Chapter 3-Rock & Fluid Properties UTM

Fundamentals Of Petroleum Engineering
SKPP 1313
CHAPTER 3:
ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTIES

Assoc. Prof. Issham Ismail
Department of Petroleum Engineering
Faculty of Petroleum & Renewable Engineering
Universiti Technologi Malaysia
SKPP 1313: FUND. OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
COURSE CONTENTS
Rock Characteristics
Porosity
Permeability
Rock and Fluid Interaction

Type of Reservoir
Type of Reservoir Drive Mechanism
CHAPTER 3: ROCK & FLUID PROPERTIES
(2)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Reservoir Rock Characteristics
To form a commercial reservoir of hydrocarbons, any

geological formation must exhibit two essential
characteristics.
These are capacity for storage and a transmissibility to the

fluids concerned.
Storage capacity requires void spaces within the rock and

the transmissibility requires that there should be continuity
of those void spaces.
(3)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Porosity
Petroleum is not found in underground rivers or caverns,

but in pore spaces between the grains of porous
sedimentary rocks.
A piece of porous
sedimentary rock. The pore
spaces are the white areas
between the dark grains. It is
within such pore spaces that
fluids such as oil, natural gas,
or water can be found in the
subsurface.
(4)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Porosity (contd)
Porosity () is defined as a percentage or fraction of void to

the bulk volume of a material.
Porosity of commercial reservoirs may range from about 5%

to about 30% of bulk volume.
Vp
Vb
x100%
Vb Vg
Vb
x100%
Vp
Vp Vg
x100%
where:
Vp = pore or void volume
Vb = bulk volume of rock
Vg = grain volume
(5)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Factors Affecting Porosity
Grain size: grain size has no effect on porosity. Well rounded

sediments that are packed into the same arrangement
generally have porosities from 26% to 48% depending on
the packing.
Sorting: Well sorted sediments generally have higher

porosities than poorly sorted sediments for the simple
reason that if a sediment is a range of particle sizes then the
smaller particles may fill in the voids between the larger
particles.
Grain shape: Irregularly shaped particles tend not to pack as

neatly as rounded particles, resulting in higher proportions
of void space.
(6)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Total and Effective Porosity
Total porosity is defined as the ratio

of the volume of all pores to the bulk
volume of a material, regardless of
whether or not all of the pores are
interconnected.
Effective porosity is defined as the

ratio of the interconnected pore
volume to the bulk volume.
Isolated pores
(7)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Primary and Secondary Porosity
Primary porosity is defined as a porosity in a rock due to

sedimentation process.
Secondary porosity is defined as a porosity in a rock which

happen after sedimentation process, for example fracturing
and re-crystallization.
(8)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Porosity Measurement
Boyles Law porosimeter.
Summation of fluids (also known as Water Saturation

method) : pore volume = total volume of water volume of
water left after soaking.
Direct methods (determining the bulk volume of the porous

sample, and then determining the volume of the skeletal
material with no pores (pore volume = total volume
material volume)).
Wet and dry weight method (also known as Water

Evaporation method) : pore volume = (weight of saturated
sample weight of dried sample)/density of water.
(9)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Boyles Law porosimeter.
Suppose the rock sample is placed in the sample chamber

at zero gauge pressure and the reference chamber is filled
with gas at pressure P1, then the valve between the two
chambers is open and the system is brought to equilibrium.
(10)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Using Boyles Law:
PV
1 ref P2 (Vres Vsam Vg )
Vg
P2Vref P2Vsam PV
1 ref
P2
where:
Vg
= grain volume in the sample
Vref = volume of the reference chamber

Vsam = volume of the sample chamber
P1
= pressure before opening the valve
P2
= pressure at equilibrium afteropening the valve
(11)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Bulk Volume Measurement
Linear measurement:
physically measuring the sample with vernier caliper and then

applying appropriate formula.
quick and easy, but is subject to human error and
measurement error if the sample is irregularly shaped.
Displacement methods: rely on measuring either

volumetrically or gravimetrically the fluid displaced by the
sample.
Gravimetric methods observe the loss in weight of the sample

when immersed in a fluid, or observe the change in weight of a
pycnometer filled with mercury and with mercury and the
sample.
Volumetric methods measure the change in volume when the
sample is immersed in fluid.
(12)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Example
A clean, dry sample weighed 20 gms. This sample was saturated
in water of density 1.0 gm/cc and then reweighed in air,
resulting in an increase in weight to 22.5 gms. The saturated
sample was immersed in water of the same density and
subsequently weighed 12.6 gms. What is the bulk volume of
the sample?
Weight of water displaced: Wdisplaced = 22.5g 12.6g = 9.9g
Bulk volume: Vb = Wdisplaced/w = 9.9g/1g/cc = 9.9cc
(13)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Permeability
The permeability of a rock is a measure of the ease with

which fluids can flow through a rock. This depends on how
well the pore spaces within that rock are interconnected.
Good Permeability
Poor Permeability
(14)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Permeability (contd)
Permeability is a measure of the ability of a porous material

to transmit fluid under a potential gradient.
The unit for permeability (k) is darcy named after a French

scientist, Henry Philibert Gaspard Darcy who investigated
flow of water through filter beds in 1856.
1 Darcy = 0.987 x 10-12 m2.
(15)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
The general darcys equation is:

L
Q
A
P1
Q
k dP

A
dL
P2
where: Q = flowrate (cm3/sec)

k = permeability (darcy)
A = cross section area (cm2)
= fluid viscosity (cp)

P = pressure (atm)
L = length (cm)
(16)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
L
Q = 1cm3/sec
Q
A = 1cm2
= 1 cp
P1
P2
Find k ?
P = 1atm
L = 1cm
1 darcy is defined as the permeability that will permit a fluid

of 1 centipoise viscosity to flow at a rate of 1 cubic
centimeter per second through a cross sectional area of 1
square centimeter when the pressure gradient is 1
atmosphere per centimeter.
(17)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
There are four conditions that are required for this equation
to be valid:
Laminar flow.
No accumulation.
Single-phase liquid flow.
The porous media is not reactive with the flowing fluid.
Plot of Q/A against dP/dL should

yield a single straight line as
shown below where the slope =
k/ = fluid mobility.
Q/A
k/
dP/dL
(18)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Linear Flow
L
kA P1 P2
Q
P2
P1
kA P1 P2
Q
g sin
kA P1 P2
Q
g sin
(19)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Radial Flow
kA dP
Q
dR
k 2 h dP
Q
R
dR
dR 2 kh
dP
R
Q
Pe
Pwf
re
rw
where:
h = reservoir thickness (cm)

P = pressure (atm)
ln
rw 2 kh
Pwf Pe
re
Q
= radius (cm)
pwf
dR
2 kh
R
Q dP
r
p
Q = flowrate (cm3/sec)
rw
(20)
2 kh Pe Pwf
ln re rw
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Radial Flow (contd)

Pe
Pwf
In field unit:
re
rw
7.08kh Pe Pwf
ln re rw
where:
Q = flowrate (bbl/day)
h = reservoir thickness (ft)
1 bbl
159,000 cc
P = pressure (psi)
1 ft
30.48 cm
1 atm
14.7 psi
= radius (ft)
(21)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Averaging Permeability (Parallel Sand)
L
k1, h1, Q1
A1
A2
k2, h2, Q2
An
kn, hn, Qn
in
Q Q i Q1 Q 2 Q n
i 1
P
P
P
P
k A i
k 1A1
k 2A2
knAn
L
L
L
L
i 1
in
k A i k i A i
kA
k
A
i
kh
or
h
i
Arithmetic averages
(22)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Averaging Permeability (Series Sand)
in
k1 k2 kn
L1 L2 Ln
P1 P2 Pn
P Pi P1 P2 Pn
i 1
Harmonic averages
in
L
i 1
in
Prove it ?
Li
i 1 k i
(23)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Example
Given:
Porosity
=
Effective horizontal permeability, md =
Pay zone thickness, ft
=
Reservoir pressure (Pavg), psi
=
Flowing Bottomhole pressure (Pwf), psi =
Bubble point pressure, psi
=
Oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB =
Oil viscosity, cp
=
Drainage area, acres
=
Wellbore radius, ft
=
Calculate the flow rate.
(24)
0.19
8.2
53
5,651
1,000
5,651
1.1
1.7
640
0.328
24
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Permeability Measurement
Permeability of core sample can be measured by liquid

permeameter and gas permeameter.
Liquid permeameter:
Non reactive liquid (paraffin oil) is forced to flow through

a core sample in a core holder.
A flow rate is measured, and permeability is calculated

using general Darcy equation.
Gas permeameter:
Non reactive gas (typically helium) is used in the

measurement of permeability.
The gas is flow through the sample, and the flow rate of
gas is measured.
(25)
25
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Permeability Measurement (contd)
Figure below illustrates the schematic diagram of the

Hassler-type permeability measurement under steady
state flow conditions.
(26)
26
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
The permeability is calculated using following modified

form of darcy equation which takes into account the
gas compressibility during flow.
Q k g P12 P22
A
2Pa L
where:
2QPa L
kg
A P12 P22
Q
kg
A
P1
P2
Pa
L
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
(27)
gas flowrate (cm3/sec)

gas permeability (darcy)
cross section area (cm2)
fluid viscosity (cp)
inlet pressure (atm)
outlet pressure (atm)
atmospheric pressure (atm)
length (cm)
27
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Slippage Phenomenon during k Measurement

liquid
gas
v (wall) = 0
finite velocity at wall
Gas permeability dependent on the mean pressure of the

gas existing at the time of measurement.
At low mean gas pressure, gas permeability exceeds liquid
permeability.
At high mean gas pressure, gas permeability approaches
liquid permeability.
Slippage effect is a laboratory phenomenon due to low
flowing gas pressure, but negligible for gas flow at
reservoir conditions.
(28)
28
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Klinkenberg Correction
Plot of kg versus the inverse of

mean flow pressure (1/Pm) yields
a straight line with slope k b
and an intercept of k. b is
klinkenberg slippage function.
Slope is a function of molecular
weight and molecular size.
b
k g k 1
P
m
kg
P1 P2
Pm
2
1/Pm
(29)
29
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
kL
The klinkenberg effect plot

(30)
30
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Rock and Fluid Interaction
Interfacial tension.
Capillary pressure.
Wettability.
Relative permeability.
Stock tank oil initially in place (STOIIP).
(31)
31
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Interfacial Tension
Interfacial tension is a force at the interface that acts to

decrease the area of the interface.
A drop of water can hang down from the edge of a glass

tube using the force at the interface.
However, when the interfacial tension is weaker, only a

smaller (lighter) drop can hang down from the edge of the
glass.
The interfacial tension can be measured using this

phenomenon.
(32)
32
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
The reason why surface tension is decreased when

something is adsorbed on the surface.
The attractive force between water molecules is greater

than that between other molecules because of the hydrogen
bonding.
At the surface, the attractive force works only from inside

since there is no water on the outside (air side), so a water
molecule on the surface is strongly attracted toward the
inside.
This force is called surface tension. However, when

something is adsorbed on the water surface, interactions
between the adsorbed molecules themselves and also the
adsorbed molecules and the water occur at the surface, so
that the surface tension decreases.
(33)
33
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
(34)
34
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Wettability
The wettability of a liquid is defined as the contact angle

between a droplet of the liquid in thermal equilibrium on a
horizontal surface.
Water wet
Oil wet
Oil
The wetting angle is given by the angle between the

interface of the droplet and the horizontal surface.
The liquid is seemed wetting when 90<<180 and nonwetting when 0<<90.
(35)
35
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
The wetting phase will tend to spread on the solid surface

and a porous solid will tend to imbibe the wetting phase.
Rocks can be water wet, oil wet or intermediate wet.

The intermediate state between water wet and oil wet can
be caused by a mixed-wet system, in which the surfaces are
not strongly wet by either water or oil.
(36)
36
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Capillary Pressure
Capillary pressure is the pressure difference existing across

the interface separating two immiscible fluids.
It is defined as the difference between the pressures in the

non-wetting and wetting phases. That is:
Pc = Pnw - Pw
For an oil-water system (water wet):

For a gas-oil system (oil-wet):
(37)
Pc = Po - Pw
Pc = Pg - Po
37
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Oil-water system.
Po2 Pw 2
Pw 2 Pw1 hw g
Po2 Po1 ho g
Since, Pw 2 Po2
Then, Pw1 hw g Po1 ho g
There fore, Po1 Pw1 w 0 hg

That is, Pc w o hg
(38)
38
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Relative Permeability
Relative permeability measurements are made routinely on

core samples, to define the relative amounts of fluids that
will flow through the rocks when more than one fluid phase
is flowing.
Definitions are:
ko
k ro
ka
where:
k rw
o, w, g
kr
k
ka
kw
ka
k rg
kg
ka
= oil, water, gas

= relative permeability
= permeability to a specific fluid, o, w, or g
= theoretical air permeability
(39)
39
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
STOIIP
In place volumes of oil is always quoted at surface

conditions.
N
1
STOIIP 7758 x GRV x x x So x
G
Bo
where:
STOIIP
GRV
N/G
So
Bo
= Stock tank oil initially in place, barrels

= Gross volume of rock, acre-ft
= Net to gross ratio
= Porosity
= Oil saturation
= Oil formation volume factor, reservoir bbl/STB
(40)
40
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
STOIIP
In most cases, its convenient to simplify to:
1
STOIIP 7758 x BV x x So x
Bo
where:
BV = Bulk volume of reservoir, acre-ft
1 acre
1 acre-ft
1 bbl
1 acre-ft
(41)
=
=
=
=
43,560 ft2
43,560 ft3
42 gal = 5.61 cuft
43,560/5.61 = 7758 bbl
41
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Example
An oil well has been drilled and completed. The production
zone has been encountered at depth 5,220 5,354 ft. The
log analysis showed that:
Average porosity
Water saturation
Formation volume factor
Area
=
=
=
=
21%
24%
1.476 bbl/STB
93 acres
Calculate the STOIIP.
(42)
42
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
OGIP
OGIP:
OGIP 43,560 x BV x x S gi
1
x
Bgi
where:
BV = Bulk volume of reservoir, acre-ft
Sgi = Initial gas saturation
Bgi = Initial gas formation volume factor, cu.ft/SCF
(43)
43
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Type of Reservoir
Oil Reservoir.
Contain mainly oil with or without free gas (gas cap).

Can be divided into two:
Undersaturated Oil Reservoir (Pres > Pb) - no free gas exists

until the reservoir pressure falls below the bubblepoint
pressure.
Saturated Oil Reservoir (Pres < Pb) free gas (gas cap)
exists in the reservoir.
Gas Reservoir
(44)
44
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Recovery
Recovery of hydrocarbons from an oil reservoir is commonly
recognised to occur in several recovery stages. These are:
Primary Recovery.
the recovery of hydrocarbons from the reservoir using the
natural energy of the reservoir as a drive.
Secondary Recovery.
the recovery aided or driven by the injection of water or

gas from the surface.
(45)
45
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Recovery (contd)
Tertiary Recovery (Enhance Oil Recovery EOR).

A range of techniques broadly labelled Enhanced Oil
Recovery that are applied to reservoirs in order to improve
flagging production.
Infill Recovery.
Carried out when recovery from the previous three phases

have been completed. It involves drilling cheap production
holes between existing boreholes to ensure that the whole
reservoir has been fully depleted of its oil.
(46)
46
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Drive Mechanism
The natural energy of the reservoir used to transport

hydrocarbons towards and out of the production wells.
There are five important drive mechanisms (or

combinations).
Solution Gas Drive.
Gas Cap Drive.
Water Drive.
Gravity Drainage.
Combination or Mixed Drive
A combination or mixed drive occurs when any of the first

three drives operate together or when any of the first three
drives operate with the aid of gravity drainage.
(47)
47
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Solution Gas Drive
This mechanism (also known as depletion drive) depends on

the associated gas of the oil.
The virgin reservoir may be entirely liquid, but will be

expected to have gaseous hydrocarbons in solution due to
the pressure.
As the reservoir depletes (due to production), the pressure

falls below the bubble point, and the gas comes out of
solution to form a gas cap at the top. This gas cap pushes
down on the liquid helping to maintain pressure.
The exsolution and expansion of the dissolved gases in the

oil and water provide most of the reservoirs drive energy.
(48)
48
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Solution Gas Drive
Solution Gas Drive Reservoir
(49)
49
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Gas Cap Drive
In reservoirs already having a gas cap (the virgin pressure is

already below bubble point), the gas cap expands with the
depletion of the reservoir, pushing down on the liquid
sections applying extra pressure.
The presence of the expanding gas cap limits the pressure

decrease experienced by the reservoir during production.
(50)
50
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Gas Cap Drive
Gas Cap Drive Reservoir

(51)
51
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Water Drive
The drive energy is provided by an aquifer that interfaces

with the oil in the reservoir at the oil-water contact (OWC).
As the hydrocarbons depleted (production continues), and

oil is extracted from the reservoir, the aquifer expands
slightly. If the aquifer is large enough, this will translate into
a large increase in volume, which will push up on the
hydrocarbons, and thus maintaining the reservoir pressure.
Two types of water drive are commonly recognised: Bottom

water drive and Edge water drive.
(52)
52
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Water Drive
(53)
53
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Gravity Drainage
The density differences

between oil and gas and
water result in their natural
segregation in the reservoir.
This process can be used as a
drive mechanism, but is
relatively weak, and in
practice is only used in
combination with other
drive mechanisms.
(54)
54
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Combination
In practice a reservoir
usually incorporates at
least two main drive
mechanisms.
Mixed Drive Reservoir

(55)
55
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Secondary Recovery
Secondary recovery is the result of human intervention in

the reservoir to improve recovery when the natural drives
have diminished to unreasonably low efficiencies.
Two techniques are commonly used:
Waterflooding involve injection of water at the base of a

reservoir to:
Maintain the reservoir pressure, and

Displace oil towards production wells.
Gas Injection - This method is similar to waterflooding in

principal, and is used to maintain gas cap pressure even if
oil displacement is not required
(56)
56
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Tertiary Recovery (EOR)
Primary and secondary recovery methods usually only

extract about 35% of the original oil in place. Clearly it is
extremely important to increase this figure.
Many enhanced oil recovery methods have been designed

to do this, and a few will be reviewed here. They fall into
three broad categories:
Thermal EOR
Chemical EOR
Miscible Gas
All are extremely expensive, are only used when

economical.
(57)
57
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Thermal EOR
These processes use heat to improve oil recovery by

reducing the viscosity of heavy oils and vaporising lighter
oils, and hence improving their mobility.
The techniques include:

Steam Injection.
In-situ combustion (injection of a hot gas that combusts
with the oil in place.
Increasing the relative permeability to oil (micellar and
alkaline floods).
Thermal EOR is probably the most efficient EOR approach.
(58)
58
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Thermal EOR
Schematic Diagram of Steam Flooding EOR

(59)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Schematic Diagram of In Situ Combustion EOR

(60)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Thermal EOR (contd)
Schematic Diagram of
Microwave EOR
(61)
61
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Chemical EOR
These processes use chemicals added to water in the

injected fluid of a waterflood to alter the flood efficiency in
such a way as to improve oil recovery.
This can be done in many ways, examples are listed below:

Increasing water viscosity (polymer floods).
Decreasing the relative permeability to water (cross-linked
polymer floods).
Microwave heating downhole.
Hot water injection.
(62)
62
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Chemical EOR (contd)
(63)
63
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Miscible Gas Flooding
This method uses a fluid that is miscible with the oil. Such a
fluid has a zero interfacial tension with the oil and can in
principal flush out all of the oil remaining in place.
In practice a gas is used since gases have high mobilities and

can easily enter all the pores in the rock providing the gas is
miscible in the oil.
Three types of gas are commonly used:

CO2
N2
Hydrocarbon gases.
(64)
64
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Schematic Diagram of Miscible WAG Flooding EOR

(65)
65
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Natural depletion
Fluid expansion
Solution gas drive
Gas cap drive
Water drive
Compaction drive
Combination drive
Primary recovery factors
Solution gas drive

Gas cap drive
Water drive
Compaction drive
5% 20%
20% 40%
40% 60%
up to +10%
(66)
66
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
Enhanced recovery:
Water injection
Gas injection
Steam injection
WAG injection
etc.
Degree of improvement dependent on:
Type of scheme implemented

Properties of the reservoir rock
Properties of the oil
Well spacing
Economics
(67)
67
MOHD FAUZI HAMID

Chapter 3-Rock &amp; Fluid Properties UTM

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Fundamentals Of Petroleum Engineering

ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTIES

SKPP 1313: FUND. OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

Rock and Fluid Interaction