REVOLUTIONARY AESTHETICS IN NGUGI AND MUGOS

THE TRIAL OF DEDAN KIMATHI AND HUSSEINS

KINJEKETILE

BY

ARO-LAMBO, AISHAT OLABUSOLA

07/15CDO57

AN ESSAY SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH,

FACULTY OF ARTS, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, ILORIN
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE AWARD OF
THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS (HONS.) IN ENGLISH

MAY, 2011

CERTIFICATION

This essay has been read and approved as meeting part of the requirements for the
award of a Bachelor of Arts Degree (Hons) in the Department of English of the Faculty
of Arts, University of Ilorin, Ilorin.

--------------------------Dr. A.S. Abubakar

Supervisor

-----------------------Date

---------------------------Dr. S.T. Babatunde

Head of Department

------------------------Date

--------------------------External Examiner

-----------------------Date

DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to Almighty Allah, the author and finisher, who
has been an inspiration and guardian to me throughout my life. Glory be unto Him.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I profoundly express my gratitude to God Almighty who gave me the wonderful,
zeal and strength to undertake this research work, I am most grateful to Him for the
successful completion of this work.
My gratitude also goes to my parents, Chief Alh. Bode Aro-lambo and Hajia
Fatimo Aro-Lambo for their moral,spiritual and financial support throughout my stay in
the University. May you live long enough to reap the fruits of your labour.
To my wonderful and able supervisor, Dr. A.S. Abubakar, whose constructive
criticism and guidance was a source of encouragement to me throughout the duration of
this research work.
Dr. Femi Dunmade and Dr. M.S. Abdullahi-Idiagbon are also highly appreciated
with their immense support, patience and wonderful advice. They also, in-between
lectures and other schedules, managed to provide some useful materials for my research
work.
I also use this opportunity to thank Mr. Sheu Akolade Idris, the acting Registrar of
the Federal College of Freshwater Fisheries Technology, New Bussa, for taking my
research work as one of his topmost priorities and in his ability to patiently advice and
guide me. He was also able to do the perusal of my research work. Thank you very much
for everything.

I would also like to appreciate the support and accommodation of Mr. and Mrs.
Olaniyan, who are always there for me especially when Im not financially buoyant.
My heart felt gratitude also goes to my brother and his wife, Mr. and Mrs. Wasiu
Aro-lambo, my sister and her husband, Mr. and Mrs.Akindeko, my immediate younger
brother, Soliu, my youngest sibling, Akeem and my wonderful niece, Rachel Akindeko.
Thank you all for always being there for me. May the Almighty Allah bestow his favour
and mercies upon you all.
I am eternally indebted to my wonderful friends, Damilola Fakunmoju, Akano
Temitope, Ayilara Kemi and Alli Jubril. I offer my sincere gratitude to Engineer and Mrs.
Kehinde Popoola. I pray that we will all always be in support and assistance of one
another for beneficial purposes in the years to come.

Finally, I would like to appreciate and express my unlimited gratitude to a special

friend who supports advice and encourages me, Abraham Olatunji Emmanuel (Man Jay),
who also helped in the typing of this project work. May God bless you.

ABSTRACT
The attempt in this study is to examine two notable East African plays, The Trial of
Dedan Kimathi and Kinjeketile, against the background of revolutionary aesthetics as a
means of socio-literary engagement. The work is comparative in nature. The realist
dimensions in the realization of the theme of revolution are carefully examined including
other major themes like oppression, exploitation, poverty, and so on. Copious inferences
were drawn from the examination of the selected works. The study is included on the
relevance of realist ideology in an aggressive pursuit of freedom, through revolt, against
all human and material weapon of colonialism.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page

Certification

ii

Dedication

iii

Acknowledgement

iv

Abstract

vi

Table of Contents

vii

CHAPTER ONE
1.1

Introduction

1.2

The Struggle for Independence in Africa

1.3

Pre-Independent Kenya

1.4

Pre-Independent Tanzania

1.5

Purpose of Study

10

1.6

Justification of Study

10

1.7

Scope and Limitation

11

1.8

Methodology

11

References

13

CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Literature Review

14

2.2 Ideological Perspectives on Ngugi Wa ThiongO and Micere Githea Mugo

14

2.3 Ideological Perspectives on Ebrahim Hussein

18

References

21

CHAPTER THREE
3.1

Introduction

23

3.2

Authorial Background of The Playwrights

23

3.3

Analysis of The Trial of Dedan Kimathi and Kinjeketile

25

3.4

Themes and Sub-themes in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi and Kinjeketile

26

References

48

CHAPTER FOUR
4.1

Summary

49

4.2

Findings

50

4.3

Conclusion

51

Bibliography

52

CHAPTER ONE
1.1

INTRODUCTION

All African nations except Ethiopia have experienced one colonial administration,
or the other. It has grown in leaps from pre-colonial to colonial and post-colonial. This
project is concerned with the use of revolutionary aesthetics employed by Ngugi and
Mugo in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi and Husseins Kinjeketile to conscientize and
creates awareness in the people asking them to rise up and change their situation.
Dating largely from the 1930s, substantial bodies of literature in many languages
exist reflecting revolutionary or otherwise extreme social situation. Literature is written
to reflect the happenings in the contemporary society. Ngugi (p.6) asserts that:
Literature is more than just a mechanistic reflection of the social
reality it does shape our attitude to life, the daily struggles within
a community, and the daily struggles within our individual souls and
selves.
Literature is a reflection of life which records or imagines actualities in or for the
society. It is employed as a weapon of change, i.e., revolution.
The term revolution was coined from the Latin word revolucio which means a
turn around. The Encyclopedia Americana (p.445) defines revolution as:

a struggle, more or less successfully and completely accomplished,

in which the ruling power of a country passes from one economic
class or political group to another class or group.
Revolution is the most extreme but necessary social alternative taken when other
options or avenues to achieve reforms have been exhausted. It is meant to arouse the
consciousness of man with the revolutionary ideology. It also helps man understand, master
his environment and fashion it to serve humanity better. According to the Oxford Advanced
Learner Dictionary (p.1010), revolution is:
an attempt, by a large number of people, to change the government
of a country , especially by violent action
Revolution can be described as a form of radical change in economy, culture and
sociopolitical institutions as expressed in MerriamWebsters dictionary (p.1) that
revolution is:
an activity or movement designed to effect fundamental change in
the socio-economic situation of man
Revolution is however regarded as the choice between two alternatives: humanization
and dehumanization. Of these two, mans choice is clear, humanization. But the choice is
constantly negated through injustice, exploitation, oppression and the violent of the
oppressors.

10

However, there are other perspectives of revolution. Attempts have been made by
African artists to evolve a revolutionary ideology that will negate the evils of colonialism,
neo-colonialism, imperialism and capitalism. The strategic weaponry and ideology in
imaginative creativity is the process used. Creativity is the mother of aesthetics. Aesthetics,
according to Encyclopedia Britannica (p.277) is the philosophy of the science of the
beauty of taste or the fine arts
The employment of aesthetics in African literature is as old as the vocation itself.
From Soyinka to Ngugi, from Hussein to Armah, Africa literature got permeated by beautiful
works of art imbued with exciting creativity. That the two attributes of revolution and
aesthetics employed in the two texts and the idea that both are revolutionary works that have
consciously engaged the medium of drama to covey their important messages cannot be
over-emphasized. One can, therefore, see that revolutionary aesthetics play a very great role
by ideally and realistically projecting the social structures that influenced the actions of the
individuals.
Based on these postulations, committed writers are creating awareness so that with
time masses who are conscientized can stand up for their right. The main feature of art in
revolution is aimed at empowering the powerless (masses). The aesthetics is in the ability to
create social awareness among the oppressed to rise up against their oppressors.
Revolutionary aesthetics, therefore, demands among other things the simplicity of expression,

11

humility towards the culture of the people, collective sensibility and the functionality of the
message expressed.

1.2

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN AFRICA

In the early eighteen century, various representatives of different European countries

were on a quest to acquire material wealth. They went about this by pillaging the African
continent, but the continent was not developed enough in terms of arms to be able to defend
itself. Thus, these Europeans found that they could easily penetrate the countries and acquire
wealth. Africans resisted incursions into their territories at first, but were subdued by the
Europeans due to the fact that their arms were more superior to the Africans. Having had
absolute control of economic activities, the Europeans began to fight and quarrel with each
other based on who should be in charge of the various areas. This was what prompted
Bismarck, a German emperor to call a meeting which was held in Berlin in 1884/1885, and
Africa was formally divided among the colonial powers to be ruled.
The struggle for independence in Africa led to the use of violence as a revolutionary
means to break free from the clutches of the white oppressors who seized their lands and
made them landless yet making them laborers on their own lands. Abubakar (p.19) asserts
that:

12

Revolutions, especially politically influenced ones, predate colonial

domination in Africa. Africans have not been known to accept
oppression and domination lying down. The agitation for changes in
leadership and political systems gave rise to numerous uprisings
which became popular in the region prior and during the colonial
conquest.
Algeria, a North African country experienced French conquest in 1830. War was
declared against the colonial administration by the National Liberation Front in 1954. In
1962, a cease-fire was agreed between the two groups and independence was declared.
Nigeria, a West African country also attained independence in 1960 after Nigerians
who were educated in Europe and America formed various activist groups like WASU (West
African Students Union) for the purpose of demanding for self-rule. Other African countries
were not left behind in the maze for independence with the exception of Ethiopia, which did
not experience any sort of colonial administration. However, our focus is on two East African
nations, who struggled for independence via revolution, i.e., Kenya and Tanzania.

13

1.3

PRE-INDEPENDENT KENYA

Kenya was one of the British colonies in Africa. Thousands of British soldiers were
relocated by the British government to Kenya after the First and Second World Wars.
Consequently, the natives were dispossessed of their lands and ultimately reduced to low
wage labourers and this was one of the propelling factors towards colonial struggle.
The struggle against colonialism was marked by several attempts by the masses to
annihilate colonial rule. At first, the masses established peaceful resistant organizations like
EAA (East African Association) led by Harry Thuku, KCA (Kikuyu Central Association)
which was organized by the ilk of Jesse Kariuki, Joseph Kingethe, James Beauttan and so on
which later metamorphosed into KAU (Kenyan African Union), under the leadership of
Jomo Kenyatta, in 1946. However, these resistance organizations were met with repudiation,
hostility and resistance from the imperialist circles. Some of the leaders of these
organizations were arrested and exiled while some of the masses of Kenya were also killed.
Due to the failure of this approach, a culture of violent resistance soon developed
among the people resulting to the establishment of the Mau Mau movement. The
movements first strategy was to educate, mobilize and unite as many people as possible and
the swearing of oath was implemented. It was characterized by pointing out clearly to the
Kenyan masses to road to armed struggle with Dedan Kimathi and Stanley Mathenge as the
new leaders.

14

Kimathi became one of the most prominent of the dominant leaders of Mau Maus
land and freedom armies, with oversight function for the Aberdare Forest. On the twentieth
of October, 1952, Jomo Kenyatta was arrested due to the misguided notion that he was the
main organizer of the MauMau movement and a state of emergency was declared after which
stringent measures were taken against the Kikuyu peasants.
Kimathi created the Kenya Defense council to co-ordinate guerilla activities and
moved to the Nyandarua forest. The government took swift action against the Mau Mau,
using repressive action. They began with the banning of KAU because they did not realize
that the Mau Mau is an independent movement. The Operation Anvil was also launched in
Nairobi with 25,000 soldiers and police. The peasants were maltreated, killed or even
castrated. Consequently, food and drug supplies could not reach the Mau Mau soldiers. The
capture and surrender of General China led to the downfall of the Mau Mau. He confessed
and betrayed the Mau Mau by revealing their plans and secrets. Kimathi was captured with
Wambui, his forest wife and was hanged on the 18th of February, 1957.

1.4

PRE-INDEPENDENT TANZANIA

The establishment of German colonial rule in Tanzania from 1880 came about
through the force of arms. The alternative option of peaceful negotiation did not seem to hold
much prospects as non of the African communities was ready even at the age of partition, to

15

surrender their sovereignty to the Europeans without a struggle. But even in the use of force,
the German colonialists met with communal rebuffs of a continual nature.
Tanzania is divided into two regions: Tanganyika and Zanzibar. The Africans of
Tanganyika were not organized, rather, they were organized in small units, each independent
of and sometimes hostile to, the other. The collection of hut tax was ruthlessly enforced.
Deprivation, discrimination, forced labour and flogging became the order of the day. The
people submitted patiently because they were not united.
The Tanganyika Africans fought bravely in defense of their age-long freedom, such
as the ambush of an advancing German expedition led by Emil Von Zelewski by Mkwawa of
Uhehe and his people in 1891, another ambush was also organized and executed by Meli
Moshi in 1892 which was marred by inter-ethnic rivalries which marked the relations
between the Moshi and other Chagga states before the arrival of the Germans, Isike of
Unyanyembe also fought bravely to resist the Germans advance in 1892. Only Mkwawa of
Uhehe tried to ally with Isike of Unyanyembe between 1891 and 1893. Albeit, some
ambitious people in almost all the communities used the Germans for their selfish ends, the
situation was slightly different in Zanzibar. The colonial rulers in Zanzibar were the Omani
Arabs from Muscat, and Seyyid Said headed the government.
The rigour with which tax was collected among the hunger-stricken masses almost
led to a rebellion in 1899. By 1900, about twenty Chiefs were executed in the Kilimanjaro
area alone and two thousand Africans were also killed for resisting against the imposition of

16

hut tax and this paved the way towards the uprising of the Maji Maji revolt. The Maji Maji
revolt was the final attempt by the Tanganyikas old societies to destroy the colonial order by
force. While the German masters inhuman treatment of the tribally segmented people of
Tanganyika lasted, Kinjeketile Ngwale, a leader and priest of the religious cult of Kolelo rose.
He lived in Ngarambe in what is now southern Tanzania. He was believed to possess great
legendary powers relating to Hongo, the water god, in a tributary of the River Rufiji. He
became a source of strength for the oppressed people. He also became a rallying point for the
peoples revolt especially because of the belief that he possessed the power to turn Germans
bullet to water. The legendary Maji holy water was administered on the people and they
started a war campaign against their colonial masters. The various tribes in the colony closed
ranks and forged a common alliance in preparation for independent war against the Germans.
The Maji Maji revolt began in late July 1905. The discovery of the failure of the Maji holy
water to provide humility from the bullets of the German troops greatly demoralized them.
Kinjeketile was, however, captured and hanged at Mohoro.
The revolt did not bring about the much sought after independence, but it rather laid
the foundations for independence. Tanganyika and Zanzibar inspired by their nationalistic
interests amalgamated as one country under the name Tanzania which gave them the much
needed strength. In respect to these African nations who struggled for independence, two
notable plays from East Africa; The Trial of Dedan Kimathi by Ngugi Wa ThiongO and

17

Micere Githae Mugo (Kenya), and Ebrahim Husseins Kinjeketile (Tanzania) have been
selected as case study.

1.5

PURPOSE OF STUDY

The study examines revolutionary features in Ngugi Wa ThiongO and Micere Githae
Mugos The Trial of Dedan Kimathi and Ebrahim Husseins Kinjeketile respectively to show
the contribution of literature to the revolutionary struggle of the people of East Africa
towards liberating themselves. The study does a comparative analysis to assess the
differences in the approaches of the playwrights in the selected text of study.

1.6

JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY

This research work is being embarked upon to exhibit the belief that reality exists
independently of observers and then to draw up the lessons embedded in the struggle, how
these lessons are utilized and the artists perception of the whole business of struggle,
freedom and governance. It is a study of the differences between the realist struggler for
freedom and the idealist artist who has an Utopian view of the society.
Opinions have actually varied as to how successful Ngugi and Mugo, on the one hand,
have employed revolutionary aesthetics in conveying the artists feelings about the struggle
for freedom in Kenya, and how Ebrahim Hussein, on the other hand, pursued the same cause
in Kinjeketile. The need to lend further clarification to the polarity of opinions has, therefore,

18

arisen and this work sets out to make such clarification. It is hoped on the whole that the
present attempt will lead to enhanced readership of East African literature in particular but
also all the literature that are embedded in revolutionary ideologies that aim to salvage
humanity.

1.7

SCOPE AND LIMITATION

Revolution permeates the literature of all cultures- European, Arabic, African etc.
Few examples have already been given in the earlier part of this study. The scope of this
study, however, covers only the comparison revolutionary aesthetics in two notable east
African works, namely, The Trial of Dedan Kimathi and Kinjeketile regarding critical
analysis of the personae of the different protagonists, and how the aesthetics and message of
revolution was vehicled across through these works.
The scope is however limited to only the afore-mentioned works, yet, there is much
more to do on the same theme as projected by other African writers. The future of
revolutionary aesthetics in literature certainly holds much work and much excitement.

1.8

METHODOLOGY

The research work will be approached in line with the theory of realism. The
approach concerns itself with finding out what produces change, what makes things happen

19

and forces change. It establishes relations on natural necessity rather than the relations of
logical necessity and how closely associated it is with historical materialism.
The research work will help us understand the concept of social structures that
influence and are influenced by the action of individuals. It will also project the movement
along the daily and life paths which leads to the accumulation of mental experience that
shaped intentions and influenced movements which will be highly supported by evidence
projected in the plays and actions, illuminated by reasons, thereby ,encouraging us to put
ourselves in the same condition as experienced by these individuals. The study proceeds to
compare the plays and draw the implications and relevance of the revolutionary undertones
in the texts for the contemporary society.

20

REFERENCES

1. Wa ThiongO, N. (1981). Writers in Politics. Nairobi: Heinemann Educational

Books. p.6

2.

Encyclopedia Americana International. (1979). America: Groila Incorporated. Vol. 6.

p.445

3. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. (2000). London: Oxford University Press.

Vol.6 p.1010

4.

(1980). http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/revolution. p.1

5.

Encyclopedia Britannica. (1926).London: EBC Ltd. Vol.1. p.277.

6.

Abubakar, A.S. (2002). Ideological Conflict in Niyi Osundares The eye of Earth. In
V.A. Alabi (ed.), Alore, Ilorin Journal of Humanities, Faculty of Arts,
University of Ilorin. Ilorin: University Press. Vol .12. p.19.

21

CHAPTER TWO
2.1

LITERATURE REVIEW

In the first chapter, we approached the topic of discussion by examining the two
main terms revolution and aesthetics that are central to our study. We intend to
review related literary materials by the playwrights that deals with chosen topic. It will
also help us to understand the aspect of life of these playwrights, their beliefs as regards
African literature and the changes their works have brought to the society.

2.2

IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON NGUGI WA THIONGO AND MICERE

GITHAE MUGO

The Trial of Dedan Kimathi is a co-authored play by Ngugi Wa ThiongO and

Micere Githae Mugo. The play dramatizes the events of the Mau Mau emergence in
Kenya. The conflict in the play is not that of culture but it is more of a fight for political
independence. The play is an attempt to restore the character of Kimathi to his legitimate
place in the history of Kenya. Etherton (p.68) believes that:
none has been written with such intense political commitment to
make Kimathis life and death meaningful for modern Kenya, as
Mugo and Ngugis imaginative play.

22

Attempts have been made by African artists to evolve a revolutionary ideology

that will negate the evil of colonialism, neo-colonialism, imperialism and capitalism. The
use of strategic weaponry and ideology in imaginative creativity has, however, been
employed by the two playwrights in the play.
Through the historical character, Kimathi highlights revolutionary commitment
and struggle in the face of the British colonial rule. Kimathi, the revolutionary leader, is
the voice of the people in whom, symbolically, is summed up by the unwitting aspiration
of the suppressed masses and their potential for revolutionary action. Amuta (p.158)
asserts that:
The Trial of Dedan Kimathi explodes its specific historical
prediction to become a gigantic metaphor of the history of the
struggle among the African people in the past and present as well as
envisioning a future of triumph for patriotic and progressive forces.

Critics believe that colonial factor is clearly depicted in Ngugis work and that he
projects his works from the two sides of a coin (African and Europeans). According to
Palmer (p.288):
Ngugis balanced viewpoint takes into account the weakness of
Africans themselves as well as the Europeans.

23

The fact that Ngugi not only projects the situation of the people of Kenya but also
profers solutions to these issues as a way of conscientizing the Kenyan masses and
Africans as a whole can be seen and noted in all his works. It is also established that his
works are influenced by the historical aspects of his country. Onoge (p.21) therefore,
states that Ngugi is seen as:
a social realist who does not only testify to the
condition of social crises but goes on to offer a
precise diagnosis.
Ngugi devotes some of writing to the evils of tribalism which is regarded as one
of the reasons that delayed Kenyas freedom. The message is clear enough: tribalism and
other division really induced by competition for scrape of colonial power can only be
over come by an armed struggle against the common enemy, forging a new national
consciousness. His view about the evils of tribalism was mentioned in the forward of this
novel, The Black Hermit. It states (p.viii) that Ngugi:
dwells on the evil of tribalism, the effect of cultural alienation,
and the frustrated hopes of Uhuru or independence.
Ngugi as a writer is majorly concerned on issues of oppression and he believes
that his works will bring about a positive change in the society. He writes in a manner
that will appeal to the masses and hope that his writing will gear the masses into action.
He is also concerned about the affects their day-to-day activities and how the people

24

reacts to the society. He believes that art should be used as an instrument of uplifting and
enhancing the peoples conditions in the society. Cook and Okenimpke (p.23) states that:
...there is a concern for the economic well being of the masses
which could also develop into a vision of political power for the
disadvantaged group.
Mugo is also believed to be the voice of the black race, the underprivileged and
appears to speak for Africans and blacks, women and the downtrodden.
Ngugi and Mugo have built a powerful and challenging play out of the
circumstance surrounding the trial of one of the celebrated leaders of the Mau Mau
revolutions. They sing the praises of the deeds of this hero of the resistance who refused
to surrender to British imperialism. They write in a revolutionary inclined manner
because the want to give their readers a proper account of the situation in pre and post
independent Kenya by indicating the historical allusions of their work. They use their
revolutionary ideology and potentials to sharpen social awareness.
It is, however, imperative to note that the playwrights are both Marxist inclined
and activities for freedom of the masses of Kenya and that it is this spirit of liberation
that influence their works and qualifies them as Kenya literary activist. These playwrights
try to project and proclaim the injustices done to the citizens of Kenya, Kimathi and other
notable historical figures whose contributions before, during and after colonialism are

25

unforgettable even in the present day Kenya and also denouncing the European
administration and dominance over the African of Kenya.

2.3

IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON EBRAHIM HUSSEIN

Ebrahim Hussein is the author of the play Kinjeketile. The play deals with the
Maji Maji revolt in the then Tanganyika. It exposes the deplorable state of affairs in
Tanzania especially Rufiji region as meted on the people by their colonial musters. The
playwright uses Kinjeketile to appeal to the society intellect in presenting moral problems
and reflecting social realities of life on stage (society). Mbughuni (p.87) observes that:
Kinjeketile is one of Husseins best plays and it is indicative of
this treatment of major themes and ideas that concerns him.
The playwright uses his play to confront the tradition of the realist or socialist
of African historical tragedy. While writing, he attempt to distinguish between art and
history as there are always attempt to mix their merits. He rather suggests that the play
should be seen primarily as a work of art and the yard-stick for saying it should be artistic.
He states (p.4) that:
I have had to mould my character to suit artistic needs ,borrowing
freely from the imagination when historical facts did not suit my
purpose.

26

Hussein is believed to skillfully fuse historical facts with fiction to create a

masterpiece. Though playwrights are not bound by the sanctity of historical data, the
playwright must make bold the attempt to falsify history. The license to fabricate and
falsify is not to be misused. Dukore (p.142) asserts that:
When authors take their plots from history, they must be careful not
to depart too widely from the records.
As a committed playwright, Husseins plays not only give expression to the dayto-day wishes and aspiration, but also promote east Africa culture. Hussein, even at this
point, is concerned with a drama that is accessible to the people in his immediate
environment and this is the factor that propels his writings in Ki-Swahili. His choice of
language was determined by his desire to communicate with the majority of his native
audience. Ebrahim Hussein does not use art as an escapist route, rather, he uses it in a
realistic manner to tackle the problems of his immediate environment in the society. Most
of his works are written first in Ki-Swahili. It has been observed that:
although Ebrahim Hussein is just beginning his
career and the volume of his work is small in
comparison with important dramatist working in
Ki-Swahili.
Husseins ideology does not consciously aim at linking the people with their root
but at ridding the society of historical superstitions as a means of conscientizing the

27

society and encouraging revolution. The crisis in Tanzania is transformed into a

revolutionary struggle for liberation from the foreign yoke. The perspective of tragedy of
the tragic hero, the archetype of tragic action and the socio-cultural matrix helped to
probe into the tenets of the real historical circumstances and crisis.
The playwright is also a Marxist writer with a revolutionary ideology and he
posits that every great period is marked by transition, a contradictory crisis and resolution,
destruction and rebirth and uses his plays to create awareness which not only has a
cathartic effect but also exhibit to the audience, the past, the present and the future.
All critics generally agree on the thematic similarities in the works used for this
study. The two attributes of revolution and aesthetics employed in the two works
selected, The Trial of Dedan Kimathi and Kinjeketile, and the idea that both are
revolutionary works that have consciously engaged the medium of drama to covey their
important messages cannot be over-emphasized. One can see that revolutionary aesthetics
play a very great role by ideally and realistically projecting the social structures that
influenced the action of the individuals. The analysis shall form the major engagement in
the subsequent chapter.

28

REFERENCES

1. Etherton, M. (1980). Trends in African Theatre. In Eldred Durosinmi Jones (ed.)

African Literature Today. London: Heinemann Educational Books. Vol.10

2. Amuta, C, (ed.). (1989). Drama and Revolution. In The Theory of African

Literature. London: Zed Books Ltd.

3. Palmer, E. (1979). The Growth of The African Novel. London: Heinemann

Educational Books.

4. Onoge, O. (1986). The Crisis of Consciousness. In George Gugelbeger (ed.)

Modern African Literature. Enugu: African World Press.

5. Wa ThiongO, N. (1968). The Black Hermit. Nairobi: Heinemann Educational Books

6. Cook, D. and Micheal, O. (1983). Ngugi Wa ThiongO: An Exploration of His

Writings. London: Heinemann Educational Books.

29

7. Mbughuni, L.A. (1980). Old and New Drama from East Africa. In Eldred
Durosinmi Jones (ed.) African Literature Today. London: Heinemann
Educational Books. Vol.8. p. 86.

8. Hussein, E. (1970). Kinjeketile. London: Oxford University Press. p.v.

9. Dukore, B.F.(1974). Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to Grotowski. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc. p.142.

10. Mbughuni, L.A. (1980). Old and New Drama from East Africa. In Eldred
Durosinmi Jones (ed.) African Literature Today. London: Heinemann
Educational Books. Vol.8. p. 87.

30

CHAPTER THREE
3.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the authorial background of the playwrights will be briefly

discussed and also how this background helps to inform their works. However, the
comparative analysis of the texts and their ties to reality through thematic approach shall
form the major focus. Attempts will be made to draw textual reference from the texts at
relevant points in the course of analysis.

3.2

AUTHORIAL BACKGROUND OF THE PLAYWRIGHTS

3.2.1 NGUGI WA THIONGO

Ngugi Wa ThiongO has established a remarkable reputation as a novelist, as well

as a playwright. He was born in Limuru, near Nairobi: and he was called James Ngugi
until March 1970, when he took the traditional name, Ngugi Wa ThiongO. He was
influenced by the writing of Chinua Achebe which is liberal. He grew up in Kenyas
colonial history which puts him in a good position to present to the world the theatrical
presentation of his countrys experiences. Ngugi Wa ThiongO has written a lot of artistic
works such as A Grain of Wheat, The Black Hermit, Weep Not Child and so on.
Ngugi as a writer is committed to writing about the problem of pre and post
colonial Africa and the effect the arrival of the European had on the people Kenya. He

31

castigates the Christian religion in his more radical works. In his later works, he
conscientizes the masses by creating awareness in them to liberate themselves. His works
are emotional and its major concern is on issues of arm struggle, land, colonialism etc.

3.2.2

MICERE GITHAE MUGO

Micere Githae Mugo, is a writer, activist, and academic. She was born Madeleine
Mugo in 1942, in Baricho, Kenya. At the time, her country was a colonial possession of
the British Empire. Her adolescence was disturbed by the Mau Mau uprising whose
armed revolt against the British colonial government and its economic and social
discrimination brought about much blood shed in Kenya.
Mugo was also influenced by Chinua Achebe. Her works include: The long
illness of Ex-chief Kuti and other Works, Vision of Africa etc. She also believes in the
freedom of the masses of Kenya. Her writings were informed by her background in
Kenya.

3.2.3

EBRAHIM HUSSEIN

Ebrahim Hussein is the best known Swahili playwright, and Tanzanias most
complex literary personality. He is known first and foremost as a dramatist, he is also a
theorist whose dissertation on the theatre in Tanzania remains the standard reference
work.

32

As it is the practice with most east African authors, his works deal with class
struggle, oppression and liberation. His works are written first in Ki-Swahili. His
published plays include Alkioma (He Got It), Mashetani (Devil) and so on. Husseins
plays are a corpus of theatrical material with great significances to an understanding of
Tanzanias political and social development in relation to the Swahili / Islamic coastal
culture of which he is a part.

3.3

ANALYSIS OF THE TRIAL OF DEDAN KIMATHI AND KINJEKETILE

The Trial Dedan Kimathi can be seen as an artistic recreation of the heroic role that
Dedan Kimathi played in the liberation of his people. Dedan Kimathi, a historical figure
and the major character in the play is a symbol of relentless struggle and unyielding force.
The playwrights prop into history by re-asserting Kimathis value so that the present
generation of masses can continue with the struggle for liberation.
The play is divided into four units, namely, the opening (prologue), the first
movement, the second movement and the third movement. The strategy employed makes
the play relevant to contemporary revolutionary movements. The opening serves as an
explanatory presentation of the back ground to the Black mans history, the re-enactment
of the onset of slave trade and to the trial and tribulation of Kimathi and other members
of the revolutionary movement. It also deals with the instigation of the Mau Mau
revolution, the operations of the colonial government against the revolutionaries and the

33

arrest and detention of Kimathi at Nyeri. Every subsequent action, therefore move
towards the trial of Kimathi at Nyeri.
Kinjeketile portrays the revolutionary rebellion against the German colonial rule.
Kinjeketile, another historical figure and major character, through Maji symbolizes a
new dawn of unity and resistance. The play attempts to recapture the problem of an
oppressor people faced with overwhelming dominance tinged with brutality by their
colonial oppressors. Hussein has created this uprising in his play Kinjeketile.
The play is segmented into Acts and scenes. The play reveals the abject situation
that characterizes the lives of the legitimate owners of the Tanganyika land, under the
German rule. The beginning serves as an introduction to the struggle of survival against
all odds, thereby, laying the foundation for the subsequent actions.

3.4

THEMES AND SUB-THEMES IN THE TRIAL OF DEDAN KIMATHI AND

KINJEKETILE

The dominant thematic pre-occupations used in Ngugi Wa ThiongO and Micere

Githae Mugos The Trial of Dedan Kimathi and Ebrahim Husseins Kinjeketile that
projects the realities perceived in both plays as regards the colonial administration shall
be the major focus in this section.

34

3.4.1 POVERTY AND DEHUMANIZATION

In The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, the harsh realities of poverty and dehumanization
brought upon by the arrival of the colonial government. The result of poverty is clearly
portrayed between Boy and the Girl who fought for leftover under the tourists table.
They roam the street together or hang around big hotels like New Stanley, engaging in
odd jobs as baggage carriers and sometime will act crippled or blind and deaf. The fight
between them ensued because the Girl ran away with ten shillings given to them by a
white tourist. They ran into Woman who tries to settle their quarrel. The hazard an
average citizen of Kenya goes through by trying to survive is presented in by Boy who
recounts his experience to Woman saying:
Boy:

We scourged into every dustbinwe would act crippled

or blind and deaf. They would give us money (p.16)

This statement clearly shows that poverty has eaten deep into the society during
the colonial administration as it was in reality. Most of the people of Kenya were
relocated to other parts of the state during the Mau Mau revolution due to the fact that the
colonial government was suspicious of everyone and some villages were already tagged
as villages dominated by Mau Mau supporters. The level of dehumanization and
degradation is also proclaimed by the Boy

35

Boy:

Aaa Nairobi. I have fought with dogs and cats in the

rubbish bins for foodan Indianwould throw away
the rotten bread. We all ran for it. (p.19)

Here, the competitive race for scraps of food left in the dustbin is projected. Most of the
people of Kenya after relocation find it very difficult to eat daily especially when the
citizens involved are a family.
The unspeakable torture meted out to Kimathi after incarceration is also another
form of dehumanization all because he refused to betray his fellow guerilla fighters.
Kimathi, in the first trial, stands against Shaw Henderson, a white man and enemy-friend
of the African people, in his argument by stating clearly that:
Kimathi:

With the British, we have been Loser all the

wayyesbut this is a new era. This is a new war. We
have fought your wars for you, against the Germans,
Japanese, Italians. This time we shall bleed for our soul,
for our freedom, until you let go. (p.34)

This in reality is likened to the fact that Africans have always fought the white
mans war. Many of Africans able bodied men have been shipped across the continent
to fight for the white men yet, even after their return to their hometown, they are rendered
useless because most of them return with missing limbs.

36

Shaw Henderson, who acted as the judge and prosecutor of Kimathi, finds solace
in brutal measure slaps and physical torture which are faithfully carried out by Waitina,
a white man, and Gakunia/Gatotia, a black man, whenever the opportunity arises and
things are not going the way he wants them to. This can be seen in the fourth and final
stage of trial when Henderson tries to break Kimathi by torturing him, proclaims that:
Henderson:

Right askari! Remove him to the torture chamber

(and at Gatotia) give him intensive treatment.
(p.56)

Henderson symbolizes the colonial government in reality that tends to use force
and torture on people during the Mau Mau revolution.
In Kinjeketile, poverty and dehumanization is also portrayed in the play. The poor
social existence of the society is highlighted in Bibi Kitundas statement:
Bibi Kitunda:

And all that work for nothing. Our men work a

lot, but they get nothing We dont even have
food in the house I have looked for
rootssome of these roots are most poisonous.
Bibi Bobalis son died from eating some. (p.1)

Hunger and poverty pervades the situation of the people and they die of starvation
or from eating poor and sometimes poisonous food. The state of hunger of the people is

37

portrayed in the play as they swallow their pride and beg for food. This can be seen in
the dialogue between Bibi Kitunda and Bibi Kinjeketile.
Bibi Kitunda: (intimately) But my dear, dont you have some
spinach or even a bit of cassava you can spare me ?
please
Bibi Kinjeketile: Honestly, I dont have any, my
friend (p.2).
This indicates that poverty and hunger have become the order of the day ever
since the arrival of the German colonial government.
Human degradation and dehumanization are also exhibited in this play. Kitunda is
being supported on his way home from the white mans farm as a result of the whipping
he got on the farm for daring to stretch his back a little while working. This can be seen
in the First mans reply to Bibi Kitunda:
First man:

He straightened up, to ease his back a little. The

over seer slashed him with a whip from the over
seer and immediately the headman was called in,
who ordered Kitunda to be whipped some more.

38

This degradation is not limited to men alone but also extended to women and
young girls. Kitundas wife had to go and work on the white mans plantation because
her husband could not go as a result of the wounds he sustained when he was flogged.
The conversation below is instructive:

First Woman:

Wheres Chausikus mother today?

Second Woman:

She has gone to the plantation in place of

her husband. Her husband couldnt go
after yesterdays beating. (p.11)

The Tanzanians were denied their rights of achieving the aim of the labour on
their ancestral heritage. They are instead made to toil hard for the Germans who,
metaphorically, are called Red Earth. The imposition of taxes was enforced on the
citizen while they also make them abandon their domestic activities without any sort of
compensation. The level of dehumanization and degradation is also likened to the various
events that actually happened in reality. The people of Tanzania scarcely or never had
enough food to neither eat nor time to go to their own farms, rather the men were sent to
work on the German settlers plantations.
Hunger, thus offer many distractions which the Europeans exercised in the two
plays. The whitemen offer to employ the natives their service as clerk, warders,

39

mercenaries and so on. Hunger is the open gate for those who will like to collaborate with
the whites.
The sub theme derives from poverty and dehumanization in both plays is that of
hunger and degradation of the African people and its implication to other African nations
who also under went the same treatment during the colonial administration.

3.4.2 EXPLOITATION AND ECONOMIC DEPRIVATION

Exploitation and economic deprivation are among the atrocities perpetrated by the
whitemen through colonialism in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi and Kinjeketile. The
Banker and the Indian in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi represents domestic exploiters who
serve as middlemen in siphoning the wealth of African countries to foreign investors
while the Kenya among them who does not speak at all but nods his lead in approval
symbolizes the Kenyan peasants who, due to illiteracy and lack of understanding accept
whatever the middlemen tell them. This is seen as the Banker addresses Kimathi:
Banker:

Time is money. I am or rather we are from the banks,

the insurance companies, the industries. You see Dedan,
this war is holding back investment, the flow of money
development. (p.38)

Here, the bankers major concern is that the interest of his masters, i.e. , the
foreign investors. The sub theme of Kenyas economic dispensation is revealed through

40

the Banker and the Indian. Their main concern is to stop the struggle for liberation
because they are bothered that the struggle will threaten their economic and political
domination of the people.
The need to extinguish exploitation and economic deprivation is stressed by
Kimathi too when he rhetorically ask the Business Executive, an agent of imperialism,
why his people are expected to buy back things that originally and legitimately belong to
them. In a combination of anger and irritation, Kimathi rhetorically asks.
Kimathi:

What new song is this? Buy back our land from those
who stole it from us? our land? Have we not bought it
with streams of blood? Rivers of sweat? (p.45)

The above statement by Kimathi can be likened to the treatment of the colonial
government towards the people of Kenya. The Kenyans do not only live in poverty but
are also exploited. The British government took over their lands and paid them little or
nothing in return. The colonial government also used them for manual labour, and yet
denies them of their right.
In Kinjeketile, the Tanzanians were denied their right of achieving the aim of their
labour on their ancestral heritage. The strong demand, in reality, for raw materials like
cotton, rubber, cocoa etc in the European market made the Germans exploit them and
deprive them of their economic products. They are instead made to toil hard for the
German who metaphorically are called Red Earth. The imposition of tax collection was

41

also enforced on the citizens while they made them abandon their domestic activities
without any sort of compensation. The poor social existence of the masses is as a result of
the economic deprivation and exploitation which is expressed by Mkichi:
the red earth is still in our country. Whats more, he has taken our
country from us by forceNow he has forced us to cultivate his
cotton plantation for himHe has got us paying his taxes.(p.5)
Sexual abuse also form a part of the general exploitation as is seen when Mnypala
comes to take Chausiku, Kitundas daughter away for the benefit of an Askari as
projected in the dialogue between Kitunda and Mnypala.

Mnypala: yes- as I was saying by Askari say you can rest

tomorrow. (Uncomfortable silence)
Kitunda:

our village has only two days left for us to work on

the plantation, then our turn ends. I can rest then. There
is no need for me to rest tomorrow.

Mnypala: but think, two days! Two days with no work.

Kitunda: and what do I have to do to earn that?
Mnypala:

Hmyou can...lend us your daughter. (p.9)

42

Young girls are violated by the Askaris and the white men, through the
connivance of the policemen or headmen who go to the villages and forcefully take the
beautiful girls of the village, most especially green maidens of the land to them. This
problem is projected when Mnypala took Chausiku away. Kitunda and his wife fought
against Chausiku being taken away but it was to no avail. The general state of panic and
fear prevent the neighbours from rescuing Kitunda and his household when Mnypala
descended on them.
The rate at which the Europeans exploited and deprived Africans from their
economic product is also one of the factors that have to be considered in reality as one of
the reasons behind the revolutionary movement against the colonial administration.

3.4.3 OPPRESSION

The theme of oppression is one of the pronounced elements in The Trial of Dedan
Kimathi and Kinjeketile. Both plays used this theme to explain the sort of relationship
that existed between the European settlers and Africans during the colonial period.
In The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, Woman subtlety talks about the how the colonial
government have oppressed the people of Kenya. She says:

43

our own food eaten and leftover throw to us in our land, where
we should have the whole share. We buy wood, from our own
forests; sweat on our own soil for the profit of our oppressors.(p.18)

This statement indicates that the oppressors, i.e, colonial government forced the
people of Kenya into submission while they exploit and oppress them. It is not
uncommon of them to engage in hoarding essential commodities, thereby, creating
artificial scarcity so as to make life difficult for the ordinary man who has no access to
such commodities. In such actions against the majority lies higher revenue for these
oppressors.
In The Trial of Dedan Kimathi the oppressors consist of the businessmen,
religious leader, bankers and so on who are collaborators that exploit the wealth of the
people collectively. The collaborators in Kimathis words are those who:
Allow our people to continue slaves of hunger, disease, sorrow in
our own lands while foreigners eat and snore in bed with fullness?
(p.38)
The character Boy and Girl are also infused in their rustic mental state. Boy
keeps on chasing and terrorizing Girl while the latter fails to put up resistance thereby

44

encouraging Boy to keep on oppressing her. This implies that the colonialists have
been because the masses have not revolted, rather, they have kept on running like the girl.
The encounter between boy and woman gradually stirs the former to self
realization and this made him scrutinize the hazardous and harsh realities of his existence
after the death of his father due to lack of proper medical care from his fathers
employers when the machine cut off his right hand and his father bled to death.
This encounter consequently enables him, in the last movement, to acquire a more
realistic perception of reality. The omnipresent voice of the Woman after she left him
declares that:
Womans voice:

The day youll ask yourselfwhat can I do so

that another such grisly circumstancesthat day
youll become a man my son. (p.22)

The voice of the Woman continues to stir boy and the moment he forgets and
does anything contrary to the instruction of the Woman, he usually feels
Boy:

as though she is watching me, admonishing

me. I feel so ashamed (p.11)

This shows that for there to be a revolution, there is need for self realization
which is what woman did by creating the awareness. The various sub themes in this play
include those of political, religion and cultural oppression.

45

In the pre-independent days of Kenya, Christianity, a religious sector, was used as

a means of silencing the people and restraining them from fighting to reclaim their stolen
land and pride. It also served as a means of cajoling Africans into submission as seen in
the role of the Priest who contributed in subverting the collective struggle of the Mau
Mau peasants which Kimathi rejects. Kimathi antagonizes the priest and tells him in clear
terms that he is just a pawn on the white mans chess board. He goes on to tell the
priest that he finds the Christian principle of turning the other cheek in the face of
victimization and oppression repulsive:
Kimathi:

Betrayal, Betrayal, prophets, seer, strange. I have

always been suspicious of those who would
preach cold piece in the face of violence. Turn
the other cheek. Dont struggle against those
that

clothe

themselves

as

butterflies.

Collaborators. (p.49)
The politicians can be seen as puppets in the hands of the colonial masters. The
politicians are manipulated by the British government and the consequently sell
Kenya to the British government. Oppression, to the white men, is believed to be the
tool and style that works for them.

46

In Kinjeketile, oppression is derived through taxation, cheap labour, the brutality

of the Germans, their minions and henchmen, the Askaris (native constables) and
overseers whipping and the rape of African women and girls. The Germans uses the
element of fear to oppress the masses. The dominant atmosphere of the play is that of
utter despair and despondency which can also be seen in the utterances of Mkichi:
It is better to die than to live like this, we are made to work like
beasts in the cotton plantation. We are forced to pay tax. We die of
hunger because we cannot work on our shambas. I say death is
better than this. (p.8)
The theme of oppression can also be deduced through the treatment of the Askari,
the overseers, the headmen and the whitemen over the masses of the society in all
ramifications. The need to rise up against this thematic factor was declared by the two
protagonists in the plays.

3.4.4 UNITY AND RESISTANCE

Kimathi, in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, is portrayed as being a selfless leader of

the Mau Mau revolution. He has good organizing abilities which he uses to galvanize the
people to action. He assumes the position of an ideal revolutionary. Kimathi resists the
advances of the colonial authorities which Henderson represents and in anger grabs
Henderson neck declaring that:

47

Kimathi will never sell Kenya to the British or any other Breed of
man-eaters now or in the years to come (p.36)
Kimathi is steadfast in this commitment to the Mau Mau movement. Bruised and battered,
he refused to surrender or be swayed even when the agent of the colonial government
tries to cajole him into surrendering. He says:
I will fight to the bitter end, Protect our soil. Protect our People.
This is what I, Kimathi Wa Wachiuri swore at initiation. (p.54)
The word initiation here alludes to the initiation of people to become members
of the Mau Mau movement. Kimathi believes that no sacrifice is too much for the
liberation of his people. His torture in the fourth trial can be likened to Christ being
scourged and led to the torture stake. The self sacrifice of Kimathi in an attempt to
liberate the masses is the crux of the play.
At the point where Girl puts up a resistance, there is a drastic change, at the same
time, Boy, the terrorist, cowed back. This was after the encounter between Boy and
Woman. Girl says:
All cowards, all brutes and bullies behave the same way. Show fear,
a tail in your mouth and they threaten thunder and rain. They
humiliate you, insult you, injure you. Show that you are a human
being: struggle, fight back and it becomes their turn to run away, to
flatter you, to try and make you their friends. (p.42)

48

This statement implies that Africans must come to the realization that success can
only come by the determination to change their social status. Hence, the era of resistance
is here to stay and the masses have what it takes to resist the European oppressors.
The paradox of liberation is that the oppressed are not united and they want to
succeed over the oppressors. There is therefore, a need for them to resolve their
differences and bury their hatchets in the head of their common enemy. The playwrights
aesthetically portray this fight in the quarrel between Boy and Girl who, having resolved
their differences joined forces together and serve as co-facilitators to the subsequent
liberation of Kenya, which is portrayed in the dialogue between Woman and Girl.
Woman:

(proud) That is the way it should always be. Instead of

fighting against one another, we who struggle against
exploitation and oppression should give one another
strength and faith till victory is ours.

Girl:

(despondently) It is hard. It is hard seeing that we are weak.

Woman:

United, our strength becomes the faith that moves mountains. (p.60)

Woman, in a concluding note, about the need for unity in revolution states that:

Woman:

We shall continue to suffer until that day we can

recognize our own, our true kinsmen when we can
correctly Identify our enemies. (p.73-74)

49

Similarly, collectivism is needed to achieve this goal. Every member of the

struggle is important. Responding to the call shows maturity irrespective of age and sex.
The play is a clarion call for a united front to liberate the society. Kimathis vision of
unity can be considered national not regional in reality due to the fact that he penned
letters to different parts of his country in order to gain the allegiance of other tribes. In the
play, he says:
Kenya is one indivisible whole The cause we fight for is larger
than provinces; it shatters ethnic barriers. It is a whole peoples
cause. (p.46)
The language of the play is also consistently revolutionary with the
relatively simple poetry to enable the masses understand. Kimathi admonishes
his people to appreciate and clamour the need for unity and discipline as a
weapon capable of guaranteeing the success of their struggle.

Kimathi:

Our love for freedom is our bullet Our successes are our
newspaper But Mightier than our best generals Is our
unity and discipline (p.69)

50

Revolution demands commitment on the part of the undertakers. Kimathi, focuses

and committed confronts his oppressors with his undying resolve:
But our people will never surrender Internal and external foes
will be demolished And Kenya shall be free. (p.83)
The playwrights have aesthetically used the four trials of Dedan Kimathi to
portray that there are enemies of the people who will discourage the revolution by either
betrayal or threats. But a true revolutionary must be focused and ready to face all
consequences as seen in Kimathi. Kimathi symbolizes the entire society who must carry
on a continuous struggle without giving up. The play is used to alert the masses to be
aware that they have what it takes to be liberated.
In Kinjeketile, the rate at which there is disunity and distrust due to tribal, ethnic
and individual hostilities is exhibited in Kitundas statement:
Kitunda:

We are a hungry people, and hunger drives us to

betray one another. So you see, we cant afford to rush
into things recklessly. We have enemies even among our
own people. (p.5)

The people can identify this as the root of their problems and they realize that
they must come together and fight against the common enemy. This disunity is not only
as a result of tribal sentiments alone, but also as a result of the lack of trust among
individuals, even when they attempt to join forces with other tribes in order to gain

51

enough strength to defeat the Germans. This is portrayed in the conversation at the
elders meeting:
Mkichi:

We heard that you went to Kilwa.

Kitunda: I went to Kilwa to visit my brother. He was in trouble with

the government.

Mkichi:

And you were able to help

Mingindo: People say that if one goes to Kilwa with the

right kind of news, one is rewarded. The
whiteman pays well to get valuable information.

Kitunda:

Are you trying to say that I am selling you and my

people to the whiteman.

Mkichi:

There are people who are doing that. There are

people who are paid to stop us uniting. (p.8)

It was not until Kitunda reveals the scars on his back that they believed him. The
elders attempt to unite the tribes is usually hampered by bickering and jealousies. The
people were not united; they spy on one another instead of looking for avenues to unite

52

the tribes. Their lack of will and resistance brought about the disunity and traditional
hostilities which kept them divided. The disunity that has been hampering them is
reflected during the course of the meeting when one tribe accuses another of cowardice
and womanliness, Mingindo intervenes by saying:
Mingindo: We have come this far to unite with one another; not to
fight, if we fight one another, tribe against tribe, how
can we hope to fight the whiteman? What we must first
do is unite. (p.6)
Kinjeketile emerges against this background of inter-tribal conflicts, poverty,
distrust, humiliation and forced cheap labour. Though Kinjeketile is also as poverty
stricken as the rest of the other peasants, what sets him apart is his mystical essence. His
trance as he is dragged by unseen forces into the river for over twenty-four hours marks
the change and transformation of Kinjeketile. This can be likened to the real Kinjeketile
Ngwale who also went into the river Rufiji for over twenty-four hours.

However, Kinjeketiles re-emergence with the whisk and a pot of water,

pronounces a new dawn of victory and renewal of the peoples existence. He proclaims
unity through the power of their god and ancestors. It is at this point that he assumes a
dual personality and his mystical personality reaches its peak and he proclaims that:

53

Kinjeketile:

The sun has risen It will fill us with warmth and

love for one another. Love between tribe and the
warmth of love will free us. (p.15)

He consecrates the spirits of the people gathered with the water Maji. He tells
them that the water will act as a sort of shield against the bullets of the Germans and that
they will defeat the Germans. The revolution was successful at the initial stages, but the
people fell eventually due to their recklessness. The manner in which they approached the
war was wrong because they were not well prepared nor organized which was why they
lost to the Germans.
The spirit of unity, resistance and belief in the Maji water is what made the
people of Tanganyika revolt against the Germans. Kinjeketile succeeds in unifying his
people and mobilizing them against oppression and injustice which at the level of content
gives expression to their day-to-day realities.
The playwrights, in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, have consciously reconstructed
an otherwise mutilated and distorted history to give direction to the vision of the
oppressed Kenyan people. History and realism have been employed to highlight the past
with the hope of having a better future.
Ebrahim Hussein, in Kinjeketile, employs a realistic approach to human problems
by implying that myth and religion are not the only essentials that can bring about
revolutionary changes. Ebrahim Hussein does not merely use history and reality in telling

54

stories to entertain an audience, but rather use history and reality to reflect on the past, to
highlight the present and to forge a solid social, economic and political ethos for the
realization of a better future.

55

REFERENCES

1.

Wa ThiongO, Ngugi and Micere Githae Mugo. (1976). The Trial of Dedan
Kimathi. London: Heinemann Education Books.

2.

Hussein, Ebrahim. (1970). Kinjeketile. London: Oxford University Press.

56

CHAPTER FOUR
4.1

SUMMARY

We have attempted to examine the revolutionary undertones employed

aesthetically in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi by Ngugi Wa ThiongO and Micere Githae
Mugo and Kinjeketile by Ebrahim Hussein respectively.
In The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, the colonialists deprived them of their own land
and other socio-economic rights which rendered them helpless. The use of violence was,
there after adopted in order to regain their independence. The playwrights in this case use
the dramatic genre of literature to explicate their socialist ideology. This is meant to
create awareness in the masses whom he identifies with to wake up and liberate
themselves from such dominance. The play portrays revolution in the heart of the
struggle as it challenges colonial domination and creates awareness in the oppressed
masses to revolt via the Mau Mau. Even though Kimathi dies in this play as in reality, the
play is not a tragedy nor is Kimathi a tragic character. Rather, Kimathi's death is a
necessary sacrifice for the well being of the generality of the Kenyan people and the
uplift of the human race as a whole.

57

Kinjeketile, however, is a revolutionary historical tragedy. The common problem

of lack of unity and solidarity is well projected and the attempt at uniting in one accord is
constantly hampered by bickering, jealousies, accusations of cowardice and womanliness.
Due to the fact that people tend to find in religion during moments of great upheaval and
societal turmoil, Kinjeketile acknowledges this trend and forges a sense of unity through
the people's religion. In the play, the legendary hero lays down his life so that his people
may have peace and freedom though in reality Kinjeketile suffered a tragic death and was
unmourned after the failure of the "Maji" holy water against the Germans bullets.
However, in both cases, Kinjeketile Ngwale died after failing his people, though he was
able to unite the warring tribes in order to fight the common enemy, the Germans.

4.2

FINDINGS

Writers have aesthetically used their art to express themselves with the aim of
either educating or changing their audience. Hence, the authors of these works portrayed
the socio-economic and political realities of their countries. They have been the political
realities of their countries. They have been able to project that men should look inward
and employ qualities like intellect, strength, courage and then an individual can achieve
whatever he wants to achieve as long as he is totally dedicated to the cause.

58

Our findings in this work reveal the inhuman invasion of the Europeans, their
brutality, and the economic exploitation of Africans, the imposition of taxes and forced
labour, the level of dehumanization and degradation, the deprivation of the people's
manpower, the heights of hunger and poverty and the reaction and the resistance of
Africans against these intolerable conditions. Thus, the reality of the historical and
inhuman treatment of Africans and their unity is the basis of any form of resolution.

4.3

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the realist ideology has been appropriated to serve as a weapon of

change by creating revolution. The use of theatre is utilized to entertain, educate and
conscientizes people towards positive ends. The use of content has also been made to
give expression to the peoples day-to-day activities and the propellant of their revolt. It
is therefore, imperative to note that it was the inhuman treatment with which these
Europeans extended to Africans that made them resort to revolt against them. The
playwrights have written to uplift the cause of the oppressed masses thereby
revolutionarizing the society by the concept of reality towards positive changes.

59

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PRIMARY TEXTS

Hussein, Ebrahim. (1970). Kinjeketile. London: Oxford University Press.

Wa ThiongO, Ngugi and Micere Githae Mugo. (1976). The Trial of Dedan
Kimathi. London: Heinemann Education Books.

SECONDARY TEXTS

Abubakar, A.S. (2002). Ideological Conflict in Niyi Osundares The eye of Earth. In
V.A. Alabi (ed.), Alore, Ilorin Journal of Humanities, Faculty of Arts,
University of Ilorin. Ilorin: University Press. Vol .12.

Amuta, C, (ed.). (1989). Drama and Revolution. In The Theory of African

Literature. London: Zed Books Ltd.

Cook, D. and Micheal, O. (1983). Ngugi Wa ThiongO: An Exploration of His

Writings. London: Heinemann Educational Books.

60

Dukore, B.F.(1974). Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to Grotowski. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc.

Encyclopedia Americana International. (1979). America: Groila Incorporated. Vol. 6.

Encyclopedia Britannica. (1926).London: EBC Ltd. Vol.1.

Etherton, M. (1980). Trends in African Theatre. In Eldred Durosinmi Jones (ed.)

African Literature Today. London: Heinemann Educational Books. Vol.10

Mbughuni, L.A. (1980). Old and New Drama from East Africa. In Eldred
Durosinmi Jones (ed.) African Literature Today. London: Heinemann
Educational Books. Vol. 8.

Onoge, O. (1986). The Crisis of Consciousness. In George Gugelbeger (ed.)

Modern African Literature. Enugu: African World Press.

Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. (2000). London: Oxford University Press.

Vol.6

61

Palmer, E. (1979). The Growth of The African Novel. London: Heinemann

Educational Books.

Wa ThiongO, N. (1968). The Black Hermit. Nairobi: Heinemann Educational Books

Wa ThiongO, N. (1981). Writers in Politics. Nairobi: Heinemann Educational

Books.

(1980). http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/revolution.

62