MBAA TQ

vol. 41, no. 1

2004 pp. 917

Chemical Engineering for Quality Brewing

Nick J. Huige, Ph.D.
Nico Consulting, Waukesha, WI 53188, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT

SNTESIS

Chemical engineers are employed in many areas of brewing including operations, engineering, development, and research. Chemical engineering education teaches basic skills for the application of
heat, mass, and momentum transfer to optimize and control many unit
operations that are used in brewing. This review will give examples
of unit operations, along with some of their quality aspects that were
learned on the job and through additional studies. The review will
also present a model to predict the loss of product shelf life during
storage and transportation at various temperatures.

Se emplean ingenieros qumicos en muchas reas cerveceras, incluyendo operaciones, ingeniera, desarrollo e investigaciones. La
educacin de un ingeniero qumico le ensea habilidades bsicas
para la aplicacin de calor, masa y transferencia de momento para
poder optimizar y controlar muchas operaciones unitarias en el proceso cervecero. Este repaso sealar ejemplos de operaciones unitarias, junto con algunos de sus aspectos afectando la calidad,
aprendidos en el lugar de trabajo y mediante estudios adicionales.
Tambin se presentar un modelo para pronosticar la prdida de
estabilidad al tiempo durante el almacenaje y transporte a diferentes temperaturas.

Introduction

proved vitally important to make sure that the measurements

were significant. What I needed to learn most though was
which parameters or components are important for the process
or product quality. Some of my learning came from trial and
error, but mostly I learned from suggestions and recommendations made by my colleagues in brewing, engineering, research
and development, and quality assurance.
Our sensory specialists taught me the importance of flavor
and flavor stability. Many of the components that influence
product quality cannot be measured because not all of them are
known, analytical techniques are not available, or it is not
known how individual components as part of a complex mixture affect quality parameters. Throughout the years, I have increasingly relied therefore on sensory measurements whenever
there was a chance of a change in quality, whether that change
was good or bad. As I will show later, it has been possible to
use sensory data to build quality prediction models.

When I entered the brewing industry as research and development manager at Schlitz Brewing Company and throughout
my further career at Miller Brewing Company, I was amazed at
how many opportunities there were to apply my chemical engineering education to the brewing process. In chemical engineering, we had studied unit operations, each of which had a
range of equipment choices, that could be used for chemical or
biochemical reactions or for phase separations. Unit operations
that I found useful in brewing included evaporation, solidliquid separation processes, solids handling, extraction, adsorption, absorption, desorption, crystallization, and membrane
processes.
Chemical engineers rely on the principles of heat, mass, and
momentum transfer and reaction kinetics to design these unit
operations and to develop process models. They then use
physical, chemical, and biochemical measurements to test their
models and to optimize the process operation. Statistics also

Unit Operations
Below are some examples of unit operations that I encountered over the years in brewing, along with some quality aspects that I learned.

Nick Huige started his brewing career at Schlitz Brewing Company

in 1972. In 1978, Nick joined Miller Brewing Company, where he was
manager of research engineering and planning when he retired in
2002. In 1985, Nick received the MBAA Presidential Award for his
publication on carbon dioxide recovery. His primary research interests were in the areas of flavor stability, plastic bottles for beer, and
the application of new process technologies. A citizen of the Netherlands, Nick obtained his M.S. degree from Northwestern University
in Evanston, IL, and his Ph.D. degree in chemical engineering from
the Technical University of Eindhoven in the Netherlands. Nick was a
long-time member of the MBAA Technical Committee and was
jointly responsible for initiating poster presentations at MBAA conventions.

Evaporation
Optimization of Brewkettle Boil. Temperature/time, volatiles
stripping, and agitation are important parameters that all need
to be included in the experimental design. The conventional
brewkettle design is not optimal to accomplish all required
funtions effectively.
Reduction of Fouling in External Calandria. Low temperature
differences between wort and steam and high wort flow rates
help minimize fouling.
Process Design for Spent Grain Pressed Liquor Concentration.
A forced-circulation evaporator is best for minimizing fouling
(3); a hydrosieve is useful in preclarifying the spent grain
liquor feed. Enzymes, such as cellulose, where permitted, can
substantially reduce viscosities, as long as temperatures are
kept low enough to avoid inactivation.

E-mail: nicohuige@wi.rr.com
Award of Merit lecture presented at the 116th Convention of the
Master Brewers Association of the Americas, Milwaukee, WI, October 2003.
Publication no. T-2004-0105-01
2004 Master Brewers Association of the Americas

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2004

Solid-Liquid Separation Processes

(Filtration, Centrifugation, Pressing, and Sedimentation)
Regenerable Filter Aids. Disposal of spent diatomaceous earth
(DE) might become a problem in the future, but regenerable
filter aids are not yet economical in the United States to replace DE. Currently, dewatered filter aid has several economical disposal options (3). Options to use various grades for varying filtration loads are limited when using regenerable filter aids.
Lautering with Recycled Spent Grain Liquor or Trub (3). Particulates in the recycled liquor are bad for quality and slow
down the lautering rate. Recycled liquor needs to be kept at
190F to prevent spoilage.
Beer Recovery from Centrifuged or Pressed Yeast. Beer from
centrifuged yeast gives an off-flavored product, even at a 0.5%
addition rate to the main beer; however, microfiltered beer
from pressed yeast is OK to use.
Whirlpool Design. Volumetric and linear tangential velocity
and height-to-diameter ratio are important design parameters.
The design offers a great opportunity to use momentum-transfer
equations.
Solids Handling
Malt Abrasion in Conveying Systems. Abrasion causes malt
dust and loose husks, which segregate in storage bins and slow
down lautering, and causes brew-to-brew variability; therefore,
low-density pneumatic systems, if used, require smooth, high
radius curves to avoid malt abrasion.
Milling of Brewers Grain for Food or Specialty Feeds (3).
Milled dried or wet grain can be screened to give a high-protein
fraction excellent for fish, poultry, or pig feed and a high-fiber
fraction excellent for human health (in low-carbohydrate diet; as
cholesterol reducer).
Optimization of Brewers Grain Dryers (3). Design and operation of dryers for low grain-exit temperature reduces air pollution and reduces protein denaturation to improve product quality.
Extraction
Optimization of Lautering for Increased Brewhouse Capacity.
Increasing extract yield without knowing what is extracted

Figure 1. Average change toward temperature equilibrium over time

during warm-up or cool-down of a pallet of bottles or cans. NR =
nonreturnable.

Chemical Engineering for Quality Brewing

may not be good for quality. Instead, cutting off lautering early
decreases time, which can increase brewhouse capacity by as
much as 10% and give a better quality wort with lower levels
of polyphenols, beta glucans, and silicates.
Continuous Lautering. Counter-current centrifugal lautering
followed by centrifugal clarification of the extract failed in the
early 1970s since the fine particles to be separated contained
about 16% lipids, which caused the density difference between
particles and wort to be too small for efficient separation. Continuous lautering only makes sense in conjunction with continuous brewing. Future use of continuous brewing is not likely
as a result of brand proliferation.

Adsorption
Operating Procedures for Activated-Carbon Water Treatment.
Hot water used in place of steam is an excellent option for economical and more uniform carbon-bed sterilization.
Optimization of Silica Gel Chillproofing. Dosage rate determinations in the laboratory are useful for determining the minimum
addition rate for each brand of beer, but good dissolved-oxygen
control is required. Zerogels require careful consideration since
they may reduce beer flow rates.
Adsorption Protocol. In-line chillproofing with adsorbents
such as polyvinylpolypyrrolidone and silica gel require batch
pretreatment or proportional dosing throughout a filter run
rather than dosing in a precoat or in a filter sheet, which can result in overadsorption.
Crystallization
Freeze Concentration of Beer. It was first studied in the
1960s to provide concentrates that would be shipped to local
distribution centers, where the product would be filtered,
brought back to desired alcohol levels, and packaged, similar
to soft drink products. Crystallization of water in the form of
round ice crystals developed in the early 1970s (1) allows lossfree separation of ice and 1520% beer concentrate. Freeze concentration development was stopped in the United States because of an unpopular labeling requirement stating reconstituted
product. In ice-beer production, freezing is only temporary
and dilution water is added back to the concentrate within the
brewery. Temporary freezing improves product physical stability.
Membrane Processes
Membrane Cross-Flow Filtration. Economic comparison of
membrane cross-flow filtration with DE filtration depends on
the cost of DE and its disposal, power costs for each system,
new installation or replacement, use of ceramic or polymeric
membranes, simultaneous chillproofing requirements, beer loss,
and fouling potential. The new process for oxidation of membrane foulants is useful (7). Caution is required because of
the potential loss of beer components with the use of membranes.
Dialysis for New Products. In dialysis, a microporous symmetric membrane is used to exchange dissolved molecules between two solutions separated by the membrane. For example,
these solutions can be two beers, beer and water, or beer and
wort. Resulting products may be an alcohol-reduced beer or a
beer with more flavor. It is useful that both product streams after treatment can be used to avoid product and disposal costs.
Nanofiltration or Reverse Osmosis. These membranes separate lower-molecular-weight solutes such as ethanol from complex solutions such as beer. Molecular-weight cutoffs are from
150 to 500 for nanofilters and less than 150 for reverse osmosis
filters. Multiple stages in combination with diafiltration with

Chemical Engineering for Quality Brewing

water can be used to make near beers. Processes are slow, and
frequent membrane cleaning is required.
Hydrophobic Membranes for Gas Absorption and Stripping.
The driving force for absorption of gases into liquids or
desorption (stripping) of dissolved gases from liquids is the difference in partial pressure between the two phases. The hydrophobic membranes are generally made of polypropylene, polysulfone, or polytetrafluoroethylene. They are usually arranged
as bundles of hollow fibers with gas on the inside of the fibers
and liquids on the outside. They have a large mass-transfer surface area per unit volume, similar to venturi ejectors and motionless mixers. Brewery applications include oxygen removal
from beer, dilution water, CO2 scrubber water, and boiler feed
water; oxygenation of wort or pitching yeast slurries (5); inline carbonation of beer or diluent; CO2 reduction from selected products; CO2 removal from acid-treated hard water or
from fermenting beer; and nitrogenation of beer (6). Advantages are prevention of in-process foaming, simultaneous reduction of dissolved oxygen while carbonating, easy process
control, and easy scale-up from laboratory to industrial modules.

Process Modeling for Quality Assurance

As mentioned in the introduction, chemical engineers use
heat and mass balances and heat-, mass-, and momentumtransfer equations to describe process steps in order to build
models for process control or to be able to predict what will
happen in the process when parameters such as temperatures,
pressures, inlet concentrations, or mixing conditions change.
An example is the model for plastic bottles that I presented at
the 2002 MBAA Convention in Austin, TX (4). That model
was able to predict the amount of oxygen that entered plastic
bottles over time and the amount of carbonation that was lost.
These changes could be calculated as a function of bottle size
and wall thickness and of bottle and closure materials of con-

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struction. External parameters included temperature and relative humidity.

In the examples below, models will be given for the heating
and cooling rates of cases of cans or bottles stacked in pallets
in a warehouse or cooler or during transportation in railcars or
trailers. These models will be expanded to predict how the accumulative effect of temperature changes will affect product
freshness over time.

Model for Individual Pallet Warm-up or Cool-down

Pallets of bottles or cans were placed in a constant-temperature
cooler, and package-skin temperatures were monitored by thermocouples over a period of 6 days. Three different package
types were monitored: 12-oz. cans (14 layers, seven cases per
layer, 24 cans per case), 12-oz. nonreturnable (NR) bottles
(nine layers, seven cases per layer, 24 bottles per case), and 7-oz.
NR bottles (seven layers, seven cases per layer, 48 bottles per
case). The thermocouples were placed in four different layers
and in three locations in each layer (outside can or bottle, and
the third and fifth can or bottle in). As expected, the outside
packages cooled down (or warmed up) the fastest, the top-layer
temperatures also changed faster than those in the bottom
layer, while the middle layers changed the slowest. After determining temperature profiles over time for each location in the
pallet, weighted average-temperature changes were calculated.
To be able to use the results for any initial temperature difference between the beer and the surrounding air, the results were
normalized as shown in Figure 1. The percent equilibrium is
determined by dividing the average pallet temperature at time t
(Tbt) minus the initial pallet temperature (Tb0) by the initial
temperature difference between the pallet and the surrounding
air (Ta0) multiplied by 100.
Tb t - Tb 0
% Equilibrium = 100
Tb 0 - Ta 0

Figure 2. Temperature of outside air and calculated average temperatures of air and beer during transportation in a railcar during cloudy weather.
Average outside temperature of 80F with no sun.

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Chemical Engineering for Quality Brewing

The results in Figure 1 show that the average-temperature

change over time is essentially independent of package type.
This is probably because the overall heat-transfer rate is controlled by thermal convection or conduction of beer inside the
packages. This was confirmed after determining that the skin
temperature on the outside of a package was almost identical to
the beer temperature inside the package. The following general
equation is a good approximation for the average cool-down
rate of palletized beer.

% Equilibrium = 100 1 - e -0.01625 t - 0.14

(1)

In this formula, the time t is expressed in hours. The same

general formula can be used for warming rates of palletized
beer as long as no condensation occurs.

Model for Warm-up or Cool-down of Pallets

in Railcars or Trailers
When palletized beer is loaded in a railcar or trailer and the
railcar or trailer is exposed to temperatures that are higher or
lower than the temperature of the beer, several modes of heat
transfer will take place simultaneously: heat is transferred by
convection from the outside air to the wall of the railcar or
trailer, from there it is conducted through the walls and its insulation to the inside wall; the inside air then transports the
heat by convection to the pallets, and warm-up of the pallets
will take place with a similar mechanism as described above.
When it is sunny, radiation will also play a significant role in
additional heating of the outside walls. When the outside temperature drops below the beer temperature, heat transfer will
go in reverse and the palletized beer will cool down. Beer in
packages on the outside of pallets and especially in the top
layer will warm up faster, but they will also cool faster. It is
therefore justified to work with the equation for average-pallettemperature change, given above. The following two differential equations need to be solved simultaneously. Equation 2 de-

scribes the overall heat transfer from the inside air to the beer
in the pallet, while Equation 3 describes the overall heat transfer from the outside air warming up or cooling down the contents of the car.
UApallet (Ti - Tb ) = Mcp pallet dTb dt

(2)

In this equation, U is the overall heat-transfer coefficient to

the pallet, A is the outside surface area of the pallet, Ti is the
average temperature of the inside air, Tb is the average beer
temperature, Mcppallet is the mass of the pallet times the average
specific heat of the pallet, and t is the time. The constant
UA/Mcppallet can be calculated by differentiating Equation 1
and was found to be 0.01625 h1.
UAcar (To - Ti ) = Mcp air dTi dt + n Mcp pallet dTb dt

(3)

In Equation 3, U is the overall heat-transfer coefficient of the

railcar or trailer, while A is its surface area, To is the temperature of the outside air, Mcpair is the mass of the inside air times
its average specific heat, and n is the number of pallets in the
railcar or trailer.
A computer spreadsheet was used to solve Equations 2 and 3
simultaneously. Three examples of model calculations are
shown in Figures 24. For these examples, a starting beer temperature of 68F was used. An average outside-air temperature
of 80F was chosen; however, the actual outside-air temperature varied from 71 to 91F. The example of Figure 2 is for the
transport of 49 pallets in a railcar during cloudy weather. The
UA factor for an insulated railcar of 200 British thermal units
(Btu)/h was used. Figure 3 is for the same railcar but in sunny
weather. To compensate for the effect of sun, outside-air temperatures were increased by up to 1F, depending on the time
of day. To check the model, two train trips from Milwaukee,
WI, to Albany, GA, were made. Thermocouples were placed at
various locations in the airspace around the pallets and in the
pallets themselves. Outside temperatures were also recorded.

Figure 3. Temperature of outside air and calculated average temperatures of air and beer during transportation in a railcar during sunny weather.
Average outside temperature of 80F with sun.

Chemical Engineering for Quality Brewing

The final mean beer temperature was within 0.3F of the mean
beer temperature predicted by the model. Figure 4 gives the
model prediction for pallet heat-up in sunny weather in an insulated trailer loaded with 22 pallets. A UA factor of 500 Btu/h
was used for this trailer. With a higher UA factor, more heat is
transferred per unit of time. Since this heat is also distributed
over a lower number of pallets, the average beer temperature
increases considerably faster during transport in trailers compared with that during transport by railcar. This can be seen by
comparing Figures 3 and 4. On the other hand, shipping by
trailer is usually considerably faster. So what mode of transportation is better for product quality? To predict the loss of product freshness during transportation or during storage in a warehouse, the heat-transfer models are combined with a model that
predicts the degree of product oxidation as a function of time
and temperature.

Model for Product Oxidation as a Function

of Time and Temperature
The detrimental effect of high temperatures on product oxidation is well-known qualitatively. At close-to-freezing temperatures, product changes are barely noticeable, even during
several months of storage, whereas at high temperatures, products can oxidize to a considerable degree within several days to
a week. By storing product isothermally at a number of different temperatures, trained sensory panels can develop freshness
curves or oxidation curves for a particular beer, as shown in
Figure 5. In Figure 5A and B, storage time units are left arbitrary, since each beer has its own oxidation characteristics
depending on the raw materials used and brewing and fermentation procedures. Methods used in brewing and packaging to
reduce oxidation will also affect the rate of quality change over
time (2). To develop these curves, it is important that the same
product is used for all temperature exposures and that the product has received the typical care in brewing and packaging to

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prevent oxidation. Since brewers are continuously learning

more about product stability (as evidenced by longer electron
paramagnetic resonance lag times, for example), new curves
may need to be developed periodically. The curve for each
temperature can usually be expressed by a mathematical equation of the form
Sensory score = c1 - c 2 e - c 3 time

(4)

In this equation, c1, c2, and c3 are constants. To find a

unique quantitative relationship between oxidation scores or
freshness and temperature, we looked at mathematical relationships that were available from time/temperature indicators.
These indicators gradually change color over time and the rate
of change is highly temperature sensitive. We found one of
these color indicators to have a temperature response very
similar to the sensory oxidation of an American lager that we
were working with about 10 years ago. The following relationship appeared to apply.
Increase in oxidation unit of time = c 4 10 0.036 Tb

(5)

In this equation, c4 is a constant and Tb is the beer temperature in F. Figure 6 gives the oxidation results predicted with
Equations 4 and 5 for an American lager beer stored isothermally at various temperatures. The vertical axis gives oxidation
units. A value of 1 indicates fresh beer; a value of 2, slightly
oxidized; a value of 3, moderately oxidized; and a value of 4,
strongly oxidized. On the horizontal axis is time in weeks.
So, what can your quality department do with this? What do
these oxidation scores mean to the consumer? It is recommended to conduct a large consumer-acceptance study with the
same beer used in the initial isothermal oxidation studies so
that consumer ratings can be obtained on the acceptability of
this particular beer at various levels of sensory oxidation. Assume, for example, that the maximum oxidation score for consumer acceptability is 2.5. Further assume that your quality de-

Figure 4. Temperature of outside air and calculated average temperatures of air and beer during transportation in a trailer during sunny weather.
Average outside temperature of 80F with sun.

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partment does not want product in the field more than 16 weeks.
From Figure 6, it can be seen that this particular beer reaches an
oxidation level of 2.5 after 16 weeks at 68F. This beer stored
at temperatures of 68F or lower can, therefore, be up to 16
weeks (112 days) old and still be acceptable to the consumer.
For this particular beer it is convenient to define 1 shelf-life
day as 1 day at 68F. From this definition and Equation 5, the
following relationships can be calculated.
1 day at 59F = 0.47 days at 68F = 0.47 shelf-life days
1 day at 68F = 1.00 days at 68F = 1.00 shelf-life days
(per definition)
1 day at 77F = 2.11 days at 68F = 2.11 shelf-life days
1 day at 86F = 4.45 days at 68F = 4.45 shelf-life days
1 day at 95F = 9.38 days at 68F = 9.38 shelf-life days
1 day at 104F = 19.77 days at 68F = 19.77 shelf-life days

Chemical Engineering for Quality Brewing

If 112 shelf-life days are available, it then follows that when

this product is stored at 59F, it will take 112/0.47 = 238 days
before the point is reached when this product becomes unacceptable to the consumer. On the other hand, when product is
stored at 95F, there are only 112/9.38 = 12 days before this
same point is reached. It can be seen that the oxidation rates
double for approximately every 9F, rather than for every 18F,
which is expected for many chemical reactions. I expect that
several reaction mechanisms must take place at once during
product oxidation.
In real life, products are not stored isothermally, but it was
found that product oxidation is accumulative. For example,
product stored for 1 month at 75F and then for 1 month at
85F reached the same final oxidation score as product stored
for 1 month at 85F, followed by 1 month at 75F, even though
the scores after 2, 4, and 6 weeks were different. When product

Figure 5. A, Changes in sensory freshness scores of beer during isothermal storage at various temperatures (T). B, Changes in sensory oxidation
scores of beer during isothermal storage at various temperatures (T).

Chemical Engineering for Quality Brewing

is stored at a higher temperature followed by storage at 32F,

the sensory scores remain virtually the same during the 32F
storage period, until the temperature is raised again.
Using the above definition of shelf-life days, the temperature
model discussed above can now be used to predict how quickly
shelf-life days are lost during storage in a warehouse or during
transportation by trailer or by railcar under a variety of weather
conditions. Figure 7 shows how quickly shelf-life days are lost
during transportation of 49 pallets in a railcar with a UA of 200
Btu/h and a starting beer temperature of 68F. Generally, railcar transport is considerably longer than truck transport and can
last up to 12 days or longer. Figure 7 shows that outside temperatures and whether it is sunny can make a difference. During sunny 86F weather, for example, 36 shelf-life days can be
lost during 12 days of transportation. This is more than onethird of its available shelf life of 112 days. Figure 8 shows the

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loss of shelf life during transport of 22 pallets in a trailer with a

UA of 500 Btu/h. Generally, trailer transport takes less than 2
days, but it can be extended if the trailer cannot be unloaded during the weekend for example. Even after 4 days, the shelf-life
loss is much less in a trailer than during the much longer trip in a
railcar in spite of the fact that warm-up in a trailer is much faster.
During hot summer weather, trailer transport would, therefore,
be preferred from a quality point of view. During cold weather,
railcar transport may be better since beer will not heat up. The
model can also be used to estimate when freezing may occur
during various weather conditions and modes of transportation.
Figure 9 shows the results obtained by the model for staging
of beer during hot 86F weather. In this example, 10 pallets of
beer are temporarily stored while they are waiting for additional pallets to complete a full shipping load. The model calculates the shelf-life days that are lost during storage on the

Figure 6. Model prediction of sensory oxidation scores of an American lager beer stored at various temperatures. Tb = average beer temperature.

Figure 7. Shelf-life days lost during 12 days of transportation in a railcar, traveling at average daily temperatures of 77 or 86F during sunny and
shady conditions.

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Chemical Engineering for Quality Brewing

Figure 8. Shelf-life days lost during 4 days of transportation in a trailer, traveling at average daily temperatures of 77 or 86F during sunny and
shady conditions.

Figure 9. Shelf-life loss during staging of 10 pallets of beer for 4 days on the warehouse floor or temporarily in a trailer or railcar at 86F. The effect of beer temperature after palletizing is also shown.

warehouse floor or in a trailer or railcar that happens to be

available for temporary storage. Figure 9 also shows the effect
of the starting beer temperature (the temperature that the beer
is palletized). When beer is pasteurized, it is cooled to a temperature above the dew point to prevent condensation, or when
beer is cold-filled, it is heated to above the dew point for the
same reason. This starting beer temperature is generally higher
during the summer when dew points are high. It is important to
keep the starting beer temperature as low as possible to reduce
the shelf-life loss, as can be seen from the results in Figure 9
for temperatures of 68, 77, and 86F. Figure 9 also shows that
when beer is staged it is best to provide some insulation, if
possible; a railcar, which is more insulated, is better than a

trailer, which in turn is better than storage on the floor, which

provides no insulation.
The best solution, of course, is to stage product in temperature-controlled brewery warehouses or to ship all packaged
product immediately and quickly to temperature-controlled regional warehouses. The quality prediction model can quantify
the improvement in product quality as a result of temperaturecontrolled warehousing and use the results to justify its costs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank my colleagues of Schlitz and Miller Brewing

Companies for assisting me with many of my projects and for helping

Chemical Engineering for Quality Brewing

me understand many of the principles of brewing and the importance

of product quality. I would also like to thank the management of these
companies as well as the MBAA for allowing me to present some of
my learnings and findings at MBAA conventions and at MBAA short
courses. There is no better way to really get to understand a subject than
to present it to colleagues in your own discipline. I would like to encourage management of all brewing companies and suppliers to have
their technical specialists publish, present, and teach as much as possible.
REFERENCES
1. Huige, N. J. (1972). Nucleation and growth of ice crystals from water
and sugar solutions in continuous stirred tank crystallizers. Ph.D. thesis. Technical University of Eindhoven, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
2. Huige, N. J. (1992). Progress in beer oxidation control. In: Beer and
Wine Production. ACS Symp. Ser. 536, pp. 64-97. B. H. Gump, Ed.
American Chemical Society, Washington, DC.

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3. Huige, N. J. (1995). Brewery by-products and effluents. In: Handbook

of Brewing, pp. 501-550. W. A. Hardwick, Ed. Marcel Dekker, Inc.,
New York.
4. Huige, N. J. (2002). Evaluating barrier-enhancing and scavenger technologies for plastic beer bottles. Tech. Q. Master Brew. Assoc. Am.
39:218-230.
5. Huige, N. J., Tata, M., Fehring, J. F., Barney, M. C., Ryder, D. S., and
Navarro, A. (2002). Method of oxygenating yeast slurry using hydrophobic polymeric membranes. WO patent 02/28995 A1.
6. Huige, N. J., Tata, M., Fehring, J. F., Barney, M. C., Ryder, D. S.,
and Navarro, A. (2002). Method of removing carbon dioxide from
fermenting medium using a polymeric membrane. WO patent
02/28994 A1.
7. van Hoof, C. J. M., Noordman, T., Berghuis, O., Mol, M., Peet, C.,
and Broens, L. (2000). Membrane filtration for bright beer, an alternative to kieselguhr. Tech. Q. Master Brew. Assoc. Am. 37:273276.