Jan Coyne, William C.

Bell, Mary Maureen Brown,

Chad Rupert, and James Nolan

Geographic Information Systems

A geographic information system (GIS) combines database management

and analysis functions with computer-aided mapping. It adds a visual
and locational dimension to municipal management and decision making. Since much of the data municipalities manage is land based, a GIS
can help managers and decision makers manage municipal affairs more
effectively.
With the correct data, a GIS allows users to ask questions such as
the following:
What is at this location?
Where are the underground utilities located?
Where should new infrastructure such as fire hydrants be located?
What is the address of this parcel?
What is the average income in the municipality?
What areas of the municipality are suitable/unsuitable to build on?
What is the pattern of land-use change?
What is the best route for service-delivery vehicles (emergency
or general)?
This chapter provides an overview of GIS technology and discusses the
issues involved and the potential for GIS to help municipal governments make better decisions. GIS technology is widely used in local

2 Geographic Information Systems

government, either as an in-house service or as a service provided by

other public-sector organizations or private firms. GIS technology is
also used by businesses, nonprofit organizations, and community groups.
Whether or not a municipality uses a GIS, chances are that municipal
decision makers will encounter the products of GIS technology. Implementing and managing a GIS requires a level of funding that may seem
unwarranted without some knowledge of why the funding is necessary
and what the benefit is to the municipality. Knowing the limitations and
capabilities of GIS technology allows municipal decision makers to use
it economically and effectively.

WHAT IS A GIS?
A GIS is a system of hardware, software, geographic data, and experienced personnel whose purposes is to support the capture, management,
manipulation, analysis, modeling, and display of spatially referenced data
for solving complex planning and management problems. In other words,
it is a computer system that is used for collecting and analyzing data that
can be mapped, and it displays the resulting information as a map or
series of maps. Spatially referenced means that the data displayed on
the computer screen are tied to a real-world location; that is, the latitude
and longitude of a feature on the ground (such as an intersection) would
be automatically reflected on the onscreen map.

Spatial Data
Types of spatially referenced data that a municipality would use include
the following:
Jurisdictional boundaries
county and city limits
special services districts
census divisions
property boundaries
electoral districts
parks

Geographic Information Systems 3

Physical features
roads
utility lines and other features
buildings
land use (residential vs. industrial, for example)
The spatial data are linked to attribute data in a database. Attribute data
refer to additional information about a feature such as the name and
length of a road, the size and pressure capacity of a water line, and the
owner and value of a parcel.
One way municipal information is organized in a GIS is by layers of
spatial features with their attributes (Figure 1). These layers can then be
presented singly or overlaid with other features, depending on what information is being sought. For example, the roads, land-use, and facilities
layers can be overlaid to see where the best location for a new fire station
might be. It is this ability to integrate disparate types of data and display
the relationships between and among them that makes a GIS powerful.
Data that are useful to a municipality can take significant amounts
of time and money to acquire. Although free digital data are available
from both state and federal governments, the usefulness of such data for
local governments may be limited due to lack of scale or spatial accuracy.
The GIS user must be aware of differences in spatial accuracy in order
to determine whether or to what degree the results of analysis should
be trusted. For example, FEMA flood data that are used in conjunction
with parcel data, which have a much higher degree of spatial accuracy,
should be interpreted cautiously.

Related Technologies
A GIS can be developed as a general-purpose tool or for a narrowly
defined set of functions. For example, a land information system (LIS)
focuses on the mapping and analysis of land and property records. Transportation management uses a specialized set of analysis tools supplied
by developers of GIS technology for transportation. Other automated
mapping systems were developed for specific fields that are now incorporating GIS functions. These include
computer-aided drafting (CAD), widely used in industrial design
and architecture;

4 Geographic Information Systems

automated mapping/facilities mapping (AM/FM), used to manage

utilities; and
global positioning system (GPS).
The latter system, GPS, includes receivers and satellites that can pinpoint locations on the earth. It is used in the computerized navigational
systems found on boats and in some automobiles. Surveyors use GPS
to help them make more accurate surveys. It is one way to collect sufficiently detailed data for a municipality or to check the accuracy of data
acquired in other ways.
Figure 1. Map Overlay Potential of a GIS
MAP LAYERS

R-15
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Utilities
Layer

Topographic
Layer

Parcel
Layer

Planimetric (or
base) Layer

State Plane
Reference
Grid
Geodetic Survey
Control
Layer

13
12

21

14
22

15
23

16
24

17
25

18
87

19

34

Size
Year
Mat.
Depth
Pres s.
Ins. by
Ins. no.

R- 2

R- 1

33

88

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Owner
Address
L.B. P.
Land value
Bldg. value
Prop. code
Bldg. code
Zoning
Stories
Garage
Area
Frontage
Last sold

Zoning
Layer

ASSOCIATED DATA

Geographic Information Systems 5

Remote sensing is the acquisition of data from satellites or airplanes

using infrared sensors, radar, Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR),1
cameras, or other sensors. Once adjusted, images can be used for interpreting land-use patterns over wide areas or for updating and checking
the accuracy of other map layers, such as land cover or land use.
GPS, remote sensing, and air photography are technologies that
enable municipalities to create sufficiently detailed and accurate data for
the scale of a municipal-level GIS. The expense of acquiring the imagery
or hiring a surveyor is part of the reason why data acquisition can be one
of the more costly aspects of GIS implementation, usually second only
to the salaries of GIS personnel.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT APPLICATIONS

The strength of a GIS lies in its ability to combine both visualization
and analytical functions. The combination of maps and graphics with a
relational database is a powerful tool for managing information. A GIS
can integrate diverse sources of information that create patterns and
relationships that might otherwise be missed. Patterns of population
growth, road networks, waterways, or vegetation distribution can be
compared with one another. Hypothetical scenarios, such as how the
landscape would look with different levels of population growth or different land-use policies, also can be seen. An individual attribute can be
viewed in multiple ways: with more or with less detail, alone or with other
attributes, or in its current, past, or possible future state. For example,
data can be classified or abstracted before being displayed to show an
average or number of entities above or below a certain threshold.
Initially, GIS technology was predominantly used to automate
manual tasks already being performed in local governments, such as
mapping and information management. Current systems allow more
complex analyses of data, including three-dimensional visualization of
landscapes and forecasting. Researchers and practitioners are also investigating ways to incorporate GIS technology into the public participation process so that citizens and decision makers can benefit from the
technology throughout all phases of planning and policy creation.
GIS technology can be applied to the following functions of a municipal government, among others:
public works
water works

6 Geographic Information Systems

elections
police
tax assessment
solid waste management
planning and zoning
natural resources
emergency services
management
parks and recreation
transportation planning
In addition, the availability of a GIS can directly affect citizen participation, particularly with regard to taxation issues:
A GIS can be used to analyze the relationship between tax
revenues drawn from different neighborhoods or areas and
the expenditures being made in those areas. Citizens can use
the GIS to learn how taxes drawn from their neighborhood
are budgeted for different functions. As recent surveys suggest, citizens are more likely to approve of needed taxations
when they know that their dollars are being spent on specific
servicesespecially services that might benefit their neighborhood or themselves individually.2
Data can be analyzed in order to reveal patterns or trends that need
to be addressed or to assess the impact of a municipal policy. For example, where and when certain types of crime occurs may be associated
with land use (does it occur in residential or business areas? does it occur at the same general time? is it concentrated in one area or widely
dispersed?), proximity to transportation, population characteristics, and
other information that law enforcement agencies can use in deciding
how to focus their efforts. Such data may suggest other solutions, such
as installing streetlights in dark areas or providing crime prevention
education for citizens.

Geographic Information Systems 7

A GIS can be used to help decide which of a number of possible

changes might be the best one(s) to implement. For example, population growth trends can be modeled in terms of land-use or zoning
regulations to see how each might affect the municipality in terms
of infrastructure requirements. Regulations can be changed, land-use
or zoning types can be shifted, and the effects can be assessed to help
evaluate whether current regulations will be viable in the future.

BENEFITS AND COSTS OF IMPLEMENTING GIS TECHNOLOGY

Cost savings can be very difficult to quantify. For example, cost savings
were realized when local governments converted from paper-based systems to computer-based systems, but just how much was saved? The
use of GIS technology in small jurisdictions has become commonplace
only in the last two decades. Larger local governments, such as those in
major urban areas, were early adopters of the technology and have been
the focus of studies of the effectiveness and costs and benefits of using
GIS technology. The results of these initial studies were based on the
early use of GIS technology to automate tasks, which was considered a
beneficial function. The studies indicate that there is not necessarily an
immediate return on investment; jurisdictions generally began seeing
cost decreases and efficiencies in three to five years.
Other benefits of GIS technology adoption include eliminating duplication (i.e., one database can serve multiple users, and therefore fewer
opportunities exist for the introduction of human error) and improving data management, information processing, access to information,
analysis and problem-solving capabilities, and the quality of decisions
because they are backed by sufficient data. Greater efficiencies in answering citizen inquiries through GIS can result in savings for a local
government. Continued software innovations, such as advancements in
GPS technology and reduced costs of aerial photography, have resulted
in lower data-acquisition costs. This greater access to data has made it
possible for even the smallest jurisdiction to develop a GIS.
In the past decade, there has been a surge in the development of GIS
Web sites, where citizens can view tax records to verify the correctness
of information used in the assessment process or determine if they are
being treated fairly compared with other taxpayers. Besides tax parcel
information, these Web sites often host GIS data related to zoning, road
networks, aerial photography, rivers and streams, and a variety of other
features. They allow the general public to answer their own questions
without assistance from government employees.

8 Geographic Information Systems

Aside from the fact that improvements may not be apparent for years,
part of the difficulty in measuring the benefit of a GIS is that much of it
is not quantifiable. It is hard to separate the effects of the system from
the effects of its environment. Local governments benefit from GIS and
other technology when the implementation of it is well researched and
planned. The purpose of the system needs to be clear, and those responsible for managing it need to be trained in its use. The jurisdictions that
have been disappointed in their return on GIS investment have generally
not done enough groundwork to understand all of the costs involved,
or they have not received the appropriate level of employee training to
properly use and maintain their system.
Local governments, regional commissions, and local authorities are
permitted to charge fees for providing information from or access to
their GIS. Fees must be based on the development costs of creating or
maintaining the GIS and may include cost to the municipality . . . of
time, equipment, and personnel in the creation, purchase, development,
production, or update of the geographic information system. The code
also authorizes local governments to contract with private firms to provide
GIS information to the public.3
The costs of adopting a GIS vary with how much is required of
the system, whether new people need to be hired, and, if so, how many.
Expenditures for GIS software range from applications having little or
no cost to applications costing tens of thousands of dollars that run on
computers ranging from inexpensive desktop PCs to massive networked
servers. Other than ongoing salary costs, initial database development
is usually the most costly aspect of GIS implementation both in terms
of funding and time, and it varies with the amount and detail of data
needed. Regular hardware, software, and database upgrades need to be
considered in the long-term budget for a system. Municipalities change,
as do the data about them, and the uses of the GIS will change as well.
Personnel training is often neglected when considering costs. Initial
training and periodic updates are necessary in order for the system to be
fully utilized. There is no point in paying for functions that the staff is
not aware of or able to use properly.

Implementation
The first step in considering adoption of a GIS is to decide what kinds of
analysis a municipality wants to perform and what information it wants
to obtain from the analysis. The next step is to conduct a cost-benefit
analysis and feasibility study. These studies should address more than
just technical issues, since organizational and policy issues play a role in

Geographic Information Systems 9

implementation. Employee receptivity to technology and ability to adapt

to new technology, how effectively potential users of the system communicate, and users conception about what is wanted and needed in the
system all affect how much a GIS costs and how long it takes to implement. All potential users of the system should be consulted at this stage
to make sure that all data needs or requirements are taken into account.
Once the decision to adopt a GIS is made, the municipality needs to
decide how to organize it. There are a number of organizational models
of GIS implementation: single department, multidepartment, or multiagency.

Single Department Model

In the single department approach, the GIS is developed in a single
department of the government and used only for the applications of
that department. This approach is common. For example, the municipal
planning department may develop a GIS to manage land records information. As other departments learn about the system, they may request
GIS services from that department.

Multidepartment Model
In this model, various departments share costs and responsibilities. Cost
sharing among the departments funds database development and updating. Sometimes this model evolves from the single department model as
requests for service impede the use of the system for its original purpose.
There are a couple of approaches to the multidepartment model.
One department may be chosen as the lead department and be responsible for housing the GIS and providing the services to other departments. The other approach is to create a GIS department to manage the
system. Both approaches have advantages and disadvantages. Having a
lead department with its own priorities may affect how service is provided
to other departments, and a centralized GIS department may not be able
to respond to the specialized needs of individual municipal departments.

Multiagency Model
The multiagency model shares costs and responsibilities between several
levels of local government or between a number of partnersgovernmental or nongovernmental. Typical agreements involve utilities such
as gas, power, cable, and telephone companies that share the cost of
data development with municipalities and exchange information such
as underground structures data with them. If there is sufficient interest
on behalf of the partners, this approach is the most economical option.

10 Geographic Information Systems

However, with this model, it generally takes much longer to get projects
under way because of the need to conduct joint discussions on cost sharing and to consider different kinds of data, different levels of accuracy,
and the different viewpoints and politics of the various agencies. Nevertheless, the greater variety of data provided by multiple partners yields
better benefits at lower costs (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Multiagency GIS

Gas
Company

Public
Works
Bus
System

Law
Enforcement

Elections

GIS

Telephone
Company

Coordinating
Unit

Assessment
Dept.

Power
Company
Water
Dept.

Planning
Dept.
E911

Data
Once the approach to implementation has been decided, data issues
need to be addressed. Data maintenance and sharing agreements among
partners need to be created unless a single department is implementing
the system. Database standards need to be agreed upon. Standards should
include the following:
naming and definition conventions (so that each named type of
road, for instance, means only that type of road and all road names
are entered in the same format)

Geographic Information Systems 11

mapping standards (coordinate system, scale, and symbols used to

represent objects, line colors and widths, etc.)
data documentation (information about the data such as source,
coordinate system, scale, extent, and date of compilation)
access privileges (who gets to do what with the data, software, and
hardware)
liability for inaccurate data
quality assurance (who is responsible for data updates and accuracy
checks and how often they occur)
data backup and recovery procedures
Policies created by the municipality based on database standards that
have been agreed to and developed with all users of the system will
streamline later steps in the implementation process.
Before data are collected, a data model and database design should
be decided upon. Users needs and expectations should be clearly defined
at this stage. Database design affects how data should be collected and
what kinds of analysis can be performed. It can also affect the software
and hardware used.
What kind of data are collected and how they are collected will
depend on the preceding steps. As mentioned earlier, a basic set of data
layers is available at no cost from state and federal sources. The Georgia
GIS Data Clearinghouse makes Georgia data available over the Internet.
County and municipal boundaries, roads, hydrology, elevation, and other
data are provided by the U.S. Geological Survey, the U.S. Bureau of the
Census, the Georgia Department of Transportation, and the Georgia
Department of Natural Resources, among others. Other data will have
to be acquired by manually digitizing or scanning paper maps or by using GPS data or aerial photography. The method used will depend on
the types of data available, the equipment and personnel available, the
accuracy required, and the cost. Different applications of GIS technology require different levels of accuracy. Engineering applications, such
as utility or infrastructure management, generally require more accurate
data than do planning applications.
Regardless of the approach pursued in GIS implementation, an experienced consultant is generally required because of the highly technical
nature of a GIS project. In addition, a GIS manager position should be
established to ensure that the system continues to meet the evolving
needs of the municipality.

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Available Resources
The Regional Commissions (RCs) provide GIS services to member local
governments, especially for comprehensive planning.
Georgia colleges and universities provide GIS education. Some
provide GIS services, including implementation planning and database
development. Information Technology Outreach Services (www.cviog.
uga.edu/itos) is a University of Georgia unit that assists local governments with GIS technology (i.e., data development; training on the use,
maintenance, and integration of GIS data with existing databases; and
system implementation).
The Urban and Regional Information Systems Association (URISA)
is an organization of professionals using information technology and
spatial information in planning, public works, and other governmental
areas. URISA provides educational and other resources.
NOTES
1. LIDAR is a remote sensing technology. Pulses of light are emitted from a laser
source, and high-speed counters record the time it takes for the light signal
to bounce off a surface and return to its source location. These recorded data
can be used to model changes in elevation along the earths surface and for a
number of topography-related applications.
2. John OLooney, Beyond Maps (Redlands, CA: ESRI Press, 2000), 12021.
3. Official Code of Georgia Annotated (O.C.G.A.) 50-29-2.