-----PAINT CONSTITUENTS AND BASIC TECHNOLOGY----Paint is a material which will change the Texture, Colour or appearance and give

some form of protection

to the underlying surface. Has been classified in many ways, e.g. by principle method:
1. Barrier; - The material forms a thick impermeable layer of a high electrical resistance, e.g.
Urethane.
2. Passivation; - Causing a chemical reaction between the paint constituents and the substrate, e.g. rust
inhibitive primers.
3. Cathodic Protection; - Employs the bi-metallic principles by using a less noble metal as
pigmentation, e.g. zinc in zinc rich primers. By function, e.g.:
Anti Fouling
- To inhibit marine growth on ship hulls.
Road Marking
- To give white or yellow lines on roads.
Fire Proofing
- To provide resistance to fire & Anti corrosive.
Paints can be classified by binder type (the main constituent) or by colour, and in some cases even by
the pigment type. No matter which identification system is used, all the paints contain the basic
ingredients.
a) Binder, b) Pigments and other additives, c) Solvent (where applicable).
The chemical structure and constituents give the paints their own individual properties. Paints are
supplied as either liquids or solids in powder form and can be subdivided into groups:
i)
Liquid paints containing solvent the solvent does not relate solely to Hydrocarbon solvents, but
also includes water. Due to the modern EPA (Environmental Protection Act) requirements
manufacturers are researching new paint technology vastly reduced amounts of volatile organic
compounds.
ii)
Solvent free They are generally chemical curing materials which require the mixing of two or
more components and usually go under the name of MCLs (Multi Complex Liquids).
iii)
Powders Virtually solvent free MCLs, which are solid, at room temperature. The powder can
be applied onto a preheated substrate at about 240 deg.C or onto thin plate electro statically and
post heated.
Binder: The binder is the main constituent of paint and is often referred to as a film former. Other
terms are vehicle and non-volatile. Some major considerations of a binder are:
1. Ease of application (flow properties or viscosity).
2. Adhesion to the substrate for the expected life of coating.
3. Resistance to abrasion.
4. Resistance to chemical attack according to environment.
5. Cohesive strength, its ability to hold together as a film.
6. Dialectric strength.
7. Ability to resist the passage of water.
8. Ability to change from a liquid as applied, into a solid to provide the above properties, and others,
for the expected life of the coating.
Several materials satisfy the criteria above for different environmental conditions, among them are:a) Acrylic; Synthetic resins, can be used in H C solvents or water. Good colour retention, good film
properties. E.g. Urethane modified Acrylic as used by BG.
b) Alkyd; A term derived from alcohol acid reaction, they have low resistance to Alkalies. In common
with most resins they are brittle and need modification with oils.
c) Ashphaltic Bituments; Petroleum based materials, thermoplastic, relatively inexpensive, known for
water proof properties, poor resistance to sunlight, very low resistance to solvents.
d) Cellulose Resins; Synthetic material, not extensively used for industrial coating but good example of
reversible materials.

e) Chlorinated Rubber; Organic resins derived from reaction of rubber with chlorine. Very poor
resistance to HC solvents.
f) Emulsions; Obviously not used for anti corrosive systems but are included for other factors e.g.
Drying mechanisms.
g) Epoxies; Synthetic organic resins, generally provide good chemical, solvent and water resistance.
Good exterior durability but are prone to chalking. Epoxies- two pack, single pack, solvent free and
solvent borne.
h) Ethyl and Methyl Silicates; Inorganic materials with excellent weathering, solvent and heat
resistance.
i) Natural Oils; Many natural oils can be used in the paints industry. They are mixed with resins to
modify the film properties. Some natural oils are Linseed Oil, Tung Oil ( also known as China Wood
oil), Soya oil, Tall oil and Safflower oil.
j) Natural Resins; Natural resins are brittle by nature and fast drying. They need to be mixed with oils
to modify some properties. A mixture of oil and resin is known as "Oleoresinous". Examples of natural
resins are copals, dammars and coumarones. Natural resins are not soluble in water.
k) Phenolic Resins; Made from phenol and formaldehyde, coal derivatives, characterized by excellent
adhesion properties and resistance to heat and chemicals. Greater than 65 deg. C couldn't be used.
Commonly called hot drying oils.
l) Polyurethane's; can come in several forms, Moisture Curing, two pack Polyurethane's, chemically
curing and single pack. Industrial coatings are mainly the first two. They produce an excellent synthetic
coating, with outstanding abrasion resistance, chemical resistance, and good exterior gloss and colour
retention with a minimum of chalking.
m) Silicones; Designed as high temperature service materials for temperatures ideally above 150 deg. C
service temperature. Usually carbon or aluminium pigmented, they are used to seal inorganic zinc
silicates or metal sprayed surface.
n) Styrene; Styrene is sometimes referred to as a blinder and is used to modify other properties. Styrene
is referred to as a vinyl type monometer and is used to cross-link the film.
o) Vinyl; Vinyl use a different solvent group and water.
Binder Solvent Groups and Compatibility:A solvent free binder, or a binder using a very weak solvent, will cause very few problems when over
coating another product. Guide to binder solvent combinations as follows
Solvent strength in
Common Names
Binders
descending order
Water
Emulsions PVC/PVA
Vinyl's, Acrylics other
materials, e.g. EpoxyBitumins, Polyurethanes,
Alkyds, Acrylated Rubbers.
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
White Spirit
Natural oils,
Turpentine, Turpentine
Natural Resins,
substitute, Solvent
Alkyds,
naphtha's, Hexanes
Phenolics.
upwards
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Xylene
Chlorinated rubber
Toluene
Benzene
Ketones
Acetone
Epoxy
Methyl Ethyl Ketone,
Methyl ISO Butyl Ketone.
Embolden name is the main one used.

Polyurethanes use ketones and esters with aromatic diluents. In descending order down the table the
solvent groups increase in strength. It is not advisable to use a binder with a strong solvent over an
existing coating, which uses a weak solvent. For example, Chlorinated rubber coated over an Alkyd
would result in lifting and wrinkling, but Alkyd over Chlorinated rubber would have no ill effect.
Ethyl and Methyl Silicates do not appear on the list because they are high (or low) temperature
performance coatings. Usually the only material suitable is Silicone. Ethyl and Methyl Silicates will not
adhere over any substrate other than bare, clean steel.
Chlorinated Rubber used to be the main material for ambient temperature usage for BGAS.
The advantages of using this material were:1. Because of the chlorine content, high resistance to mould growth.
2. Because of the chlorine, non-flammable after solvent release.
3. Very resistant to chemical attack e.g. Acids and Alkalis.
4. Very high resistance to water Vapour transmission.
5. Materials is non toxic and provides a very durable film.
6. Very easily maintained, no abrasion needed, clean surface only.
The Disadvantages are:1. Its position on solvent compatibility list shows low resistance to solvents i.e. only resistant to
Aliphatics and water.
2. Low temperature tolerance, 65 deg. C Max.
3. Spray application resulted in 'cobwebs'.
Polymers:One of the properties expected of a binder is to change from a liquid into a solid to form a film.
The word polymer means literally many parts, poly = many, mer = single unit or part. Mer (meras GK)
can be a single atom, or a molecule and can be described as being " a string or structure of repeated
units", and polymerisation is the "joining together of a string or structure of repeated units". In the
case of most paints the main constituents of the polymers are: H, C, N, O, Cl. (Hydrogen, Carbon,
Nitrogen, Oxygen, Chlorine).
The main three polymer types are Linear, Branched and Cross-Linked.
Oils:Natural oils (Vegetable oils) are produced from seeds of a plant, well known examples being linseed,
castor, olive, coconut, soya and tung oil. In order to be usable as a paint binder the oil must be of a type
that will combine with oxygen, i.e. it must be "unsaturated". A saturated oil cannot be used as a binder
because it will not solidify by polymerisation to form a film. Therefore oil van be divided into three
groups:
A) Drying Oils; which have three sets of double bonds along the carbon backbone, and react with
oxygen readily at ambient temperature.
B) Semi Drying Oils; have on or two sets of double bonds, and may need addition heat, or some other
catalyst to promote oxidation.
C) Non Drying Oils; will not oxidize and therefore cannot be used as binders. Instead these are used as
plasticisers in paint formulation, to modify properties of a resin.
Oils and resins are mixed to give a binder with modified properties -:
Long Oil paint; more than 60% oil to resin, elastic, slower drying properties suitable for domestic
applications, decorative materials.
Medium Oil paint; between 45-60% oil to resin.
Short Oil paint; less than 45% oil to resin, faster drying material, suitable for steelwork. More brittle
with
shorter over coating time.

Pigments:Pigments have many properties and characteristics. They are derived from many sources, animal,
vegetable, mineral and synthetically produced, and can be in a wide variety of particle sizes and shapes.
Pigments used in paints must remain as solid particles within the vehicle (the binder plus the solvent if a
solvent is used), and not dissolve. If it dissolves it is known as dye, not a pigment.
Pigment particles contribute to the paint films strength cohesively, its abrasion resistance, durability,
opacity, in some cases impermeability and resistance to ultra violet rays. Some pigment particles are as
small as 1/10 th micron. They are subdivided into groups:
Rust Inhibitive Pigments. Anticorrosive; Rust inhibitive pigments are added into primers to protect the
steel substrate by passivation. Typical material in the category are:- Red lead*, Calcium plumbate*, Coal
tar*, Zinc Chromate*, Zinc phosphate, Barium metaborate and Zinc phosphosilicate.
Zinc phosphate is the most commonly used. The four marked with asterisk (*) are toxic and restricted in
use.
Red lead is a basic inhibitor and works in the presence of fatty acid esters in natural oils and resins only.
Metallic Pigments; Metallic pigments are also used on a steel substrate to protect the steel, but this time
by cathodic protection. If a metal which is less noble than steel, (more electronegative) is included in the
film, and an electrolyte e.g. water passes through the film, contacting substrate and pigment particles,
then a circuit can be engaged whereby the pigment will receive the Hydroxyl ions thus suffer corrosion in
preference to the steel substrate. In order to satisfy this requirement the metal pigment must be below the
position of steel on the galvanic list. The two must amenable metals to satisfy this are, Zinc and
Aluminium.
Zinc is the better of the two for galvanic protection but Aluminium is excellent for Solar protection,
reflecting the Ultra Violet A and B.
Opaque pigments;- Coloured pigments. Opaque pigments are inert particles with excellent light
scattering properties in order to give covering power, (opacity) and colour.
1. Carbon-------------------------------------Black.
2. Compound of Cobalt--------------------Blue.
3. Compound of Chromium--------------Greens, Yellows and Oranges.
4. Compound of Iron-----------------------Browns, reds and Yellows.
5. Compound of Calcium------------------Reds and Yellows.
6. Titanium Dioxide-------------------------White.
Extender Pigments;- known simply as extenders or fillers, provide some of the main properties expected
of the film, such as adhesion, cohesion, film strength and durability. Have a role in application and flow,
leveling, and other mechanical properties of the film, and are an aid to inter coat adhesion and can
reduce gloss. Materials used as extenders are :
Clays-------------------Kaolin, China clay.
Chalk------------------Calcium carbonate.
Talcum----------------Magnesium silicate.
State Flour-----------Aluminium silicate.
Laminar Pigments;- Plate like pigments such as MIO (Micaceous Iron Oxide), Aluminium Flake, Glass
Flake, Mica and Graphite provide excellent barriers. MIO sometimes known as 'Specular Haematite' is
widely specified.
PVC;- The pigment to binder ratio is a very important factor in the design and manufacture of paint and
is known as the 'Pigment Volume Concentration'. There is an ideal pigment binder ratio, which varies
from paint to paint, pigment to pigment, and this is known as CPVC "Critical Pigment Volume
Concentration".

CPVC is defined in BS 2015 as the particular value of the pigment volume concentration at which the
voids between the solid particles that are nominally touching are just filled with binder and in the region
of which certain properties are changed markedly.
i)
Too much binder to solids ratio, would give a film of good gloss properties, but poor covering
power (opacity) and with a tendency to blister (low cohesive strength).
ii)
A film with lower gloss properties but greater cohesive strength and just enough resin to
encapsulate each particle, giving good resistance to water permeation.
iii)
When CPVC is exceeded and all particles are not wetted, the film would be porous, low in cohesive
strength and adhesion.
Solvents;- solvents are added to paints to reduce the viscosity and ease application properties. If a solvent
evaporates too quickly the film will not dry eventually, if it evaporates too slowly, drying will be
protracted and on vertical surfaces the paint is likely to Sag. The four important properties of a Solvent
are:a. Solvent strength;- Low molecular weight solvents are stronger than high molecular weight solvents
and strong binders such as Epoxies and Polyurethanes, need strong solvents to 'cut' or separate the
molecules. Hence Ketones and Aromatics are used for these materials. Natural resins don't have the
same attraction between the molecules and therefore need weaker solvents, higher molecular weight,
such as Aliphatics.
b. Evaporation Rate;- The evaporation rate governs at what point the Polymerisation starts.
c. Flash Point;- The flash point of a solvent is a safety consideration. Roughly defined as "The minimum
temperature of the solvent at which the vapours given off are flammable if a source of ignition is
introduced". The higher the flash point, the safer the solvent.
d. Toxicity;- Solvents are substances hazardous to health and therefore have predetermined
concentrations to which humans can be safely exposed. These limits are expressed in parts per
million, ppm.
Other Additives:Other than the main constituents of a paint viz, binder, solvent, pigment, and extenders, there are
approximately fifty other materials which can be added to give other, or alter existing properties. They
can be grouped into Aids to Manufacture, Aids to Storage, Aids to Application, Aids to Film Formation,
Aids to Film Curing, and others. Among them being;i)
Anti Setting Agents;- is an aid to shelf life. It is a thixotrope, a thickener, which also allows a
higher film thickness. Thixotropic paints are jelly paints, non drip, and if stirred change to normal
liquid consistency. Thixotropic agents are Bentones and Waxes, and help keep solid particulate
constituents in dispersion within the paint, i.e. stop settlement.
ii)
Plasticisers;- A plasticiser basically gives paint flexibility and reduce brittleness and therefore
needs to be compatible with the binder, and have low volatility in order to stay in the film for a
long time. Alkyd resin was extensively used in Chlorinated rubber binders, but for natural resins
and their isomers Non Drying Oils are used, saturated oils, which will not polymerise. Castor oil,
Coconut oil and some Palm oils fall into this category.
iii)
Drier;- Also known as Oxidants, used in oxidizing oils and resins. They are heavy metal salts, rich
in oxygen, which are added to the paint during manufacture. Common salts are Octoates or
Naphthanates of Cobalt, Manganese and Zirconium e.g. Cobalt Naphthanate. The acids producing
the salts from the heavy metals are Octoic Acid and Naphthanic Acid.
iv)
Anti Skinning;- Also known as Anti Oxidants. These are added to oxidizing paints to retard the
formation of a skin on the surface of the paint. If a skin forms it cannot be stirred back into
solution, and must be removed. Because the anti oxidant works against the oxidant they are added
in very small controlled amounts and are liquids usually. E.g. Methyl Ethyl Ketoxime.

--:SOLUTIONS AND DISPERSIONS:-Solutions:A Solvent is a liquid, which will dissolve another material, liquid or solid.
A Solute is the material dissolved by the solvent.
A Solution is the resulting liquid. Salt and water, sugar and water are Solutions, a Binder and
Solvent are also a Solution.
Dispersions:A paint consists of solid particles suspended in the vehicle, where there is no solubility, so a paint is a
Dispersion. A dispersion can be either a solid or liquid dispersed with another liquid, where there is
no solubility.
A Suspension:A suspension is when fine particulate solids, e.g. pigment and extenders are dispersed within a liquid,
the vehicle. Ideally after the manufacturing process, each particle should be completely wetted by the
vehicle. However because the pigment particles are so small, they cluster together to form
agglomerates or aggregates. In some paints, especially gloss, the size of these aggregates is a very
important factor and so has to be checked. The aggregate size is known as Degree of Dispersion of
Fineness of Grind.
An Emulsion:An emulsion is a liquid dispersed in another liquid when there is no solubility. In vinyl or acrylic
Emulsion, very tiny droplets of resin are suspended within water, which can now be seen to be a
non-solvent. In an emulsion water is a carrier, not a solvent. Water is called the continuous phase, and
oil/resin is called the dispersed phase.