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Documente Cultură
DOI 10.1007/s10670-013-9485-9
Metanormativity is, admittedly, a broad church. Those who explicitly self-identify as metanormativists include Chrisman (2010), and especially Enoch (2011a), Ch. 4. Many more views might
reasonably be thought to fall under this classification, including (e.g.) Scanlon (1998), Gibbard (2003),
Wedgwood (2002), Parfit (2011), Skorupski (2011).
C. Cowie (&)
Fitzwilliam College, University of Cambridge, Storeys Way, Cambridge CB3 0DG, UK
e-mail: cdc33@cam.ac.uk
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C. Cowie
to have the constitutive aim of truth (or knowledge), action does not appear to
have any such constitutive aim.2 In what follows, I develop this disanalogy into a
novel challenge to metanormative approaches.
I develop the argument by thinking about disagreement. The constitutive aim of
belief can play a role in adjudicating epistemic disagreements for which there is no
analogue in practical disagreements. Consequently, we have more reason, all else being
equal, to expect convergence in epistemic judgment than in practical judgment. This
represents a prima facie challenge to the metanormative theorist. It represents a prima
facie challenge because the extent of (suitably specified) disagreement in an area of
thought is of prima facie significance for the metaphysics of that area of thought.
The argument proceeds as follows. Firstly, I set out a requirement for
convergence in normative judgmentthe shared criteria requirement. Secondly, I
identify a sense in which this requirement is met for epistemic judgment but not for
practical judgment. Thirdly, I explain this in terms of the disanalogy in the
constitutive aims of belief and action. Fourthly, I respond to objections.
This is expressed in the context of scepticism about companions in guilt arguments between morality
and epistemology (such as that undertaken in Cuneo 2007) in Lillehammer Lillehammer and Hallvard
(2007), and p. 170. FitzPatrick (2009), p. 757. See also Darwall (2003), pp. 483488, Tersman (2006),
p. 96.
I have claimed that disagreement often has its source in failings of procedural rationality. But it might
be claimed that disagreements also often have their source in failings of substantive rationality (that is, in
failure to respond to the reasons that one has). See Fn. 7.
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of action is that which maximises welfare. If they did not share this criterion then
factual agreement and (procedural) rationality would be insufficient to yield
convergence in their judgment about which course of action was required. This
gives rise to an intuitive requirement on convergence in normative judgment. For
disputants to converge (non-accidentally) in their normative judgments, they must
share some normative criteria for determining when those judgments are correct.4
Ill call this the shared criteria requirement: it is necessary for two (or more)
disputants to (non-accidentally) converge in their judgments that they share
common normative criteria for determining which judgment is correct. The above
example illustrates this in an over-simplified sense. In reality, disputes will not
always rest on simple normative principles (e.g. it is reasonable to do whatever
maximises welfare). Rather, disputes will rest on a number of different background
principles and particular judgments of greater and lesser degrees of determinacy and
importance. The fewer the criteria that disputants share, or the less determinate or
important these criteria are, the less convergence we should expect.
One of the sources of philosophical interest in practical disagreement is that it
appears that frequently, the shared criteria requirement is met to an insufficient degree
to ensure convergence, even amongst apparently rational and well-informed
disputants. Disputants lack sufficient basic shared normative criteria to resolve
disputes about, for example, abortion, medical research, and gun control, not to
mention in genuinely inter-cultural practical disputes.5 This gives rise to arguments for
scepticism about practical, especially moral, judgment, and to abductive arguments
for metaphysical anti-realism about practical, and again especially moral, judgment.6
And whilst the soundness of these arguments is sometimes contested, they nonetheless
represent an important prima facie challenge to the scope of our practical knowledge,
and to straightforwardly realistic views of the metaphysics of practical normativity.7
4
Some philosophers are optimistic that informed and procedurally rational disputants would converge in
a substantial proportion of their practical judgments (e.g. Brink 1989, pp. 197210; Parfit 2011, p. 543,
and see also Jackson 1998, Ch. 5). But there is good reason to be sceptical of this e.g. Mackie (1977),
p. 37, Enoch (2011a), p. 191. I discuss this further in Objections and Replies below.
Elga (2007), (Sec. 1213) claims that disputants about the cluster of issues related to the permissibility
of abortion typically lack sufficient shared normative criteria for convergence. See Kornblith (2010) for
the view (in response to Elga) that whereas disputants may share criteria in these cases, criteria are not
shared in cases of inter-cultural practical disagreements.
Arguments from disagreement to metaphysical conclusions take a number of forms, e.g.: (1) abductive
arguments against moral realism, and for moral constructivism (e.g. Harman 1996, 2000); (2) arguments from
judgment dependent theories of moral truth to moral error theories (see e.g. Tersman 2004, Ch. 4); (3)
arguments from conceptual requirements on convergence to moral error theories (see e.g. Lillehammer 2004).
For the most thorough discussion of, and rejection of, arguments from disagreement to metaphysical
anti-realist conclusions, see Enoch (2009, 2011a) Ch. 8. One of the most obvious reasons for rejecting any
arguments of this form concerns the use of rationality (Ibid., pp. 210211). I have claimed that
disagreements amongst procedurally rational and well-informed agents pose a prima facie challenge to
claims to moral knowledge, and to straightforwardly realistic accounts of practical normativity. But it
might be objected that it is only disagreements amongst substantially rational agents that have this
consequence. And it might be thought that substantially rational agents would share normative criteria
(or at least that we have no compelling reason to think otherwise). My response is concessive. If
well-informed and substantially rational agents were to disagree, this would be sufficient for rejecting
claims to moral knowledge, and to straightforwardly realistic accounts of practical normativity. By
contrast, I have merely claimed that disagreement amongst well-informed and procedurally rational
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purposes. The important point is that plausibly, the truth-values of ones subsequent
beliefs can function as a shared criterion of assessment for epistemic judgments (at
least amongst the rational and conceptually competent).8 I defend this claim further
in the following section. For present, however, I focus on introducing a challenge to
the view that there is an analogous criterion for assessing practical judgment.
I begin by taking Wedgwoods discussion of the action-guiding mental state
choice as a foil for thinking about practical reasons and the criteria for assessing
them. Is there some criterion, analogous to the reliability for truth criterion, which
could be used to assess judgments about choice? Wedgwood works with
choiceworthiness as an analogue to truth. It is plausible that (rational and
conceptually competent) disputants would agree that whether one has reason to
choose some course of action depends on the likelihood that the course of action is
choiceworthy. Much as with the discussion of belief and truth above, one who
denies this belies some form of irrationality or conceptual incompetence. So, it may
appear that just as reliability for truth is an (admittedly abstract) shared criterion for
adjudicating epistemic disputes, so reliability for choiceworthiness is an analogous
shared criterion for adjudicating practical disputes.
In fact though, reliability for choiceworthiness isnt analogous to reliability for
truth. Reliability for choiceworthiness is much weaker, or less informative, than
reliability for truth. We can see this by employing a distinction made by Velleman.
Velleman draws a distinction between two different ways in which the aim of a
practice can be specified.9 The aim of a practice can be specified either formally or
substantially. Velleman uses the example of chess to illustrate. The formal aim of
chess is winning. The substantial aim is what winning in chess consists in: checkmating the opponents king. More generally, the substantial aim of a practice is
whatever achieving its formal aim consists in. The terminology of aiming is
particular to Vellemans concerns, but the formal/substantial distinction can
usefully be applied to show how truth and choiceworthiness are dis-analogous.
They are disanalogous in that choiceworthiness is a merely formal norm on choice,
but truth is a substantial norm on belief. That choiceworthiness is a merely formal
norm on choice is intuitive. Choiceworthy simply means whatever one ought to
choose. But truth is not merely a formal characterisation of the norm that governs
belief. The formal norm that governs belief is whatever one ought to believe. But
true isnt simply a placeholder for whatever one ought to believe.10 So, truth
states a substantialalbeit very abstractnorm on belief. It follows that whereas
reliability for choiceworthiness is a merely formal criterion for assessing judgments
about what one has reason to choose, reliability for truth is an informative or
substantial criterion for assessing judgments about what one has reason to believe.11
8
I shant claim that sharing this criterion is sufficient for adjudicating all epistemic disputes. My claim
defended further below and in dealing with objections and repliesis merely that it is of some help.
Velleman (1996), p. 700. My presentation follows (in part) the discussed of Velleman in Wedgwood
(2002), pp. 1012.
10
Not unless (a particular variety of) pragmatism about belief holds as a conceptual truth. I assume it
does not.
11
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C. Cowie
This is relevant for thinking about disagreement. All else equal, disputants are
more likely to converge in their judgment if they share a substantial criterion of
assessment of the disputed judgment than if they merely share a formal criterion.
This isnt to say that disputants who agree on a substantial criterion of assessment
for a disputed judgment will always have sufficient resource to converge on the very
same judgment. They may not. But they will still be better placed than those who do
not. Compare chess: players are more likely to agree who has won if they agree that
winning is achieved by check-mating the opponents king than if they dont (even if
they dont agree on exactly how castling works).
3 Correctness Conditions
I have suggested that there might be a substantial criterion of assessment of epistemic
judgment in terms of the reliability for truth criterion. And I have gestured toward,
though not yet argued for, the view that there is only a formal criterion of assessment of
practical judgment. In this section I present the arguments for these claims.
The argument is based on thinking about the correctness conditions of mental
states. The very general norms on mental states under discussiontruth and
choiceworthinessare explicable in terms of the correctness conditions of those
states. Correctness is a normative property of a mental state that applies to that state
merely insofar as it is the kind of thing that it is. More precisely, the correctness
conditions of a mental state specify the conditions under which a mental state goes
right or gets things right merely insofar as it is the kind of thing that it is.12 The
correctness norm is important in the present context because it allows us to identify
general norms on mental states just by reflecting on the nature of those states. I shall
claim that whereas reflection on the nature of belief allows one to see that a belief
goes right or is correct when it is true, reflection on the nature of choice only
allows one to see that a choice goes right or is correct when it is choiceworthy.
This explains why there is a substantial general norm on belieftruthon which
we can expect agreement amongst the conceptually competent, but only a formal
general norm on choicechoiceworthinesson which we can expect agreement
amongst the conceptually competent.
Begin with belief. How is it possible to arrive at the view that truth is a norm on
belief simply by reflecting on the nature of belief? The correctness conditions of a
belief state the conditions under which a belief goes right just insofar as it is the kind
of thing that it is. So in order to work out the conditions under which a belief is
correct, it is necessary to ask when a belief goes right merely insofar as it is the kind
of thing that it is. Belief is a representational state. It represents the world as being
thus-and-so. But it is not merely a representational state. It is a state which purports
to represent veridically. In this it is distinguished from other states which are
representational, but which dont purport to veridicality in their representation (e.g.
imagination, supposition, etc.).13 Given that belief is the kind of state which
12
13
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Especially Wedgwood (2007), pp. 154158. See also Kearns and Starr (2009).
16
Thomson (2008), pp. 130134. This formulation might be objected to if read from right-to-left.
According to some philosophers one doesnt have reason to believe a conclusion for which one has
(sufficient) evidence unless one has some interest in so believing (see e.g. Leite 2007; Steglich-Petersen
2011). For counter-argument see Kelly (2003, 2007). In any case, it is highly likely that agents who
disagree about a proposition do have an interest in it (if for no other reason than that they are disagreeing
about it). For the more radical view that agents have reasons to believe conclusions that they dont have
evidence for the truth of, see Sect. 5.1 below.
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The significance of the open question argument for thinking about the disanalogy between reasons for
belief and reasons for action is pursued in greater length in Heathwood (2009).
18
Wedgwood (2003), p. 27. Compare Dworkin (2011), Ch. 8. According to Dworkin, there are no
conceptual truths in, or about, morality. All first-order and meta-ethical moral judgments are themselves
moral judgmentsjudgments whose justification rests on first-order moral theorising.
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reflecting on ones existing judgments about what is choiceworthy, both in the form
of particular judgments and general principles, and coming to a conclusion on this
basis. And there is no reason to expect disputants to settle on the same equilibrium
point. There are two reasons for this. Firstly, different agents may start with
commitments to different practical principles and intuitions. And secondly, even
those who start with similar intuitions and principles may weigh them differently,
thereby arriving at different equilibria. So, reflection on the process by which one
would go about working out a substantial characterisation of choiceworthiness does
not encourage optimism for convergence in that judgment.
There is a second kind of reason, sometimes mentioned in the literature, for
scepticism of convergence on a substantial characterisation of choiceworthiness. It
is that, in contrast to belief, there are many kinds of (good) reason that one can
adduce for choosing. Consider, for example, Scanlon:
since believing is believing to be true, the only kind of reason that one can
have for believing something is a reason for thinking it true Reasons for
action, on the other hand, are plural.19
Scanlon puts the point in terms of reasons for action rather than in terms of
reasons for choice. But I take it that the same point applies to choice too (I discuss
this further in the following section). Reasons for choice are plural: there are many
different dimensions along which a consideration might count in favour of choosing
some course of action. A consideration might count in favour of choosing some
course of action on account of its pragmatic properties, its moral properties, its
aesthetic properties, its comic properties, its legal properties, and so on.
This plurality of reasons for choice might be thought to undermine the prospect
of a substantial characterisation of choiceworthiness in two ways. Firstly, it is
reasonable to be sceptical of whether there really are all-things-considered reasons
for choice encompassing these many different dimensions. Consider, for example,
the possibility that at least some of the kinds of reason provided by these different
dimensions are incommensurable.20 It would be a consequence that there are at least
some cases in which there is no uniquely correct answer as to which course of action
is choiceworthy. But even if there are all-things considered reasons for choice we
might be sceptical of whether disputants would agree on them. Different agents may
weight the reasons provided by different dimensions of assessment differently. This
could lead to disagreement concerning which course of action is choiceworthy and it
is not obvious that any such differences would belie rational failings or conceptual
incompetencies on behalf of the disputants.
20
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analogous claim cannot be made for judgments about reasons for choice. In this
section I extend the argument from choice to action and other action-guiding
mental states.
It might be thought that the argument presented above turns on the selection of
choice as the practical analogue of belief. Specifically, it might be thought that
there is a substantial criterion governing judgments about action on which we
should expect disputants to agree. But this would be mistaken. The argument
sketched above generalises. To show this, suppose that we ask whether there is
some norm which governs action and which would could be used as a criterion for
assessing judgments about reasons for action. It might be thought that there is: the
good. If so, then the good stands to action as truth stands to belief. I dont think,
however, that this is right. To see this, note that there are two ways in which we
might understand the good. One obvious way to understand it is simply as a placeholder for whatever one ought to do. So understood, we might reasonably expect
agreement that the good normatively governs actions. Any dissenters would belie a
conceptual incompetence. But if we think of the good in this way, then it is merely a
formal, not a substantial norm on action. And so it is not analogous to the role that
truth plays with respect to belief. Suppose, though, that we understand the good in
more substantial terms, not merely as a place-holder. This involves thinking of the
good as embodying some substantial first-order normative commitmentsfor
example, some form of consequentialism. Insofar as we do this, the good is a
substantial, not merely a formal, norm on action. And so it may ground a substantial
criterion of assessment for judgments about reasons for action. However, we no
longer have reason to expect agreement on that criterion. Much as with substantial
characterisations of choiceworthiness, defending a substantial conception of the
good would require engaging in first-order practical justification that goes beyond
mere reflection on the concept of action. And, as claimed above, we should be
sceptical of agreement on conclusions that must be reached by such a process.
Indeed, it is worth noting that we might think that a similar argumentative
strategy applies to, for example, moral emotions such as shame, guilt, regret, and so
on. There are purely formal normative relations between shame and shamefulness,
guilt and guiltworthiness, trust and trustworthiness. But as these are formal, not
substantial relations, they are not analogous to the role that truth plays relative to
belief. One might propose some substantial characterisation of shameworthiness,
guiltworthiness, trustworthiness, and so on. But, it would be necessary to engage in
first-order practical justification in order to arrive at such a substantial characterisation. And so we should be sceptical of agreement on that characterisation.
This response may not satisfy. It might be objected that the response given above
misses an important point. I have claimed that mere rational reflection on the nature
of action-guiding mental states (e.g. choice) yields only a formal characterisation of
the norms that govern these states. Many authors working on the correctness
conditions of action-guiding mental states would agree.21 But there are a number of
views in the literature according to which action itself does have a substantial
constitutive aim that can be ascertained just by thinking about the nature of those
21
e.g. Wedgwood (2003), Thomson (2008) (e.g. p. 132), Shah (2008), Shah and Evans (2012).
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states. Consider, for example, the views of David Velleman and Alan Millar.
According to (at least one time slice of) Velleman the constitutive aim of action is
autonomy, or the conscious control of ones action.22 And according to Millar the
constitutive aim of action is that the action have some end, point, or purpose.23
These are both substantial, or informative views of the constitutive aim of action.
And so they might be thought to represent a challenge to my argument.
In fact, I dont think these views do represent a challenge, nor would their authors
intend them to. To see this, it is necessary to be clear on the difference between
correctness as a property of mental states, and constitutive aims as Millar and
Velleman are understanding them. Correctness for mental states is a normative
property. It states when a mental state goes right as the kind of thing that it is. This
should not be confused with the constitutive aim of action in the sense that
Velleman and Millar are using it. The constitutive aim of action (in the sense that
they are understanding it) is not necessarily a normative property. It doesnt state the
conditions under which an action goes right as the kind of thing that it is. Rather, it
states what is intrinsic to all intentional actions.24 In claiming that action
constitutively aims at purposiveness or autonomy, these authors should be thought
of as claiming that autonomy or purposiveness are properties that are intrinsic to
action. They are properties such that to the extent that any putative action does not
possess them, it is not a bona fide action.
We can see the difference between correctness conditions and constitutive aims
clearly by contrasting the consequences of ones action failing to meet its
correctness condition with the consequences of ones action failing to meet its
constitutive aim. If ones action fails to meet its correctness conditioni.e. if that
action is not worthy of being performedthen one is worthy of criticism for
performing that action. One is worthy of criticism because one has performed an
action that one ought not to have performed. But the consequence of ones action
failing to meet its constitutive aimfailing to be autonomous, or purposiveis
rather different. It isnt necessarily that one is blameworthy at all. Rather, the
consequence is that one hasnt performed a full-blooded intentional action at all.
This highlights the sense in which whereas correctness is a normative property, a
constitutive aim is not.25
Given that the constitutive aim of a mental state neednt be normative for that
mental state, the views of Velleman and Millar arent in competition with my claim
that the correctness conditions of action (and action-guiding mental states) are
uninformative. The views of Velleman and Millar would represent a challenge to
the view that action doesnt have a substantial constitutive aim. But I have not
claimed that action does not have a substantial constitutive aim (in the sense that
they are using it). It may. I have only claimed that action (or choice) doesnt have a
22
23
24
Ibid.
25
This point is nicely made by Millar: an action may achieve the constitutive aim whilst being subject
to criticism in all sorts of ways that are not explicable just in terms of the constitutive aim (Millar 2004,
p. 68).
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substantial correctness condition. And their views do not (and are not, I think,
intended to) represent a challenge to this.
26
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mental states if they agree on some general substantial criterion for assessing
judgments about reasons for holding that state, than if they do not.
C2 is weaker than C1 in two ways. Firstly, the conclusion is qualified by an all
else equal clause. It is only if all else is equal that we should expect the disanalogy
in the correctness conditions to result in a disanalogy in the degree of convergence.
If, for example, there are more fixed points of convergence in practical judgment
than in epistemic judgment, then all else may not be equal. Secondly, the conclusion
is comparative (i.e. it is of the form we should expect a greater degree of
convergence in x than y). It does not state that we should expect convergence in
epistemic judgment, or that we shouldnt. Rather, it states that (all else equal) we
should be more expectant of convergence in the former than in the latter.
This weakened conclusion is no longer susceptible to the worries raised above.
But a sceptic may worry that the weakened conclusion fails to represent much of a
challenge to the metanormative theorist. The sceptic may concede that, all else
equal, we should expect some positive comparative degree of convergence in
epistemic judgment as a result of sharing the reliability for truth criterion. But he
may claim that the degree is very small indeed. Reliability for truth is, after all, a
highly abstract criterion, and is not of much use in resolving many epistemic
disputessuch as that between Stuart and myself. There are two lines of response to
this sceptical worry. The first line of response is direct. The reliability for truth
criterion may not settle all epistemic disputes. But it already does a lot of work in
helping to resolve many epistemic disputes. To see this, note that if epistemic
disputants did not share this criterion, then we ought not to expect them to resolve
their disputes even in those cases in which they come to agree on how reliable or
unreliable for truth a certain epistemic judgment is. But this is precisely how
ordinary, everyday, epistemic disputes are, with great frequency, resolved. The
sceptical worry may be accused of overlooking this. The second line of response is
more dialectically focussed. It is that the weakened conclusion implies that there is
prima facie reason to expect the degree of convergence in epistemic judgment and
practical judgment to differ. And the metanormative theorist must at least get his
hands dirty with the arguments to show that the difference in degrees of
convergence is insufficiently significant to trouble him.
5.2 Objection 2
The second objection concerns the correctness conditions of belief. The objection is
that although the correctness-condition of belief ground some reasons for belief, it is
not the only source of reasons for belief. Rosens Jingle Bells example helps to
illustrate the worry.27 There is a correct way to play Jingle Bellsby playing the
right notes in the right order in the right time. But it may be that one has reason to
play Jingle Bells incorrectlyfor comic purposes, or to teach a pupil, for example.
So, we shouldnt assume that one ought to play Jingle-Bells correctly. Analogously,
perhaps, for belief. There may be reasons for belief that are not exhausted by the
27
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5.3 Objection 3
The third objection concerns my claim that there is no substantial general norm on
action, or action-guiding mental states on which we should expect agreement. It
might be objected that this claim is too strong: there must be some substantial
general norm on action, or action-guiding mental states. This source of resistance
might be motivated by interpretative constraints associated with Davidson.
According to Davidson, in order for radical interpretation to be possible, we must
assume that the desires of any agent we are interpreting overlap (to some degree)
with ours.29 But if my argument is sound, then one might worry that there is no
reason to assume that the desires (or as I have said, choices) of other agents would
overlap with ours at all. So, we would have no reason to think that radical
interpretation is possible. But radical interpretation is possible. So, my argument is
unsound. We can express this objection in terms of the following argument:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Tersman (2004) rejects 3*. He argues that in order for interpretation to be possible, it is only necessary
that agents share certain logical (i.e. decision-theoretic) and functional properties of their desires. It is not
necessary that there is any overlap in the contents of their desires. Tersman (2006) extends this model
explicitly to moral judgments.
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But this is too weak to imply 5 (i.e. to imply that there must be some substantial
general norm on desire). Establishing 5 would require the stronger claim:
3**. It is necessary for rational disputants to be able to partially interpret one
another that they share a substantial general criterion for assessing desires.
And there is no reason to think either that Davidson makes this claim, or that he
or anyone else would be entitled to make it. So, there is no reason to think that the
argument from interpretative constraints entails 5. So, there is no reason to think
that it undermines my overall argument.
This response might seem unsatisfactory. My argument still leaves something
unexplained. There is, as it happens, a good deal of overlap in judgments about what
is and is not desireable, across times and places. But if desire is not governed by a
substantial general norm, then this might appear mysterious. If there isnt a
substantial general norm on desire, then why should we expect there to be any
convergence in judgments about desireability at all? My response is twofold. Firstly,
although it is true that there is overlap in judgment about desireability, there is also a
great deal of disagreement. This shouldnt be under-estimated. Secondly, it is
possible to explain what overlap there is without supposing that desire is governed
by any substantial general norm. It is, as Tersman notes, possible to explain overlap
in desire in terms of our common social and biological heritage rather than in
meaning-theoretic terms.31
6 Conclusion
I have claimed that, owing to a disanalogy between the correctness conditions of
belief and action-guiding mental states, we have reason to expect a greater degree of
convergence in judgment about reasons for belief than in judgment about reasons
for action. And I have drawn the conclusion that this represents a prima facie
challenge to unified or metanormative approaches to reasons for belief and reasons
for action.
How strong is this challenge? Im not sure. I concede that it is possible for a
metanormative theorist to deny the force of the challenge in a number of ways.
Consider the following three options. Firstly, one might deny the premise that the
scope of disagreement in an area of thought is of significance for the metaphysics of
that area of thought. This is a response that some metanormative theorists will be
happy to take, others not. Secondly, one might deny the force of the challenge by
rejecting the approach to normativity taken above: namely, that reasons for mental
states can be grounded in the nature of those states. Again, this is a response
approach that some metanormative theorists will be happy to take, others not.
Thirdly, and perhaps most importantly, a metanormative theorist may regard the
considerations in favour of metanormative approaches to outweigh arguments
against. There are after all, considerable advantages to the metanormative approach:
the shared normativity of reasons for action and reasons for belief, and the difficulty
31
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(in some cases) of cleanly distinguishing between those concepts and/or judgments
that belong to the realm of theoretical normativity as opposed to the realm of
practical normativity.32 How one reacts to my argument will, then, depend on ones
prior commitments, and on the results of ones philosophical scorekeeping. There
are some metanormative theorists who, given their prior commitments, could make
use of any one of the three responses suggested above in order to reject the
argument that I have provided (David Enoch is the best example). But none of these
responses are mandatory for metanormative theorists. For some, their prior
commitments may be such that the argument I have presented provides food for
thought. If so, then it is an argument worth making.
I shall conclude on a more positive note by briefly noting an interesting
connection between the argument that I have offered and a related argument for a
different conclusion elsewhere in the literature. Darwall offers an argument much
like the argument that I have offered above.33 He claims that belief is normatively
governed by truth. And he explains this in terms of the nature of the concept of
belief. Furthermore, he contrasts this with the norms governing mental states that
are relevant for practical judgment (he focuses on desire). Such norms are, he
claims, uninformative or merely formal. The resemblance between Darwalls
argument and the argument that I have offered should be clear. However, the use to
which we put these thoughts differs.
I have argued that these thoughts imply a disanalogy in practical and epistemic
disagreement. Darwall also takes these thoughts to imply a significant disanalogy.
But he is not concerned with disagreement. His concern is with freedom. He
claims that whereas reasons for belief are constrained by objective truth and
probability, reasons for acting can be grounded nowhere but within norms of free
practical reflection itself. Darwalls thought is that the nature of belief, determines
what can count as a reason for belief (i.e. evidence for the truth of that belief). But,
by contrast, the nature of action-guiding mental states doesnt completely determine
what can count as a reason for action. Hence, conceptually competent agents have a
freedom in working out what to do that they lack in working ought what to believe.
These conclusionsmine concerning disagreement and Darwalls concerning
freedommight be regarded as corollaries of one another. The nature of actionguiding mental states doesnt restrict the practical judgment of conceptually
competent agents in anything like the sense that the nature of belief restricts
epistemic judgment. A comparative practical freedom may be one consequence of
this lack of restriction. Likely disagreement is another. That these two features of
practical judgmentfreedom and the scope of expected disagreementare
explained by the same facts is an interesting result.
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