Environmental Flows

An Introduction for Water Resources Managers

2013

National Institute of Ecology

New Delhi

Editor: Brij Gopal

Environmental
Flows
An Introduction for Water Resources Managers

Editor: Brij Gopal

2013

National Institute of Ecology

New Delhi (India)

Cap-Net
Pretoria (South Africa)

Environmental Flows
An Introduction for Water Resources Managers

2013, National Institute of Ecology

First published 2013
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
except to the extent permissible under the Indian Copyright Act, without prior permission of
the publisher.

Published By:
National Institute of Ecology (URL: www.nieindia.org)
366 Metro Apartments, DDA Flats, Jahangirpuri, Delhi 110033, India
Email: nieindia@gmail.com
7KHYLHZVH[SUHVVHGLQWKLVERRNDUHVROHO\WKRVHRILQGLYLGXDODXWKRUVDQGGRQRWUHHFWLQ
any manner whatsoever the concurrence of the CapNet or the National Institute of Ecology
(NIE).

The preparation and publication of this book was funded by CapNet, This edition of the book
LVGLVWULEXWHGIUHHO\$QRQHGLWDEOH3')OHRIWKHERRNZLOOEHDYDLODEOHIRUIUHHGRZQORDG
also from the websites of the NIE (www.nieindia.org) and the Cap-Net (www.cap-net.org).

Cover Photo: Dam of Chamera I HEP on River Ravi (viewed from downstream) (B. Gopal)
Back Cover Photos: Stretches of Rivers Tons, Yamuna and Ganga downstream of Dams and
Barrages (B. Gopal)

Printed in India at New United Process, A26 Naraina Industrial Area II, New Delhi-110028
Ph. 09811426024, Email: nup1972@gmail.com

ii |

Dedicated to

Prof. Ramaswamy R. Iyer

(former Secretary, Ministry of Water Resources, New Delhi)

| iii

iv |

CONTENTS
Preface

vii

Contributors

ix

1.

1
7

Introduction
Scope of the Book and the IWRM Context

2. The River Ecosystems and their Natural Flow Regimes

Evolution of the Ecosystem Approach to Rivers
The River Ecosystem
Ecosystem Functioning
River-Floodplain Interactions
Interaction of Flow with other Ecosystem Components

11
12
20
43
47
49

3. Ecosystems Services of Rivers and their Relation to Flows

Ecosystem Services of Rivers

67
72

4. Impacts of Regulation of River Flows

How is Flow Regime Altered?
Impact of Dams

81
81
83

5.

Environmental Flows: Concept and History

Early Concerns
Emergence of Environmental Flows Concept
Current State
Annexure 1

113
113
114
115
120

6. Methodologies for the Assessment of Environmental Flows

Introduction
Hydrological Methods
Hydraulic Rating Methods
Habitat Simulation Methods
PHABSIM
Holistic Methodologies
Concluding Observations

129
129
133
145
149
153
157
172

7.

183
183
184

Environmental Flows: The South Asian Experience

Introduction
India

| v

Bangladesh
Nepal
Sri Lanka
Regional Initiatives of IUCN
Laws, Policy and Institutions

189
189
190
190
190

8. Epilogue
Focus on Hydropower Projects
Environmental Flows and Methodology for Assessment
Planning for Environmental Flows
Implementation of Environmental Flows
Monitoring for Environmental Flows

199
199
201
202
203
203

Case Studies
1. Environmental Flows Assessment in India: The Ganga Experience
Background

207
207

208

Environmental Flows Assessment Methodology

210

Environmental Flows Assessment The Process

210

Results

223

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2. Impacts of Flow Alteration on Benthic Biota and Fish Fauna

227

vi |

WWFs Work on E-Flows

Introduction

227

Producer Communities

230

Consumer Communities

233

Consumer Communities (FISH)

236

Factors Affectng the Benthic Communities

237

Response of Communities to Flow Timings

238

Linkages between Biodiversity and Flow Alteration

240

Appendix I

247

PREFACE
Water, besides being the very basis of the existence of life on the Planet earth, is the most
critical resource for all kinds of human development economic, cultural and spiritual.
Despite its presence in abundance on the Earth, the amount of fresh water suitable for human
use varies between extremes both spatially and temporally. Traditionally, communitybased water management adequately addressed the problems associated with variability
in the quantity and quality. However, the management was taken over by the centralised
custodians of water resources who administer them through a storage and distribution
network, and formulate laws and policies for allocating water to different users according
to their own perceived priorities.

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for industrial development and in recent decades for energy generation, has severely
affected the rivers and aquifers. The rivers have been dammed and channelised for storage
DQG GLYHUVLRQ RI WKHLU RZV 7KH JURXQG ZDWHU DEVWUDFWLRQ WRJHWKHU ZLWK UHGXFWLRQ LQ
recharge, has lowered the water tables rapidly. The consequent changes in the biophysical
structure, ecological functions and ecosystem services of rivers and their associated wetland
ecosystems, and in turn, the impacts on humans themselves, especially the river-dependent
FRPPXQLWLHV UHVXOWHG LQ WKH UHDOLVDWLRQ RI WKH QHHG IRU PDLQWDLQLQJ FHUWDLQ RZV LQ WKH
rivers the Environmental Flows.

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WKH PLGGOH RI WKH ODVW FHQWXU\ DQG VLJQLFDQW DGYDQFHPHQWV KDYH EHHQ PDGH LQ WKH
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Europe, South Africa and Australia, most other countries, especially those of the South and
Southeast Asia, have lagged far behind. Most of the major rivers of South and Southeast Asia
arise in the Himalaya and are under serious threat from the hydropower projects that are in
different stages of development. The issues of Environmental Flows therefore assume great
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\HDUVWKHUHKDVEHHQKDUGO\DQ\VLJQLFDQWVWXG\RIWKHHFRORJLFDOLPSDFWVWKHPHWKRGRORJ\
for assessment of E-Flows requirements or how to make provision for them in the water
resource projects. Whereas the Environmental Flows are now considered to be a critical
component of the Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), the water resource
managers in the South and Southeast Asian region have hardly little understanding of the
issues and methodology. The policy- and decision makers are generally unable to appreciate
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The National Institute of Ecology in India took the lead in 2005, with the support of the
International Water Management Institute (IWMI) to initiate discussion on Environmental
| vii

Flows. A study of Environmental Flows assessment for the upper reaches of River Ganga
was recently undertaken by the WWF-India, and a few other initiatives have been made
at the policy level in India and other countries with the help of different organisations.
Realising the urgent need for educating the researchers as well as water resource managers
about the basic concepts, approaches and methodologies, the National Institute of Ecology
organised a Training Workshop on Factoring Environmental Flows into the IWRM in India
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from the CapNet.

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subject that would help the students as well practitioners understand various issues and
enable them to explore the subject further. Though a few publications on environmental
RZVDSSHDUHGGXULQJWKHSDVWGHFDGHHJWKRVHRIWKH:RUOG%DQNDQGWKH,8&1WKH
only comprehensive book on the subject was published only recently (Arthington, October
2012) but it makes no reference to the South Asian situation.
This book is not intended to be a comprehensive review of the global knowledge on the
subject. Drawing heavily from the global experiences, it discusses Environmental Flows in
WKHFRQWH[WRI6RXWK$VLDLQIRFXVLQJRQLWVVSHFLFHFRORJLFDODQGVRFLRFXOWXUDOFRQGLWLRQV
,WLQWURGXFHVWKHULYHUHFRV\VWHPVWKHLUVWUXFWXUHDQGIXQFWLRQLQJZLWKRZVDVWKHPDLQ
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FRXQWULHVDQGGHVFULEHVEULH\WKHVFLHQWLFOHJDODQGSROLF\UHODWHGGHYHORSPHQWVLQWKH
region. Adequate and latest sources of information are cited throughout the book to help the
readers in accessing detailed studies on all aspects.

On behalf of the National Institute of Ecology and my own, I place on record our
grateful thanks to the CapNet (Pretoria, South Africa) for generously supporting the training
workshop and the publication of this book. I also thank all contributors to the book for their
help, cooperation and support, and all resource persons and participants of the training
workshop for their interest, contributions and suggestions. Special thanks are due to Sri
Ramaswamy Iyer (Former Secretary, Ministry of Water Resources, New Delhi), Dr. B.P.
Das, Dr. Ravi Chopra, Dr. Vikrant Jain, Prof. B.D. Joshi, Prof. P.C. Joshi and Dr. Rachna
Nautiyal for their valuable suggestions and inputs to the workshop and this book. I thank
Prof. K.S. Rao, Secretary General of the NIE, for his full support in organising the workshop
and publication of the book. Finally, I owe my grateful thanks to various researchers and
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publications.
Jaipur, 28 September 2013

viii |

Brij Gopal

CONTRIBUTORS
Suresh Babu
Director, River Basins & Water Policy Team, WWFIndia, 172 Lodi Estate,
1HZ'HOKLVXUHVK#ZZQGLDQHW
Malavika Chauhan
Himmotthan Society, 65 Vasant Vihar Phase II, Dehradun 248006, Uttarakhand
malavikachauhan@gmail.com
Brij Gopal
Centre for Inland Waters in South Asia, Jaipur 302017
brij44@gmail.com
Nitin Kaushal
Senior Manager, River Basins & Water Policy Team WWF India, 172 Lodi Estate,
New Delhi 110003.
QNDXVKDO#ZZQGLDQHW
Prakash Nautiyal
Aquatic Biodiversity Unit, Department of Zoology and Biotechnology
H.N.B Garhwal University (A Central University), Srinagar 246174, Uttarakhand, India
lotic.biodiversity@gmail.com
Kuldeep K. Vass
C- 218, Pocket 7, Kendriya Vihar 2, Sector 82, NOIDA
vass.kuldeep76@gmail.com

| ix