zappos Insight, un interviu cu Michael
Margolis, consultant organizaional, despre
rezultatele aplicrii nvrii tribale observate n
cariera sa i descrierea jocului Viteza brcii
identific prile din produse sau servicii
dezagreate de clienii ti preluat de la Luke
Hohmann (2006).
Lectura este facil i autorul revine deseori
asupra conceptelor utilizate, dorind parc s se
asigure de nelegerea cititorului. Din acest punct
de vedere, nu necesit lecturi anterioare, fiind
auto-suficient i poate prea plictisitoare pe
110
alocuri pentru cunosctori.

The Culture Game este o carte pentru
manageri, i nu numai, care doresc mai mult
agilitate aceasta fiind capacitatea organizaiei
de a identifica i rspunde rapid la schimbare i angajament n echipele lor, i apoi, n
organizaia din care fac parte.
Promisiunea autorului este de a continua
ideea nceput n volumul de fa n volumul 2,
atacnd de data aceasta subiectul agilitii n
business, volum aflat in curs de apariie. Prin
aceast serie de cri, autorul aduce o nou
viziune asupra modului n care putem s
inducem nvarea ca factor central al culturii
organizaionale recomandat celor ce doresc s
fie la curent cu noile tendine.
Carmen Munteanu
Victoria V. Swisher
Becoming an agile leader,
2012, Korn/Ferry, Ed. LOMINGER,
Minneapolis, 175 p
Becoming an agile leader este prima

lucrare individual a Victoriei V. Swisher,
aceasta fiind co-autoare la mai multe cri ale
editurii Lomingers i, n acelai timp,directorul
departamentului de dezvoltare intelectual al
companiei Korn/Ferry International. Are o vast
experien n domeniul dezvoltrii resurselor
umane, cu un accent deosebit pe dezvoltarea
liderilor i managementul talentelor, n general.
Autoarea a scris mai multe articole referitoare la
subiecte precum, agilitatea nvrii i
dezvoltarea leadership-ului, iar nainte de a lucra
la Korn/Ferry, Victoria a deinut poziii de
conducere i de consultan n companii de top
care activeaz n domeniul serviciilor financiare i
n domeniul hotelier.
Primul capitol al crii exemplific ce
nseamn s fi un lider agil, explic riscurile de a
rmne prins n aceeai rutina (acesta fiind
familiar i n acelai timp comod, confortabil)
i beneficiile orientrii spre nvarea agil. De
asemenea, explic faptul c situaia n
managementul companiilor s-a schimbat, n
sensul c managerii de top sunt din ce n ce mai
tineri, ceea ce implic faptul c modalitile
Recenzii
clasice de educaie nu mai fac fa cerinelor,

cantitii i diversitii muncii actuale. Prin
urmare, trebuie aplicat o metod de
comportament profesional agil, dinamic, astfel
nct managerii s-i dezvolte capacitatea de a
face fa situaiilor profesionale, fr s deina o
experien bogat i o cantitatea mare de
cunotiine care se acumuleaz ntr-un mod
clasic.
Cartea este structurat, n continuare, n 5
capitole n care se prezint factorii care fac parte
din agilitate sau elementele cheie ale agilitii,
mai precis: contiena de sine (engl. self
awareness), agilitatea mental (engl. mental
agility) sau curiozitatea de a rezolva problemele
cu complexitate ridicat, agilitatea oamenilor
(engl. people agilty) sau capacitatea de analiz
dinamic a celor din jur, schimbarea agil (engl.
change agilty) i rezultate agile (engl. results
agility) sau a fi focusat pe finalizare, indiferent
de probabilitate.
Primul factor al agilitii, constiena de sine
care este i titlul celui de al doilea capitol, ne
ajut s ne dezvoltm propriile capaciti
existeniale, att prin exemple practice demne de
urmat, ct i prin tehnici demonstrate empiric de
a-i contientiza propriile capaciti. Acest
capitol ne pregtete pentru provocrile
urmtorilor factori de agilitate pe care trebuie s
ni-i nsuim.
Al treilea capitol, agilitate mental, ne pune
fa n fa cu ntrebarea: cum putem s atacam
diversele aspecte ale vieii, traduse de cele mai
multe ori n probleme sau provocri; rspunsul e
simplu i firesc: din mai multe unghiuri, astfel
nct s revelm diferitele faete ale acestor
probleme. Aceast tehnic ne va ajuta s
nelegem i, finalmente, chiar s rezolvm
sarcinile iniiale. De asemenea, ne arat c
aceast metoda de analiza se poate dobndi
folosindu-ne de creativitate, de schematizare i
de trecerea problemei din termeni abstraci n
realitate.
Al patrulea capitol, agilitatea oamenilor,
arat ct de important este s avem o atitudine
deschis fa de cei din jurul nostru, tocmai
pentru a observa ntr-un mod contient i
obiectiv capacitile intelectuale, punctele forte
ale celorlali i cum trateaz ei situaiile practice.
Pune accent pe partea benefic a interaciunii
umane, pe ct de mult ne poate lrgi orizontul i
ct de benefic este pentru auto-educare.
Al cincilea capitol - schimbarea agil, face

referire la capacitatea de a nu lua o situaie/un
model ca atare, ci dimpotriv, de a fi interesat de
metodele prin care, schimbnd diferii factori al
acestei situaii sau model, poi s ajui la
mbuntirea lui. Arat c nu trebuie s existe o
team de schimbare, atunci cand ea poate aciona
n beneficiul modelului de afaceri sau procedura
luat n calcul. ntr-un cuvnt, acest capitol ne
ncurajeaz s nu luam lucrurile ca atare, ci s
mbrism posibilele modificri care pot aduce
beneficii.
Ultimul capitol al crii - agilitatea
rezultatelor, vorbete despre dobndirea
succesului, motivat fiind de scopul final, adic
de a obine rezultate. Metodele pentru a avea
rezultate bune sunt cele ale unui conducator de
echip i nu ale unui individualist. Pentru a
dobndi aceast capacitate orientat ctre un
scop final, este nevoie s i asumi riscuri, s
nvei din mers, s perseverezi, s fi
inspiraional, s fi prezent printre ceilali, s ti
s delegi i s i asumi rolul de conductor.
Pentru ca rezultatele sunt atinse nu doar un
singur om, ci de colaborarea tuturor, sub
ndrumarea unui vizionar sau, mai bine spus, a
unui bun manager.
Prin coninutul celor 6 capitole, cartea ne
ofer o imagine complex asupra acestui curent
nou aparut n literatura de specialitate, al
nvrii agile, sugernd de fapt c, dobndind
aceast abilitate i devenind un lider agil te poi
face remarcat mult mai uor. Pn la urm, nu
este vorba despre ce realizri au fost dobndite n
trecut, ci despre ce se va putea face n viitor,
cnd vor trebui nfruntate noi dificulti, care vor
necesita abordarea unor noi atitudini i
comportamente. Victoria V. Swisher propune
acest ghid practic pentru a recunoate, a dezvolta
viitoare talente n pratica leadership-ului, ct i
pentru a obine rezultate foarte bune n situaii
noi i diferite. Ceea ce face ca aceast carte s
aibe un impact mare asupra cititorilor este
mpletirea dintre povetile unor oameni care au
fcut o diferen n lume (precum Albert
Einstein, Nelson Mandela sau Richard Branson)
i teorii ale leadership-ului bine documentate.
Man Roxana Iulia
Universitate de Vest din Timioara
111
Exploratory workshop on Evaluative Conditioning

Timioara 15-16th of September 2012
Silvia Rusu1
The workshop Changing attitudes through

evaluative conditioning: challenges and
promises took place between 15-16th of
September 2012 in Timisoara. The workshop
was organized by the Psychology Department of
West University of Timisoara and the SOCPERS
Lab, under the coordination of assoc. prof. Florin
Alin Sava, Ph.D..
Evaluative conditioning was defined as a
change in the valence of a stimulus (Conditioned
Stimulus, CS) following the pairing of that
stimulus with another valenced stimulus,
(Unconditioned Stimulus, US) (De Houwer,
2007) and it is now considered to be one of the
key mechanisms involved in the formation and
change of attitudes. Imagine a company is ready
to release a new brand of beer, and it is interested
in creating a favorable attitude towards it. In
order to do this, the company will use
advertising or other common techniques to pair
the beer brand with positive affective stimuli
(known as evaluative conditioning procedures).
Evaluative conditioning is considered to have a
strong potential to affect attitudes in different
areas such as alcohol consumption (Houben,
Schoenmakers, & Wiers, 2010; Houben,
Havermans, & Wiers, 2010) brand attitudes
(Sweldens, Van Osselaer, & Janiszewski, 2010),
emotion research (Mallan & Lipp, 2007), clinical
psychology (Olatunji, Lohr, Sawchuk, &
Westendorf, 2007). Recent research also
suggests that evaluative conditioning procedures
might be able to affect not only attitudes, but
also behavior (Houben, Nederkoorn, Wiers &
Jansen, 2011). Considering all of the above, we
believe it is important for scientists to focus on a
better understanding of the EC effect and on the
underlying causal mechanisms, in order to
design better EC procedures, with better results.
The exploratory workshop had three main
objectives:
1
Ph.D. student, West University from Timioara
112
1. To understand what are the causal

mechanisms (mediators) that make EC
efficient, and, therefore, helping
designing procedures that lead to strong
as opposed to weak changes in
preferences.
2. To understand what are the possible
moderators that affect the EC effect in
the direction of increasing the respective
effect.
3. To find in which cases EC has played a
crucial role in changing attitudes rather
than forming attitudes, since the former
case has more ecological validity
implications.
Six of the best researchers working in the
field of implicit measures and evaluative
conditioning were invited to present their
findings, the existent perspectives and
knowledge related to evaluative conditioning.
The workshop began with the presentation
of prof. Marco Perugini from the University of
Milano Bicocca On self-referential framework as
an EC procedure. Main findings and links to the
propositional and associative accounts in
explaining EC. After a short introduction on dual
process models, implicit attitudes and measures
as well as on evaluative conditioning, prof.
Perugini`s presentation focused on a specific EC
procedure,
namely
the
Self-referencing
paradigm. Because most people have positive
self-esteem and self-views at explicit and
implicit level, but also because the Self has a
special status in information processing, we can
exploit this positivity of the self by using it as an
Unconditional Stimulus. In other words, the self
can be used to change evaluations and attitudes
towards targets that are paired with the self. The
research conducted by professor Perugini
suggests that Self-referencing is a robust EC

paradigm for attitude change detected using

implicit, but also explicit attitude instruments.
According to this research the self seems to be a
powerful US, as targets paired with the self
become more positive.
Prof. Keith Payne from the University of
North Carolina continued with a presentation on
Implicit and explicit social cognition - are
associations and propositions enough? The
theoretical framework of the presentation
consisted of the Associative - Propositional
Model, according to which the prototypical case
for implicit attitude change resulting from
changes in associative structure is evaluative
conditioning (Gawronski & Bodenhausen,
2006; p. 697). There is currently a debate in the
literature whether the evaluative conditioning is
an associative or a propositional process, but
either way we need to learn more about how it
affects implicit evaluations. If EC is associative,
we need to understand how it relates to implicit
and explicit evaluations, but it EC is
propositional, then we need to understand how
propositions lead to implicit evaluation.
Assoc. prof. Anne Gast from University of
Ghent presented aspects regarding The relevance
of propositional knowledge and memory on
evaluative conditioning effects. In the framework
of the Associative Propositional Model
(Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006) propositions
are mental links that are represented as
statements about the world, which are considered
to be truth. The propositional account of the EC
effect suggests that EC emerges when
knowledge about the common appearance of the
stimuli is accessible. From this point of view, the
memory of the pairings seems to be important,
and the results of the research developed by the
Lab in Ghent University shows that EC effect
depends on memory of the pairing during
valence measurement, but, not on memory of
pairings immediately after learning. There seems
to be a considerable amount of evidence
suggesting that under specific conditions, EC
effects are dependent on the propositional
processing of information and on the context.
Prof. Steven Sweldens from INSEAD
Business School presented aspects related to
Implicit and explicit learning in evaluative
conditioning - the role of the conditioning
procedure. The presentation approached two
research questions: The content - what is learned
in EC? and The process - is it associative or
propositional? Regarding the issue of content,
the connection between the CS and the UR

(unconditional response) can be established
either through associative learning (the CS is
associated with US), or through direct affect
transfer on the UR, depending on how the
stimuli are paired during the EC procedure.
Regarding the process, if the learning is implicit,
it should occur without awareness of the CS-US
contingency, but the literature shows confusing
results so far. One potential cause of the mixed
results provided by the literature is related to the
way CA (contingency awareness) is measured
because as long as people rely on their feelings
towards the CS in answering the memory
question, successful EC for unaware CS will
not emerge. Using a multinomial model, which
disentangles the memory and the attitude effects
in CA measurement, prof. Sweldens shows there
is significant attitude acquisition without
contingency awareness, consistent with the
implicit misattribution account of the EC (at
least when the CS and US are presented
simultaneously).
The presentation of assoc. prof. Florin Alin
Sava from West University of Timisoara focused
on Interventions that alter implicit cognitions,
showing a comparison between two different
techniques (EC and attentional training), using a
meta-analytical approach. It was shown that
Attentional Training procedures had a stronger
effect than EC, but only on attentional bias as
measured by the Dot Probe Task or E-Stroop.
This result should be regarded with caution since
the effect on attentional bias can be attributed to
method-specific factors (because of the
similarity between the training and assessment
procedure). When we consider the intervention
most effective in changing implicit associations
as measured by the Implicit Association Test, the
evaluative conditioning shows better effects than
the Attentional Training. No studies assessed the
effect of EC on attentional bias, so this relation
could not be evaluated. Also, the effects
assessed in this meta-analysis show significant
heterogeneity, suggesting that a number of
moderator variables should be further analyzed
for a better understanding of the effectiveness of
interventions designed to change implicit
cognitions.
Prof. Rainer Banse from University of Bonn
presented A critical view on EC procedures insights from an implicit measure perspective. A
recent meta-analysis (Hofmann, DeHouwer,
Perugini, Baeyens, & Crombez, 2010) showed
113

that evaluative conditioning is a real effect able

to change implicit and explicit attitudes.
Nonetheless, there still are several issues that
remain unclear concerning the efficiency of EC.
The criticisms brought to EC are related to the
poor reliability of the implicit instruments used
to measure the change, and on the fact that EC
seems to work only under certain conditions. For
instance, research ran by prof. Banse on the
context effects in evaluative conditioning yielded
unclear results, with no significant main effect of
the evaluative conditioning procedure. Some
suggestions made by prof. Banse included using
a large enough sample size for obtaining stable
results and replicating results within the study,
across different studies and different labs and
measures.
During the workshop, several topics related
to EC were addressed, such as the efficiency of
different EC procedures, the possible causal
mechanisms responsible for the EC effect,
potential moderators and critical aspects of the
EC. Although until now the causal mechanisms
of EC are not clear, some evidence suggest that
different procedures tap into different processes,
so in order to fully understand how and when EC
yields strong vs. weak effects we must first
understand the processes responsible for
different types of EC procedures. Future research
should also focus on identifying the moderators
which can increase the EC effect, but also on
developing better measures for CA and the effect
at implicit and explicit level. Last, but not least,
we should remember that replication is necessary
for considering EC a reliable procedure for
attitude formation and change.
114
References
De Houwer, J. (2007). A conceptual and theoretical
analysis of evaluative conditioning. The Spanish
Journal of Psychology, 10, 230241.
Gawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2006).
Associative and propositional processes in
evaluation: an integrative review of implicit and
explicit attitude change. Psychological bulletin,
132(5), 692.
Hofmann, W., De Houwer, J., Perugini, M., Baeyens,
F., & Crombez, G. (2010). Evaluative
conditioning in humans: a meta-analysis.
Psychological bulletin, 136(3), 390.
Houben, K., Havermans, R. C., & Wiers, R. W. (2010).
Learning to dislike alcohol: conditioning negative
implicit attitudes toward alcohol and its effect on
drinking behavior. Psychopharmacology, 211(1),
79-86.
Houben, K., Nederkoorn, C., Wiers, R. W., & Jansen,
A. (2011). Resisting temptation: Decreasing
alcohol-related affect and drinking behavior by
training response inhibition. Drug and alcohol
dependence, 116(1), 132-136.
Mallan, K. M., & Lipp, O. V. (2007). Does emotion
modulate the blink reflex in human conditioning?
Startle potentiation during pleasant and unpleasant
cues
in
the
picturepicture
paradigm.
Psychophysiology, 44(5), 737-748.
Olatunji, B. O., Lohr, J. M., Sawchuk, C. N., & Tolin,
D. F. (2007). Multimodal assessment of disgust in
contamination-related
obsessive-compulsive
disorder. Behaviour research and therapy, 45(2),
263-276.
Sweldens, S., Van Osselaer, S. M., & Janiszewski, C.
(2010). Evaluative conditioning procedures and
the resilience of conditioned brand attitudes.
Journal of Consumer Research, 37(3), 473-489.

(30 august 1938 21 decembrie 2012 )
Corina Ilin1
Recunosc c mi este extrem de dificil s

scriu acest text. Am amnat mult dar am i
reflectat mult la ceea ce cu adevrat doresc s
scriu despre Profesorul Adrian Neculau ntr-o
revist de psihologie a resurselor umane. Aleg s
dau mrturie cteva aspecte considerate de mine
definitorii pentru personalitatea profesorului
Adrian Neculau: realizri, acele reuite
incontestabile dincolo de timp i generaii, teme
principale de interes, de studiu i de cercetare,
cu sperana c ele sunt inspiratoare pentru cei ce
doresc s i continue munca i dedicarea,
caracteristici personale, ceea ce l fceau cu totul
special, unic, n comunitatea academic
romneasc, crezuri, rostite din ce n ce mai des
i mai apsat n ultimii ani.
Lista realizrilor, parte deja a istoriei recente
a psihologiei romneti, este mult prea lung
pentru spaiul publicistic de fa, prezentarea
mea fiind o selecie subiectiv, elaborat cu
dorina de a sublinia activitatea profesorului
Adrian Neculau n domeniul psihologiei muncii
i conducerii. Adrian Neculau este cunoscut ca
numrul 1 n psihologia social din Romnia dar
nu a dori s uitm c nceputurile carierei sale
de cercettor au legtur cu laboratorul de
psihologie experimental din CFR, Iai, iar teza
sa de doctorat este o lucrare fundamental pentru
domeniul psihologiei grupurilor de munc.
Pentru a contura portretul su profesional voi
aduce n atenie o parte a temelor principale de
interes, de studiu i de cercetare ale profesorului
Adrian Neculau, din ultimii ani. Cu gndul la cei
ce sunt cititori ai acestei reviste dar nu au avut
bucuria ntlnirii personale i ocazia s lucreze
direct cu profesorul Adrian Neculau, voi scrie
cteva rnduri despre cum a fost ca om, profesor
i mentor, domnul Profesor. Sunt persoane mult
mai ndreptite dect mine, s vorbeasc despre
crezurile de-o via ale profesorului Adrian
Neculau. M gndesc, n primul rnd, la familia
sa i la prietenul su drag, profesorul Septimiu
Chelcea, la colaboratorii direci din Iai i de
pretutindeni. Sper c mi vor ierta ndrzneala, i
i asigur c scriu cu inima deschis dar mai ales

avnd convingerea c nu putem scpa n uitare
preioasa motenire profesional i spiritual
lsat de profesorul Neculau.
n 2003 profesorul Neculau s-a pensionat,
oficial. Colegii de la Catedra de Psihologie din
Universitatea Al. Ioan Cuza din Iai au avut
inspiraia de a pregti un volum In honorem
Adrian Neculau, numit proiect de inim i
onoare. mi amintesc c protestasem atunci, cei
drept, mut i surd: de ce un volum acum cnd
domnul profesor Adrian Neculau are doar 65 de
ani i tocmai pentru c se pensioneaz devine
liber s ne bucure cu prezena i rezultatele
muncii sale cel puin 20 25 de ani de acum
ncolo? Am convingerea c nu doar eu credeam
c aa se va ntmpla, iar dispariia fulgertoare
din 21 decembrie 2012 a ntrecut orice
nchipuire, ne-a lsat pe toi mpietrii n uimire,
suprare, tristee i neputin. Suntem n doliu.
Cartea Psihologia social i Noua Europ.
In honorem Adrian Neculau (Editura Polirom,
Iai, 2003) are acum o cu totul alt semnificaie
i valoare. Cum a fost ca om i mentor, domnul
Profesor Adrian Neculau? Gsim aici cteva
rspunsuri memorabile:
Serge Moscovici: Revenirea Romniei n
viaa mea are un nume i un chip: Adrian
Neculau: L optimisme est une qualite
formidable, voila ce que fut ma pensee lorsque je
rencontrai Adrian Neculau pour la premiere
fois.
Andrei Cosmovici un ctitor: Aportul
domnului Adrian Neculau este unul fundamental
i e similar cu ceea ce a fcut Florian tefnescu
Goang pentru psihologii de la Cluj n deceniile
trei i patru ale secolului trecut.
Tatiana Slama Cazacu Omagiul omeniei
tradiionale romneti: Mulumesc, domnule
Adrian Neculau, c m-ai fcut s ntlnesc
Omenia!.
Profesorul Teodor Cozma ne ajut s
nelegem legtura dintre profesorul Neculau i
trecutul su. A fcut parte din generaia ce a

Adresa de coresponden: cilin@socio.uvt.ro
115
creat puni ntre dou lumi i a fcut posibil

supravieuirea psihologiei n timpuri de rstrite:
tiu prea bine c lecia cea mai important pe
care ne-o puteau transmite (dasclii notri, n.a.)
era aceea a demnitii i au fcut-o n chip
magistral, nti de toate, prin modelul de via
intelectual i moral pe care ni l-au oferit de-a
lungul attor ani. Profesorul Adrian Neculau ia nsuit cu contiinciozitate aceast lecie i a
pus-o n practic nc din anii studeniei, apoi ca
profesor, psiholog, cercettor i cadru didactic
universitar. Acest crez profund l-a nsoit mereu
i l-a ajutat s-i pstreze optimismul n situaiile
cele mai dificile. Profesorul Adrian Neculau
rmne un model prin dou dimensiuni ce se
completeaz n cel mai fericit mod posibil:
cutarea de noi orizonturi, de oameni, de valori
noi, prin care exprim ncrederea lucid n viitor
i ntoarcerea permanent la tradiii, ndeosebi
la cele pe care, n mod abuziv, memoria tinde s
le treac n uitare. Strdania de cutare i
recuperare a memoriei pierdute a disciplinelor
noastre este o lecie pe care profesorul Neculau
o las motenire generaiilor ce le-au format i
mai ales, tinerei echipe de cercettori n care, de
mai bine de un deceniu, investete cunoatre i
ncredere.
Dar unde i cum a nceput totul?
Adrian Neculau s-a nscut n 1938 n
localitatea Ungureni, judeul Botoani, Romnia.
Studiile universitare i le-a fcut la Iai, obinnd
licena n pedagogie n 1962, sub ndrumarea
academicianului tefan Brsnescu. n 1974
obine doctoratul n psihologie sub coordonarea
academicianului Vasile Pavelcu cu teza Liderii
n dinamica grupurilor. Timp de un an pred la
un gimnaziu din Chiinu Cri dup care se
ntoarce la Iai, unde ase ani este psiholog
practician la laboratorul de psihologie
experimental al CFR-ului. n 1969 devine
asistent la Universitatea Al. Ioan Cuza din Iai.
Cariera academic l-a consacrat definitiv,
profesorul Neculau transformnd i nnobilnd
prin prezena i prestana sa mediul universitar
ieean, indiferent de ipostaza prin care l-a slujit:
asistent,
lector,
confereniar,
profesor,
conductor de doctorat, ef de catedr, prorector.
Ceea ce a reuit s realizeze profesorul Adrian
Neculau la Universitatea din Iai, dar nu doar
pentru Iai este remarcabil. A scris despre aceste
metamorfoze, n prefaa uneia din crile sale1:
Schimbarea din 1989 a gsit Universitatea ntr1
Noi si Europa (coordonator i autor, prefaa), Iai,

Editura Polirom, 2002
116
o situaie dezastruoas: se diminuase drastic

numrul studenilor, nu se mai fcuser nici un
fel de investiii, corpul profesoral era izolat i
demoralizat, atmosfera de apatie i sentimentul
de neputin dominau cmpul universitar, situaia
psihologiei fiind nc i mai dramatic, n
Universitate rmseser doar civa profesori
care predau psihologie colar la diverse
faculti. Media de vrst a corpului profesoral
era mult peste cinzeci de ani. Nu exista un
laborator de psihologie, nu mai aveam dect doar
cteva mese i scaune chioape. Cei care ne
vizitau, se vedea dup expresia feei lor, erau
nspimntai de starea de napoiere n care ne
gseam. Pierdusem o jumtate de veac.
n aceste condiii, profesorul Neculau a
renceput formarea noilor generaii de psihologi.
Redresarea n-a durat ns dect civa ani,
investiia de ncredere n tinerii si colegi dnd
roade foarte rapid. Toi cei care au intrat n
corpul profesoral, dup 1995, fcuser stagii n
laboratoare de psihologie din Europa sau
America, se familiarizaser cu climatul de acolo,
au nceput s se fac cunoscui. S-au ctigat
programe internaionale, proiecte de cercetare
finanate de Banca Mondial, s-au nfiinat trei
laboratoare de cercetare. Bazei cu utilizatori
multipli, de la Facultatea de Psihologie i
tiinele Educaiei, Universitatea Al. I. Cuza
din Iai, singura din Romnia n tiine sociale, i
s-a conferit Diploma CNCSIS pentru Centru de
Excelen. Concomitent s-a ntemeiat revista, a
demarat programul de traduceri i de publicaii a
unor studii autohtone la Editura Polirom, s-au
organizat workshopuri internaionale, dar, cel
mai important, s-a dobndit contiina excelenei.
Poate din interior nu s-a perceput amploarea
schimbrii, cei de la distan au neles-o pe
deplin.
A venit vremea realizrilor. Poate c cel
mai important lucru pe care l-am realizat s
conexez
cercetarea
psihosociologic
romneasc la cmpul de cercetare european,
s-i ajut pe muli tineri s ias n lume i s
devin nume cunoscute, s iniiez o construcie
instituional, n care s i implic pe toi cei
dispui s se angajeze. (Din dialogul cu Mihai
Dinu Gheorghiu, 2003). La rndul su,
profesorul Mihai Dinu Gheorghiu, apreciaz:
Ceea ce mi se pare mie semnificativ pentru
intinerarul profesorului Adrian Neculau este
capacitatea de a coverti tiina social a relaiei
n practica relaiei sociale. Este pentru mine un
semn de nalt profesionalitate, de vocaie i de
etic profesional.
Doresc s amintesc doar cteva momente

editoriale pe care le apreciez ca fiind eseniale
pentru profilul profesional al profesorului Adrian
Neculau.
Volumul Liderii n dinamica grupului,
aprut n Bucureti, la Editura tiinific, n 1977
l-a fcut cunoscut i respectat n lumea
academic pe Adrian Neculau. Puini sunt cei
care se pot mndri cu publicaii, n timpul
regimului totalitar, de standard european, tema i
abordarea fiind de stringent actualitate tiinific
i n acord cu ceea ce se realiza pretudindeni n
lume la acea vreme. n interviul cu Septimiu
Chelcea din 2003, chiar este amintit reacia
profesorului Ion Radu... cum de te-au lsat s
publici aa ceva!?.
Prefaa-manifest a lui Serge Moscovici,
numele i prestigiul tuturor celor care se reunesc
n volumul Psihologia social. Aspecte
contemporane, dovedesc c profesorul Adrian
Neculau a fost dispus s-i pun ntreaga energie,
timpul i devotamentul su n slujba proiectul de
reconstrucie a psihologiei sociale romneti.
Semnul dat comunitii tiinifice a fost foarte
clar i astzi constatm, ct de rodnic i
ncununat de succes a fost acest ambiios, dificil
i temerar proiect.
Aa cum observa Pierre de Visscher, nimic
nu este ctigat pentru totdeauna i tot ceea ce
se uit trebuie s fie reamintit, de aceea
impresionantul volum Dinamica grupului. Texte
de baz (2001) este, cred, una din cele mai
valoroase publicaii de specialitate din Romnia
contemporan. Paradoxal, n aceast antologie,
texte scrise n francez i englez sunt publicate
n limba romn, fr s fie editate n aceast
form i n celelalte dou limbi. Cu acest volum
s-a reparat una din marile nedrepti ce a
destabilizat psihologia social. n consecin,
avem acum acces la texte fundamentale, clasice
sau recente i privilegiul gsirii propriei grile de
lectur a domeniului.
O semnificaie cu totul aparte a avut pentru
profesorul Adrian Neculau, Manualul de
psihologie social publicat n 2004 i reeditat, la
editura Polirom. Sigur, avem primul manual
autentic de psihologie social publicat n
Romnia post-totalitar dar i o lecie de inut
minte: ceea ce poate prea un lucru simplu, poate
fi de fapt un proiect extrem de complicat. n
concepia profesorului Neculau un manual
ncheie un ciclu, nu l deschide. Astfel, manualul
de fa include alturi de teorii i paradigme
cunoscute, rezultatele propriilor cercetri,
sintetiznd munca de ani a unei echipe ajuns la

deplin maturitate.
Pentru istoria recent a tiinei noastre, s-a
recuperat a parte din memoria ei pierdut:
proiectul nceput prin publicarea n 1999 a
volumului Memoria pierdut s-a continuat prin
interviurile lui Adrian Neculau cu Serge
Moscovici. Volumul Memoria pierdut, Editura
Polirom, 1999 a fost premiat de Uniunea
Autorilor din Romnia iar volumul de interviuri
Urmele timpului. Serge Moscovici n dialog cu
Adrian Neculau, din 2002 s-a epuizat de mult din
librrii!
Profesorul Neculau nu ascundea faptul c
tot ce fac n ultimul timp este ndreptat spre
descifrarea mecanismelor inoculrii. Cred c,
trind ntr-un context, nsuindu-i anumite
scheme cognitive i practicnd un anumit limbaj,
ajungi cu vremea s te identifici. Puini doar, cei
care au exersat mult al doilea tip de discurs n
sfera privat, i-au pstrat gndirea liber. Sper
c fac parte dintre acetia. (Adrian Neculau ntro convorbire cu Septimiu Chelcea, 2003).
Ajung astfel la cel de-al doilea aspect pe
care l consider definitoriu pentru personalitatea
profesorului Neculau, temele sale de cercetare
din ultimii zece ani: studierea realitii
romneti.
Viaa cotidian n comunism (2004), volum
coordonat de profesorul Neculau la care
colaboreaz nume importante ale vieii culturale
romneti, face de neles, explicabil chiar dac
nu mai puin trist i teribil, spun cei de la Editura
Polirom, ceea ce s-a ntmplat n viaa de zi cu zi
n perioada dictaturii comuniste din Romnia.
Aceast
lucrare
reprezentativ
pentru
preocuprile de cercetare i studiu ale
profesorului Neculau a fost publicat n Frana n
2008, La vie quotidienne en Roumanie sous
le communisme.
n 2011, cartea Psihologia servituilor
voluntare, reunete texte ce analizeaz o serie de
fenomene caracteristice societii romneti
actuale. Pe lng situaia satelor, definirea
identitii naionale sau locale i rolul instituiilor
de nvmnt sau al instituiilor statului sunt
prezentate portrete ale unor personaliti
culturale, dar i dosarele de urmrire ale unor
psihologi autohtoni aflate n arhivele CNSAS:
Mi se pare total nedemn s tratezi
anormalitatea ca pe ceva normal. Gsesc acestei
atitudini dou explicaii: sau sunt cercettori
terminai, incapabili s mai identifice fenomene
sociale reale din context, sau sunt nite
117
duplicitari, marcai de jocul prelungit, n

imposibilitate s i mai revin. (Adrian
Neculau ntr-o convorbire cu Septimiu Chelcea,
2003).
Cu mult elegan i consecven,
profesorul Adrian Neculau i continua lecia de
demnitate nceput n tineree i, la apus, cnd
devenise liber de servitui administrative, ne
surprinde, ne uimete i ne ncnt - se afund cu
interes i energie ce prea inepuizabil s
cerceteze arhivele CNSAS i lanseaz n lumea
cercettorilor din Romnia o tem pe ct de
terifiant pe att de delicat, psihologii romni
118
din nchisorile comuniste. Pn la capt

profesorul Neculau a lucrat mult i disciplinat,
am lucrat mai mult de 10 ore pe zi, tot citesc 4,
5 ore pe zi i uneori stau la calculator cte 6 ore
pe zi ...ct o s mai rezistm? (Adrian Neculau
ntr-o convorbire cu Septimiu Chelcea, 2003).
n ultima vreme profesorul Neculau glumea
mereu cnd l ntlneam spunnd celor din jur,
afectuos i ironic, ai venit la ntlnirea cu
istoria! A fost un privilegiu, un dar unic,
ntnirea cu profesorul Adrian Neculau dar a
venit dureros de repede timpul ca ceea ce am
primit s dm mai departe.

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Asociaia de Psihologie

Volumul 11, nr. 1 / 2013

Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional

Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional

Copyright 2012 Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional

Publicarea de articole n Revista Psihologia Resurselor Umane

Starea actual a psihologului specializat n psihologia muncii i

romnii. Ne plngem de toate i ntotdeauna. Ei

coala Naional de Studii Politice i Administrative

compoziiei sale echilibrate n ceea ce privete

comisiei de Muncii din Colegiu este evaluat cu

Peste 36% dintre participani afirm c nu

Euro). Doar aproximativ 38% din acest venit

majoritatea (81%) se concentreaz pe surse de

(SD = 9). Tariful mediu pltit pe edin este de

instituiile educaionale private, nu neaparat n

And the Ugly... Psihologii, n mod special

The current status of work and organizational psychologists in Romania

National School of Political and Administrative Studies

Okay, Okay, you will say this is just the

given by the voluntary nature of participation, by

more positive trend, but still extremely negative

Over 36% of the participants say that they

Euro). Only about 38% of this income

For most of those psychologists working

supervision per month (SD = 9). The average

insertion of their graduates in the labor

And the Ugly... Psychologists, especially

Andreea Butucescu1, Lavinia C. Usctescu2

Ovidius University, Corresponding address: andreea.butucescu@gmail.com

aspect which made the term increasingly

prevents them from maintaining a healthy social

in three main characteristics of a workaholic:

working. Data show that the DUWAS has good

gender, sex, marital status, education), and three

translated and adapted on the Romanian

In order to obtain a good linguistic

At first, steps were taken in order to verify

In order to verify that the two linguistic

The next step was to determine the temporal

coefficient of these scores was highly significant,

Table 2 Test-Retest Reliability of the DUWAS

**p < .01

The internal consistency for the English and

coefficients were quite high: = .82 for the

In order to assess the convergent validity of

shown by the Pearson correlations performed;

Table 5. Pearson Correlations between Working Excessively, Working Compulsivelly,

Further on, correlations between the

used separately in all the three models were:

Objective 2: verifying the association

Due to the exploratory nature of this

Important predictions could be inferred from

can be noticed that the probability for someone

Figure 1. The Association between Workaholism (DUWAS) and Type of Institution

The relation between education and

education, sex) as well as the dimensions of the

In the end, nonparametric correlations

(rho = .21, p < .01). Anxiety correlated

To further clarify the relations detailed in

which an effect failed to be statistically visible

more obsessive-compulsive about one`s work.

who work in the private sector. More precisely,

8. Promovarea -.143* -.255 -.202 -.084

-.318 -.394 -.267** -.134* -.326** -.065

.655 .468 .408** -

-.402 -.423 -.399 -.288 -.336** -.088

.625 .466 .684 .628 -

-.261 -.294 -.372 -.242 -.185** -.034

.208 .221 .276 .280 .452** -

-.255 -.263 -.155* -.111

.176 .249 .316 .346 .384 .278 .245 .351 .323** -

-.324 -.329 -.185** -.038

.160* .168 .220 .291 .259 .218** .120

.279 .209 .589 .322 .482 .330 .595** -

18. Absorbirea -.203 -.211 -.097

.210 .254 .708 .687 -