Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Prepared by:
Xiao Ming Hu
Student Number
HXXXIA001
October 2014
Submitted to the Department of Electrical Engineering at the University of Cape Town in partial
fulfilment of the academic requirements for a Bachelor of Science degree in Electrical Engineering
Declaration
1. I know that plagiarism is wrong. Plagiarism is to use another's work and pretend that it is one's
own.
2. I have used the IEEE convention for citation and referencing. Each contribution to, and quotation
in, this final year project report from the work(s) of other people, has been attributed and has
been cited and referenced.
3. This final year project report is my own work. I have not allowed, and will not allow, anyone to
copy my work with the intention of passing it off as their own work or part thereof.
Name:
Signature:
Xiao Ming Hu
Date:
16 October 2014
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Terms of reference
At the beginning of the project, Professor M.A. Khan instructed the researcher to achieve the
following objectives:
Perform a literature review concerning the possible topologies of power converters used for
interfacing a high speed permanent magnet generator to the grid.
The researcher must choose a suitable topology of power converters for implementation
based on the literature review.
Choose appropriate control and switching strategy for interfacing the permanent magnet
generator to the grid.
Choose and design the grid filter to be used.
Derive a mathematical model for the permanent magnet synchronous generator.
Implement the control strategy with the grid filter and the derived generator model in
Matlab/Simulink.
Perform analysis on the results obtained from the simulation for the viability and efficiency
of the implemented control strategy.
Determine the efficiency of the designed filter with respect to total harmonic distortion in
the grid current.
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Acknowledgements
First and foremost I would like to thank my immediate family who is overseas for providing me with
guidance and support throughout my best and darkest moments.
I would like to thank and extend my sincere appreciation to the following individuals and groups of
people who guided me through the process of completing and submitting my thesis:
My supervisor, Dr. Azeem Khan for providing guidance and constantly pushing me to try
harder and complete the project.
Mrs. Shireen Sabodien for organizing meetings with my supervisor and keeping me on track
with general administration.
Post Graduate students Chetan Gajjar and Chris De Beer for helping me with my simulations.
Sarah Jane Newnham for setting time aside to proof read my thesis and correcting all
grammatical errors.
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Abstract
Due to increasing power demands, the development of distributed power generation plants using
Micro-turbines has been fast growing in recent years. High-speed machines are typically used for
such applications, as they have the advantage of generating high-density power with reduced size.
However, they come with problems, such as higher loss density and cooling difficulties. The high
frequency AC output power of the high-speed generator needs to be converted into the AC power,
with constant frequency and constant voltage before power transmission at the grid side can take
place. This frequency conversion between the machine and the grid can be accomplished by
implementing appropriate power electronic converter topologies that are properly controlled.
The objective of this thesis is to develop a Matlab/Simulink-based system for interfacing the highspeed generator with the grid. The system will serve as a tool for studying the machine and grid
behavior during load variations.
The main emphasis of the work presented in this thesis is the understanding of the fundamental
concepts developed in the past for similar high-speed generator systems. Furthermore, a step-bystep approach used for designing a model suitable for simulation of such systems is demonstrated.
The machine under analysis is a surface mounted permanent magnet generator, which is connected
to the grid through an AC-DC-AC converter and an LCL filter. A mathematical model for the PM
machine, suitable for simulations, was developed for implementing the appropriate control scheme.
Vector control algorithm along with SVPWM switching strategies, are implemented on both the
machine-side and the grid-side. The LCL filter design is based on a systematic algorithm adapted
from past literatures. The controllers are designed using modulus optimum and symmetrical
optimum tuning techniques, along with approximated transfer functions derived from system
models. Further analysis and alteration was conducted on the controllers using Matlab/Sisotool for
improved performance.
Simulation for the designed system shows the correct operations of the control strategy and good
filter performance. The results from the simulation confirm the feasibility of the proposed design
structure.
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Table of Contents
Declaration ............................................................................................................................................... i
Terms of reference.................................................................................................................................. ii
Acknowledgements................................................................................................................................ iii
Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. iv
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... v
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................................... xi
Nomenclature ....................................................................................................................................... xii
Chapter 1 - Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background to the study ............................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Objectives of this study ................................................................................................................. 1
1.2.1 Problems to be investigated .................................................................................................. 1
1.2.2 Purpose of the study .............................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Scope and limitations .................................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Plan of development ..................................................................................................................... 2
Chapter 2 - Literature review .................................................................................................................. 3
2.1 Permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSM) ................................................................... 3
2.2 Converter topologies for micro-turbine generator....................................................................... 3
2.3 Machine-side control .................................................................................................................... 5
2.4 Grid-side control ........................................................................................................................... 6
2.5 Grid filter ....................................................................................................................................... 6
2.6 Modulation (switching) scheme ................................................................................................... 7
Chapter 3 - Theory development ............................................................................................................ 8
3.1 Reference frame theory ................................................................................................................ 8
3.1.1 Stationary reference frame ( frame/Clarke transformation) ............................................ 8
3.1.2 Synchronous reference frame (dq frame/Parke transform).................................................. 9
3.1.3 Reference frame theory application .................................................................................... 10
3.2 Machine model ........................................................................................................................... 10
3.2.1 Electrical equations of PMSG ............................................................................................... 10
3.2.2 Mechanical equations of PMSG ........................................................................................... 11
3.2.3 Block diagram model for PMSG ........................................................................................... 12
3.3 Vector control ............................................................................................................................. 12
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List of Figures
Figure 3.1 Adapted from Relationship of stator current space vector and stator phase currents........ 8
Figure 3.2 Adapted from [31] Relationship of current space vector components in stationary and
rotating reference frames ....................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 3.3 Block diagram of a permanent magnet synchronous machine ........................................... 12
Figure 3.4 Extracted from [13] Field Oriented Control Schematic Block .............................................. 13
Figure 3.5 Adapted from [16] Voltage oriented control for grid-tied inverter ..................................... 14
Figure 3.6 Adapted from [2] Phasor relationship between machine stator current and Torque angle
using CTA............................................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 3.7 Adapted from [2] Diagram of vectors and vector angles using UPF .................................... 15
Figure 3.8 Grid side voltage and current space phasor diagram .......................................................... 17
Figure 3.9 General Control loop............................................................................................................ 17
Figure 3.10 Extracted from [37] Three-phase-two-level-full-bridge voltage source inverter .............. 19
Figure 3.11 State space hexagon resulting from SVPWM .................................................................... 20
Figure 3.12 Frequency response of L, LC and LCL filters ....................................................................... 22
Figure 3.13 Extracted from [38] Series resistor damped LCL filter ....................................................... 22
Figure 3.14 Series resistor Damped LCL filter with varying resistor values .......................................... 23
Figure 4.1 Extracted from [41] Generalized structure of PLL for grid applications .............................. 24
Figure 4.2 Extracted from [20] LCL filter circuit .................................................................................... 25
Figure 4.3 Extracted from [20] Single phase LCL model in s-plane ....................................................... 26
Figure 4.4 Relationship between attenuation and r ............................................................................. 27
Figure 4.5 Bode plot of LCL filter........................................................................................................... 28
Figure 4.6 Bode plot of LCL filter after damping ................................................................................... 29
Figure 4.7 Extracted from [20] Grid voltage phasors............................................................................ 30
Figure 4.8 Extracted from [41] DC link circuit of AC-DC-AC converter ................................................. 30
Figure 5.1 Adapted from [2] Machine-side full controller structure .................................................... 31
Figure 5.2 Q-axis current control loop .................................................................................................. 32
Figure 5.3 Root locus plot for the current controller............................................................................ 33
Figure 5.4 Open loop bode plot for the current controller .................................................................. 34
Figure 5.5 Step response of the current loop ....................................................................................... 34
Figure 5.6 Improved current loop step response ................................................................................. 35
Figure 5.7 Speed control loop for the PMSG ........................................................................................ 35
Figure 5.8 Closed loop response comparison between actual current loop and approximated current
loop ....................................................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 5.9 Root locus plot for the speed controller .............................................................................. 37
Figure 5.10 Bode plot for the speed control loop ................................................................................. 38
Figure 5.11 Closed loop step response of the designed speed control loop ........................................ 38
Figure 5.12 Adapted from [20] Grid-side controller structure ............................................................. 39
Figure 5.13 Grid-side current loop ........................................................................................................ 39
Figure 5.14 Modulated sine wave input for the filter ........................................................................... 40
Figure 5.15 Comparison of filter response to an input at 50 Hz ........................................................... 40
Figure 5.16 Comparison of filter response to an input at 1000 Hz ....................................................... 41
Figure 5.17 Root locus plot for the grid-side current control loop ....................................................... 42
Figure 5.18 Open loop bode plot for the grid-side current control loop.............................................. 42
Figure 5.19 Step response of the designed grid-side current loop....................................................... 43
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List of Tables
Table 3.1 Switching states of a 3-phase inverter implementing SVPWM ............................................ 20
Table 4.1 System Rated Parameters ..................................................................................................... 27
Table 4.2 Calculated filter parameters ................................................................................................. 29
Table 6.1 Machine parameters used for the simulation....................................................................... 56
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Nomenclature
PMSM
IPMSM
SPMSM
MTG
IGBT
PCS
V/HZ
FOC
DTC
PMSG
SVPWM
PLL
VOC
DPC
VSC
SPWM
THD
CTA
UPF
CSF
MTPA
MIMO
SISO
da, db, dc
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Chapter 1 - Introduction
1.1 Background to the study
Accelerating commercialization of distributed resources has brought up the development of microturbine generators (MTG) as a viable technology to implement distributed power generation. An
MTG is usually a high-speed rotating machine that is capable of generating high-efficiency power on
the scale of kilowatts [1]. These electrical machines usually come in the form of synchronous
machines that have applications ranging from high power to low power [2]. Within this class of
machines, Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines (PMSM) are especially suited for distributed
generation systems. The main advantage of a PMSM is its reduced size and higher density power
generation capabilities.
The increase in efficiency from using high-speed machines also introduces a proportional increase in
its grid connection complexity. A Highly efficient power conversion system is needed to convert the
high-frequency AC output power from the machine to the low-frequency AC power compatible with
the grid. The power conversion system usually consists of power electronic converters with
controllable switches, such as an Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT). These converters are
commanded by appropriate control and switching strategies in order to achieve efficient frequency
transformation between AC energy sources. They also have the responsibility to monitor the
operating conditions on both the machine and grid side.
MTG systems, together with a well-developed power conversion strategy, will realize all the benefits
of implementing high-speed machines and avoid negative impacts on system reliability and safety.
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only presented the models time-domain dynamics while no stability analysis was done. This makes
the study inherently inaccurate with respect to industrial applications.
The diode bridge rectifier is commonly used in industry for the three-phase system described in [5].
However, the quality of output using such rectifiers is poor. The main problem is the significant
amount of harmonics and hence reactive power generated on the AC side. These poor quality power
output results in voltage distortion, poor power factor at power supply side and slowly varying
rippled DC output at DC side. This problem is investigated in [8] where an efficiency comparison was
analyzed between two IGBT-based power converter systems (PCS) for connecting an MTG to a grid.
The MTG in [8] was a two-pole machine, operating at 5000 rpm that generated three-phase AC
voltage at 400-900Hz and power up to 175KW. The PCS is responsible for converting the high
frequency generator output voltage to the gird voltage at 480V 60Hz. One PCS topology involved a
diode rectifier as well as a boost DC-to-DC converter and a PWM inverter while the other one
contained an active rectifier and a PWM inverter. Based on the dynamic simulation results in [8] for
the studied MTG, the PCS using the topology with an active rectifier and an inverter shows better
operating efficiency under heavy load conditions. These results are applicable to a MTG system with
higher operating speed as long as the frequency does not exceed the maximum switching frequency
of the power semiconductors used in the PCS.
The MTG models considered in [5] and [8] uses unidirectional converters for grid interfacing. In
reality, the micro-turbine does not have the ability to self-start [4]. Power is needed to operate the
PMSG as a motor for the startup of the turbine. Hence the converter design must have mechanism
put in place for the starting period of the MTG [9]. One way would be connecting an extra inversion
stage to the PMSG. However, a converter topology proposed in [6] offers bi-directional active power
flow without the extra inversion stage. This topology consists of two back-to-back active converters,
each controlled properly so that the generated energy was exchanged with the grid system under
unity displacement factor. The studied MTG model in [6] uses a two-pole PMSG with non-salient
rotor that operates at 1600 Hz, the machine output power is 30 kW and the terminal line-to-line
voltage is 480 V. The grid is represented by a balanced three-phase source, 480 V line-to-line, 60 Hz
frequency, having an internal per-phase impedance of 0.4 ohms resistance and 2 mH inductance.
Simulations performed in [6] provide good insight for operations of the MTG during its steady-state
and transient period. Comparing the converter topology used in [5] and [8] to the one used in [6], it
can be realized that for bi-directional converters the control requirement is much more
sophisticated.
In paper [10] [1] [11] alternative AC-AC converters were discussed. Studies in [10] [1] are based on
matrix converters and a high-frequency cyclone-converter was developed in [11]. In [10], a review
was conducted on developing AC-AC matrix converters by Fuji Electric. The paper discussed the
principle of an AC-AC matrix converter and its associated advantages when comparing to
conventional AC-DC-AC converters. The advantages include the realization of motor regeneration by
the matrix converter with almost no input current harmonics, reduction in size due to the
elimination of a filter capacitor or reactor, and reduced power loss. New technology, such as reverse
blocking IGBT, protection, and control, was discussed in [10] as these technologies have direct
implications on overcoming matrix converter practical limitations. Another AC-AC matrix converter
model, to interface a high-speed MTG connected to a utility grid, was presented in [1]. Specifics such
as switching strategy and control mechanism were shown. The simulation of the MTG system,
4|Page
including the dynamic models of the MTG, generator, matrix converter, converter control, and MTG
control were performed on computer software for dynamic behavior analysis. The simulation results
in [1] showed the viability of using AC-AC matrix converters for interfacing MTG to the grid.
However, as the matrix converter is a recently developed concept, it has limitations that are not yet
solved. The construction of a matrix converter requires many more semiconductors than a
conventional AC-DC-AC converter. Furthermore, the switches require bi-directional capabilities
which must be realized by appropriated arrangements of semiconductor devices. A matrix converter
also requires very complex control schemes and its maximum output voltage cannot exceed 83
percent of its input voltage. From the above mentioned published papers, it is realized that the backto-back full bridge converter offers a full range of control options and is by far the most well
developed AC-AC converter as yet. For this project, control strategies for this type of converter are
explored.
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Different control techniques can be embedded in the vector control scheme to efficiently operate
the generator and hence reduce losses [16]. Different control techniques were discussed in [17] and
[4]. The most frequently used control techniques covered in literatures are constant torque angle,
constant stator flux, unity power factor and maximum torque per ampere control. The constant
torque angle method keeps the angle of torque produced by the machine at a constant value; it is
most suited for a surface mounted PMSM [17]. The constant stator flux method has superior steady
state performances; however torque capability of the machine is limited due to limitation on the
stator flux [17]. The unity power factor method keeps the stator voltage and current in phase to
minimize the volt-ampere rating, but the machine efficiency is reduced [18]. Maximum torque per
ampere method is the most complex control technique; it uses the machine reluctance torque to
maximize the torque-per-ampere ratio, this control method is most suited for interior magnet PMSM
control [19].
and passive damping losses must be carefully analyzed before designing the filter. In [16], [20] and
[24] the grid side inductance of the filter is lumped together with the grid impedance, this is correct;
however they should be separated for accurate grid voltage acquisition.
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Figure 3.1 Adapted from Relationship of stator current space vector and stator phase currents
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The transformation from the abc frame to frame and vice versa is done by using Clarke/Inverse
Clarke transforms:
[ ]
[ ]
[
][ ]
[ ]
(2)
(3)
Figure 3.2 Adapted from [31] Relationship of current space vector components in stationary and rotating reference
frames
The transformation from frame to dq frame and vice versa is done by using Parke /Inverse Parke
transforms:
[ ]
][ ]
(5)
[ ]
][ ]
(6)
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and
. They are
induced in the d and q-axis coils as a result of the rate of change of the total flux linking the
respective coils. The rotational emfs account for the remainder of the induced voltage terms in (7)
and (8). They are induced as a result of the relative movement between the stationary three-phase
stator winding and the total d and q-axes fluxes.
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result of the tendency for two magnetic fields to align. The field produced by the permanent
magnets tends to align with the field due to the current in the rotating q-axis coil, thus producing a
field alignment torque on the rotor. The reluctance torque is produced as a result of the differences
in reluctance between the d and q-axis flux paths. For surface mounted PMSG,
, hence the
electromagnetic torque is directly proportional to .
The electromagnetic torque can also be expressed in terms of its relationship with input mechanical
torque , electrical speed , rotor inertia and the viscous friction coefficient
.
(
(13)
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It can be seen that the machine has inherent cross coupling due to the
and
terms.
Based on the above mathematical model, a Simulink model of the PMSG is derived. The Schematic
diagram of the model is shown in Appendix B figure.10.2, 10.3 and 10.4.
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Figure 3.4 Extracted from [13] Field Oriented Control Schematic Block
From figure.3.4 it can be seen that the output of the speed loop PI controller provides the reference
value for the q-axis current control loop. Using FOC strategy there are a few requirements. The
acquisition of the three-phase stator currents and the rotor position are required. This brings about
the need for sensors that will accurately measure the necessary quantities. The permanent magnet
flux
is fixed on the rotor d-axis hence its position can be obtained by measuring the speed of the
rotor. The rotor position is obtained by integrating the rotor speed . The stator currents
are transformed to the
by Clarke transformation, then applying Park transform with
are
obtained for the current feedback loop. The outputs of the two PI current controllers are the dq-axis
reference voltages
. The converter switching is directly commanded by
. Various control
techniques can be embedded within the vector control algorithm for optimal machine performance;
these techniques are discussed in section 3.3.3 below.
3.3.2 Voltage oriented control for grid-tied converter
The control for the grid-tied converter is similar to the control for the PMSG. Detailed
implementation was discussed in literature [33, 20, 6, 16]. The voltage oriented control consists of
three PI controllers just like the field oriented control, however, the outer loop regulates the DC link
voltage instead of speed hence the name voltage oriented. The grid phase voltage angle is
acquired by a phase locked loop (PLL); this angle is corrected (if out of phase) and used for abc to dq
transformation of the grid currents and voltage. This allows the grid voltage to be phase locked to
the grid-converter currents. The DC link voltage is fed back to the outer loop PI controller; together
with the reference DC link voltage the outer loop provides the d-axis current reference. Same as field
oriented control, the output of the dq-axis current PI controllers is used as reference voltages for the
switching of the grid-tied converter. In Figure.3.5, an overview of voltage oriented control for the
grid-tied converter is shown.
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Figure 3.5 Adapted from [16] Voltage oriented control for grid-tied inverter
The control technique that can be embedded in the grid-side vector control is discussed in section
3.3.4 below.
3.3.3 Control techniques for FOC
There are various control techniques that can be used with FOC. These techniques have different
advantages and disadvantages, which result in varying machine performance. For a PMSG the most
important control techniques used are constant torque angle, unity power factor, constant stator
flux control and maximum torque per ampere control. This section briefly presents the above
mentioned control techniques based on the discussion of different control properties in [2].
3.3.3.a) Constant torque angle (CTA)
This method keeps the torque angle constant at 90 where the torque angle is defined as the angle
between the stator current space vector and the rotor d-axis. The phasor relationship between
machine stator current and torque angle using CTA is shown in figure.3.6 below.
Figure 3.6 Adapted from [2] Phasor relationship between machine stator current and Torque angle using CTA
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Figure 3.7 Adapted from [2] Diagram of vectors and vector angles using UPF
From figure.3.7, since is kept at 0, then the stator current space vector is in quadrature with the
stator flux linkage space vector . This leads to the current expressions [2]:
| |
| |
| |
| |
(15)
(16)
Where is the angle of stator flux linkage vector. Using the above equations the unity power factor
expression is found as:
(17)
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(18)
Constant stator flux control has the best steady state performance characteristic compared to the
other control techniques shown above. However, the torque capability is limited as a result of
limitation on the stator flux linkage.
3.3.3.d) Maximum torque per ampere control (MTPA)
This is the most complex method from the above mentioned control techniques. The reluctance
torque is used to maximize the torque-to-ampere ratio hence the efficiency of the motor can be
increased. The following equations are taken from [2] which determine the reference dq-axis current
values for the current control loops:
(
(
)
)
(19)
(20)
The advantage for the MTPA strategy is the usage of reluctance torque. Since in an interior
permanent magnet machine
is smaller than
, this results in non-zero reluctance torque
component for equation (20). Thus MTPA is suitable for controlling the IPMSM.
MTPA can be used for SPMSM in a way similar to the constant torque angle control technique. Since
and
are equal for a SPMSM, this means the electromagnetic torque is directly proportional to
the q-axis current as defined by equation (14). The maximum torque per ampere condition will be
satisfied when:
(21)
This can be achieved by forcing the d-axis current to 0 hence the stator current equals to the q-axis
current.
3.3.4 Control technique for voltage oriented control
Control for the grid side should be focused on the active and reactive power flow from DC link to the
grid. The unity power factor (UPF) control technique discussed in 3.2.3.b) can be used to ensure
efficient active power monitoring by the grid-tied inverter. UPF for the grid side control differs to the
same technique used for the machine side in such a way that the d-axis of the synchronous rotating
frame is aligned with the grid voltage space phasor as shown in figure.3.8 below.
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Figure 3.8 Grid side voltage and current space phasor diagram
From figure.3.8, it can be seen that UPF can be achieved if = 0, thus the q-axis component of the
grid current must be set to zero to satisfy the UPF condition.
3.3.5 PI controller tuning techniques
The PI controllers used in the vector control are tuned using two commonly used techniques
described in literature [34, 4] for similar systems.
3.3.5.a) Modulus Optimum
Figure.3.9 below shows a general control system loop.
Modulus Optimum method tunes the parameter of controllers so that the following rules are
complied with [16]:
1.
2.
Following the above two rules, the magnitude of the closed loop transfer function will equal to 1
from a frequency of zero to as high a frequency as possible. Note
is the closed loop transfer
function of the system in Figure.3.9. The method starts with realizing the order of the closed loop
transfer function of the system. Then it is compared to the modulus optimum equation of the same
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order to solve for the controller values. For the purpose of this project, only second and third order
modulus optimum transfer functions are needed [16]:
(22)
)(
(23)
is the time constant of the feedback control system designed by this control method.
3.3.5.b) Symmetrical Optimum
The general equation of symmetrical optimum design procedure is presented below:
(24)
represent the number of controller parameters that can be adjusted. Since a PI controller has two
adjustable parameters, equation (24) can be used to derive the following equations:
(25)
(26)
Equation (25) and (26) can be modified to achieve maximum phase margin, this is done by Preitl and
Precup in [35]:
(27)
(28)
The variable should be set between 4 and 16. If smaller than 4 the systems phase margin will be
too small. If is set to larger than 16 the systems phase margin will be too large. In [36], the
characteristic equation was derived using the fact that a value of 9 results in one real pole and
two which form a conjugate pair:
(
(29)
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[26].
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From table.3.1 we can see there are 6 active switching states (001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110) and two
non-active switching states (000, 111). The switching states and reference voltage can be
transformed into switching vectors and space voltage vector in frame by using Clarke
transformation. The resulting vector diagram is a hexagon in frame shown in figure.3.11 below.
The idea of SVPWM is to approximate the reference voltage vector by applying time-averaged
adjacent switching vectors. The maximum line-to-line voltage output of the inverter commanded by
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SVPWM is
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Figure.3.12 shows that for the same filter inductance and capacitance, LCL filter has superior
attenuation characteristics at low and high frequencies compared to L and LC-type filters. This
means high frequency harmonics of the inverter output can be easily filtered out by the LCL filter.
However, since LCL filter is a third order system, this means there will be a resonant peak in the
transfer function [40]. This can be seen both from figure.3.11 and the transfer function of the LCL
filter. To damp the large gain at the resonant frequency a resistor can be added in series with the
filter capacitor, this is known as passive damping [24]. Figure.3.13 below shows the circuit of a
damped LCL-filter.
Figure 3.13 Extracted from [38] Series resistor damped LCL filter
From figure.3.13 the transfer function for a series resistor damped LCL filter was derived in [38] as:
(34)
Resonant frequency of an LCL filter is defined as [16]:
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(35)
Figure.3.14 below shows the effect of a damping resistor, with various values, on the frequency
response of the LCL filter. The resistor values are percentages of the capacitor impedance at the
resonant frequency. The filter inductance values and capacitance values are the same as used for the
different filter frequency response analysis.
Figure 3.14 Series resistor Damped LCL filter with varying resistor values
From Figure.3.14 it can be seen that by adding a damping resistor in series with the filter capacitor,
the resonant peak is eliminated. The system is more damped with increasing value of the series
resistor. Due consideration must be given for choosing the resistor value as increasing resistance
means increasing power losses in the filter. In general a rule of thumb for choosing the resistor value
was discussed in [16] where:
(36)
Equation (36) is justified by figure.3.14, as for a damping resistance at thirty percent of the resonant
capacitance; the system shows superior magnitude response.
The design procedure for a LCL filter is derived from [24] which mainly constitute the calculations for
the filter component parameter to guarantee system stability. It is assumed that the current ripple is
caused primarily by the dominant harmonic at the switching frequency. The actual design procedure
is presented in the filter design section of Chapter 4.
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Chapter 4 - Modelling
The models of relevant system components with their governing mathematical equations are
presented in this chapter. These models are needed to provide the necessary information and
knowledge for the controller design. Furthermore, some of the models will be implemented in
Simulink for the machine side system. This is due to the reason that the PMSG model was built using
the standard Simulink library, blocks from the Simpowersystems library do not interface well with
the standard Simulink library. Hence components used for the machine-side simulation must be built
using the standard Simulink library based on mathematical equations. The model of the PMSG was
presented in Chapter 3, so it will not be included in this chapter.
Figure 4.1 Extracted from [41] Generalized structure of PLL for grid applications
For the structure shown in figure.4.1, it can be seen that in order to implement PLL a pair of
orthogonal voltage vectors are required. For a three-phase system, these voltage vectors can be
easily acquired by transforming the grid abc voltage to its
equivalents using the Clarke
transformation. Using a simple inverse tangent function the phase angle can be determined from
the
components of the grid voltage. However, when the input voltage frequency is varied,
stationery error may occur in the detected angle. This can be compensated using a simple PI
controller with the reference for the phase angle set to 0. The output of the PI controller is the
frequency of the grid voltage. The voltage controlled oscillator usually is implemented as an
integrator in power system applications. The output of the VCO will be the grid voltage phase angle
and fed back to the abc to
transformation. Using the above theory, a model of PLL was
developed in Simulink. The PI controller parameters and a Simulink schematic diagram of the model
for the PLL are shown in Appendix A figure.10.1.
voltage. Consider the three-phase inverter shown in figure.3.10, the signals applied to switches S1,
S3 and S5 are da, db and dc respectively. These signals are binary variables of magnitude 1 or 0, this
means that three switches one per each leg of the inverter will be on at each switching instant. The
inverter output leg voltage with respect to the negative dc bus can be defined by equation (37) [20]:
{
(37)
Consider the inverter in figure.3.10 the output line voltages of the inverter have the expression:
{
(38)
The voltage between the inverter phase and the centre star point of the three-phase filter capacitors
is defined by equation (39) [20]:
(39)
Using equation (37 39), inverter phase voltages are derived in equation (40):
(40)
Since the converter used is a voltage source, current output on the AC side will be dependent on the
inverter voltage and the grid load configuration. The DC side current can be calculated as a function
of phase currents and switches configuration in equation (41) [20]:
(41)
Based on the above equations, a Simulink model for the voltage source converter was derived and
the schematic diagram is shown in Appendix C figure.10.5.
25 | P a g e
(42)
(
Equation set (42) can be modelled using block diagram shown in figure.4.3 below.
Figure 4.3 Extracted from [20] Single phase LCL model in s-plane
The transfer function was determined in equation (34), for convenience it is presented again below.
Note the parasitic resistance for the inverter and grid side inductors are neglected for independent
filter modeling, however, it must be considered when designing the controller. These resistances can
be lumped together with inverter and grid impedances as they are connected in series.
)|
(44)
Using the above limitations, the following procedure is implemented for the filter design with the
parameters of the system shown in Table.4.1:
26 | P a g e
Parameter
Base values:
Value
380V
5.5kW
7.86A
5kHz
50Hz
700V
Filter capacitance:
Applying limitation 2, 5% of system rating is applied to the filter capacitance to limit the
reactive power absorbed by the filter.
To choose appropriate values for the filter inductances, limitation 4 must be applied.
is
first chosen to be
. Equation (44) is then plotted using Matlab. The result is shown in
Figure.4.4 below to show the relationship between attenuation and .
27 | P a g e
From figure.4.4 The value of is chosen to be 1.2 so that the attenuation at switching
frequency is approximately 0.06. Hence the resulting value for
smaller than
. Checking with
.
which is
(45)
The bode plot for the designed filter is plotted using Matlab and presented in Figure.4.5
below.
It can be seen that the resonant frequency is at 1598 Hz which corresponds to the calculated
value of 1597.85 Hz. The resonant frequency adheres to limitation 3. As discussed in chapter
3 a large resonant peak can be observed from figure.4.5, this will be eliminated by a passive
damping resistor connected in series with the filter capacitor.
Using the general rule for damping resistor selection, the resistance value is chosen to be
30% of the capacitor reactance at resonant frequency. That is:
.
The bode plot for the designed LCL filter after the addition of the damping resistor is shown
in figure.4.6 below.
28 | P a g e
Table.4.2 below shows all the calculated parameters for the designed filter.
Table 4.2 Calculated filter parameters
Parameter
Value
26.25
0.0836 mH
121.2606 F
8.36 mH
6.063 F
3 mH
1.2
3.6 mH
1597.85 Hz
5.476
0.1
0.12
29 | P a g e
The loop equation for the circuit presented in figure.4.8 above can be written as:
(48)
30 | P a g e
The transfer function of the PI controllers used has the following form:
(49)
31 | P a g e
Since the machine is decoupled by the control algorithm, d and q-axis current loops will have
identical responses. Using the maximum torque per ampere method the d-axis current is set to 0.
This means the electromagnetic torque produced by the machine is purely dependent on the q-axis
current. Hence only the q-axis current controller needs to be tuned. Based on the electrical part of
the PMSG model presented in chapter 3, the machine transfer function can be expressed as:
(50)
The transfer function for the machine can thus be expressed as:
and
(51)
The converter and sampling delay can be modelled as simple first order transfer functions with time
constants that represent their statistical average delay [4].
(52)
(53)
The closed loop transfer function of the current control loop is:
To simplify the transfer function, we know that the zero of the PI controller is used to cancel the
slowest pole of the transfer function, this means the time constant of the machine
= . The
converter time constant
and sampling time constant
can be lumped together as a new time
constant .
32 | P a g e
(54)
{
Using machine parameters for the simulation, switching frequency of 5 kHz and sampling frequency
of 10 kHz, the parameter for the PI controller was determined:
Using Matlab/Sisotool, the designed controller was simulated with the above designed controller
parameter. The system was discretized using the zero order hold method and simulated in z-domain.
The open-loop root locus and bode plot are shown below in figure.5.3 and figure.5.4.
33 | P a g e
Figure 5.4 Open loop bode plot for the current controller
From figure.5.3 it can be seen that the closed loop poles lie on the 0.707 damping trace. This
validates the designed controller and indicates that the system is stable. Figure.5.4 shows the
current loop has a gain margin of 17.2 and a phase margin of 63.5 thus further indicate the stability
of the loop. A step test is performed on the current loop; the result is shown in figure.5.5 below.
Figure.5.5 shows that for a step test, the current loop system has a settling time of 1.2 ms and a
4.07% overshoot. This dynamic behavior is within acceptable range. However, it can be improved.
Using Matlab/Sisotool, the parameters of the PI controller was altered, the new values are:
34 | P a g e
The step response of the improved current loop is shown in figure.5.6 below.
From figure.5.6, it can be seen no overshoot is present and the settling time was reduced to 1.1 ms.
5.1.2 Speed controller
The structure of the speed controller is presented in figure.5.7, which includes the mechanical part
of the PMSG and the current control loop.
The transfer function for the PI controller and sampling delay is the same as presented in equation
(12) and (13). Base on the mechanical part of the PMSG model presented in chapter 3, the transfer
function of the machine and can be expressed as:
(55)
(56)
The closed loop transfer function of the current loop must be derived in order to simplify the speed
control loop. In [16], an easy way for deriving the current loop transfer function was discussed
35 | P a g e
where the author approximated it by a delay of three times the sampling time. Thus the
approximated transfer function for the current loop is:
(57)
To check the validity of the approximated current loop transfer function, the closed loop response of
the actual current loop and the approximated current loop was compared. Result from the
comparison is presented in figure.5.8 below.
Figure 5.8 Closed loop response comparison between actual current loop and approximated current loop
Figure.5.8 shows that the approximated response is very close to the actual current loop response,
even though the transfer function is much less complex.
The open loop transfer function for the speed loop is presented by equation (58) below.
(58)
The following approximations are valid near the vicinity of crossover frequency [4]:
Let
, the closed loop transfer function of the speed loop is derived as:
(60)
36 | P a g e
From the above comparison, setting the damping ration as 0.707, the following equations are
derived for calculating the PI controller gain parameters:
(61)
(
(
(62)
(63)
(64)
Using equation (61-64), the gain parameters for the speed PI controller are calculated and presented
below:
Using Matlab/Sisotool, the designed controller was simulated with the above designed controller
parameter. The system was discretized using the zero order hold method and simulated in z-domain.
The open-loop root locus and bode plot are shown below in figure.5.9 and figure.5.10.
37 | P a g e
From figure.5.9 it can be seen that the closed loop poles lie on the 0.707 damping trace. This
validates the designed controller and indicates that the system is stable. Figure.5.10 shows the
speed loop has a gain margin of 22.8 and a phase margin of 60.4 thus further indicate the stability of
the loop. A step test is performed on the speed loop; the result is shown in figure.5.11 below.
Figure 5.11 Closed loop step response of the designed speed control loop
Figure.5.11 shows that for a step test, the speed loop system has a settling time of 35 ms and a
10.03% overshoot. This dynamic behavior is within acceptable range. The parameter gains were
altered in Matlab/Sisotool for system response improvement; however it is realized that the system
is already at optimum condition hence the designed parameters were left as is.
38 | P a g e
From figure.5.13, it can be seen that all the transfer functions can be presented by equation (52),
(53) and (49) with the addition of
can be derived from the filter model presented in chapter
4. Due to the complex nature of the filter model, a method for simplifying the transfer function was
found in [16], the transfer function of the filter was approximated by ignoring the filter capacitance
for low frequencies (i.e. 50Hz) giving the new equation:
(
(65)
39 | P a g e
Note and
are the inverter-side and grid-side inductor parasitic resistance. As mentioned in the
filter design section from chapter 4, these resistances must be included in the control design as they
affect the system dynamic behavior. To validate this approximation, a sine wave was modulated as
the input for both the actual filter and approximated filter transfer function, the output was then
compared. The frequency of the input was set as 50 Hz then 1000 Hz. Figure.5.14, 5.15 and 5.16
shows the modulated sine wave, comparison of filter response at 50 Hz and 1000 Hz.
40 | P a g e
From figure.5.15 and 5.16, it can be seen that the approximation for the LCL filter transfer function is
indeed valid for low frequency input.
Using the same tuning method for the machine-side current controller, adding the time constant of
the converter delay and the sampling delay i.e.
, the following equations are used to
tune the grid-side current controller:
(66)
{
Using the set of equations (66) and the LCL filter parameter from table.4.2, the gain parameters are
listed below:
The designed controller gain was replaced by a new set of gains; this is the result of using the actual
LCL filter transfer function. The designed gain parameters were used for the actual LCL filter and
displayed a significant amount of oscillation. Thus the gain was altered to improve the system
dynamics. The new set of gain parameters are listed below:
41 | P a g e
Using Matlab/Sisotool, the designed controller was simulated with the above designed controller
parameter. The system was discretized using the zero order hold method and simulated in z-domain.
The open-loop root locus and bode plot are shown below in figure.5.17 and figure.5.18.
Figure 5.17 Root locus plot for the grid-side current control loop
Figure 5.18 Open loop bode plot for the grid-side current control loop
From figure.5.18, it shows that the current loop has a gain margin of 9,62 and a phase margin of 77.1
thus indicating the system is stable. A step test was done for the grid-side current loop, figure.5.19
below presents the result:
42 | P a g e
Figure.5.19 shows that the step response of the grid-side current loop has a settling time of 2ms and
no overshoot. This displays good system response.
5.2.2 DC-link voltage controller
The structure of the voltage controller is presented in figure.5.20, which includes the transfer
function of the dc-link capacitor.
The transfer function for the current loop is again approximated using the same method for the
machine-side speed loop controller design. The transfer function for the capacitor can be derived
from the model of the capacitor presented in chapter 4 as:
(67)
The open loop transfer function for the voltage loop is presented by equation (68) below.
(68)
43 | P a g e
The following approximations are valid near the vicinity of crossover frequency [4]:
Let
, the closed loop transfer function of the speed loop is derived as:
(70)
From the above comparison, setting the damping ration as 0.707, the following equations are
derived for calculating the PI controller gain parameters:
(71)
(
(
)
)
(72)
(73)
(74)
Using equation (71-74), the gain parameters for the speed PI controller are calculated and presented
below:
Using Matlab/Sisotool, the designed controller was simulated with the above designed controller
parameter. The system was discretized using the zero order hold method and simulated in z-domain.
The open-loop root locus and bode plot are shown below in figure.5.21 and figure.5.22.
44 | P a g e
From figure.5.21 it can be seen that the closed loop poles lie on the 0.707 damping trace. This
validates the designed controller and indicates that the system is stable. Figure.5.22 shows the
voltage loop has a gain margin of 25 and a phase margin of 66.5 thus further indicate the stability of
the loop. A step test is performed on the voltage loop; the result is shown in figure.5.23 below.
45 | P a g e
Figure 5.23 Closed loop step response of the designed voltage control loop
Figure.5.23 shows that for a step test, the voltage loop system has a settling time of 150 ms and a
5.81% overshoot. This dynamic behavior is within acceptable range. The parameter gains were
altered in Matlab/Sisotool for system response improvement; however it is realized that the system
is already at optimum condition hence the designed parameters were left as is.
46 | P a g e
47 | P a g e
48 | P a g e
From the above results it can be seen that although the responses of both model settle at identical
points, however the derived model displays much more oscillation at stepped point and during the
machine starting period. This is due to the fact that governor control is implemented internally for
the Simulink PMSM model. The oscillation in the derived model response can be eliminated by
implementing the vector control algorithm. Note the rotor angle for the derived model was
modulated for convenient data reading. The above figures shows the motoring operation of the
PMSM, in order to verify full effectiveness of the derived machine model, the same simulation was
performed again with the input mechanical torque being a negative step (-1 N.m). Figure.6.5 below
presents the verification results for the PMSM generating operation.
Figure.6.5 shows that the developed electromagnetic torque is negative, this is indeed correct since
power flow from the rotor to the stator hence current is in the negative direction (positive direction
chosen to be from stator to rotor). From the above results, the derived model can be concluded as
fit for simulation purposes.
49 | P a g e
It can be seen that the machine side dc current and grid side dc current must remain constant in
order to keep the dc link voltage fixed. An increase in the supplied current will cause an increase in
the dc link voltage. The grid side control monitors the dc link voltage and increases the grid side
current by altering the d-axis current component hence the amount of real power delivered to the
grid. This section presents results obtained from independent simulations for the grid side so as to
demonstrate the concept discussed above.
The DC-link voltage is set at 700V, as discussed in [42] that for a PWM voltage source converter, the
DC-link voltage must be higher than the DC-link voltage produced by a diode rectifier under the
same operating conditions. The DC-link capacitor is chosen to be 1000 F for good DC current ripple
rejection. The simulation for the grid side is decoupled from the machine side by supplying the DC
link with a constant DC current source. Step tests are performed separately first for the current and
voltage control loops to verify the controller gains calculated in section 5.2. A schematic diagram of
the independent grid-side simulation is shown in the Appendix F figure.10.8.
6.2.1 Current Step response of the grid side converter
For the current step response, the current source and the capacitor are replaced by a constant DC
voltage source so that the voltage control loop can be neglected. The d-axis current reference is
provided by a step input. The simulation is run from t = 0s to t = 0.5s. The reference current is first
stepped to 5 A at t = 0.15s, then stepped down to 3 A at t = 0.3s. Figure.6.6 and 6.7 below shows the
current step response of the grid side control loop during actual simulation.
50 | P a g e
Figure.6.6 shows that the d and q-axis currents follow the reference values closely; the noise
observed is caused by the converter switching operation. Figure.6.7 is a zoomed in version of
figure.6.6, as can be seen the settling time of the current loop step response is approximately 2.5ms
with slight overshoot. This complies closely to the results obtained from the grid-side controller
design section in chapter 5. The difference in overshoot and settling time can be explained as the
result of using approximated model transfer functions when the controllers were designed.
6.2.2 Voltage step response of the grid-side converter
For the voltage control loop, the constant DC voltage source is replaced by a capacitor (initial voltage
set at 700 V) and a controlled current source. The supply current and the reference voltage are
provided by step inputs. The simulation runs from t = 0s to t = 1s. In order to observe the voltage
step response, the supply current was kept at 0A. The reference voltage was stepped up from 800V
at t = 0.3s and then stepped down to 750V at t = 0.6s. Figure.6.8 below shows the voltage step
response for the grid-side converter during actual simulation.
51 | P a g e
Figure.6.8 shows that the DC voltage follows the reference voltage closely; the settling time is
approximately 110ms with no overshoot. These results comply closely to the results obtained from
the grid-side voltage controller design section in chapter 5.
6.2.3 DC link control in relation with active/reactive power flow to the grid
The grid-side converters main purpose is to keep the DC link voltage constant as input power varies.
This is achieved due to the control of the d-axis component of the grid current. As the input power
to the DC link is increased or decreased, the d-axis current is increased or decreased by the
controller. Since UPF is implemented and hence q-axis current is kept at zero, the output power to
the grid is directly controlled by the d-axis current. For this project only balanced grid condition is
considered and no reactive power compensation is implemented, thus reactive power supplied to
the grid is kept at 0 throughout the simulation process. The input power is simulated using the signal
builder block in Simulink, the DC-link current input is provided by the division between input power
and DC-link voltage since:
The simulation was performed for the time period between t = 0s and t = 1s. The input power was
stepped at t = 0s, t = 0.3s and t = 0.6s. Figure.6.9 below shows the input power and calculated input
DC-link current.
The simulation results of the grid behaviour for input power variation presented above are shown
below in figure.6.10 to 6.14.
52 | P a g e
Figure 6.10 Comparison between grid active/reactive power and input DC link power
Figure.6.10 presents the grid active/reactive power response to varying DC link input power. The
grid powers are calculated using equations (45) and (46). It can be seen that the actual grid active
power tracks very well the reference input power. The reactive power is fixed at 0Var since the qaxis current is forced to be 0. Figure.6.11 below shows the dq-axis currents behaviour as input power
is varied.
From figure.6.11 it is clear that the d-axis current is being varied as a function of error measured
between the reference DC-link voltage and actual DC-link voltage, as illustrated in figure.5.13 at t =
0.3s and again at t = 0.6s.In return the changing d-axis current counteracts the effect induced on the
DC-link voltage by the varying input DC-link current. The q-axis current is fixed at zero as expected.
The corresponding measured DC-link voltage variation is shown in figure.6.12 below.
53 | P a g e
Figure.6.12 very clearly shows that as the DC-link current input was increased at t = 0s and t = 0.3s,
the DC-link voltage is trying also to increase. The voltage controller tracks the error and provides the
corresponding d-axis current reference in order to bring the DC-link voltage back down to its set
value. At t = 0.6s the input DC-link current is decreased, hence the DC link voltage shows a dip as it
tries to decrease with the decreasing input power. Figure.6.13 below shows the actual grid currents
and voltage behaviour for the varying power input to the grid.
Figure 6.13 Grid currents and voltage behaviour for varying grid input power
54 | P a g e
Figure.6.13 shows how the d-axis current is used to control the grid current. Since q-axis current is
fixed at zero, the grid current varies as a function of d-axis current. It can be seen from figure.6.13
and 6.11 that the amplitude of the three-phase grid currents corresponds to the d-axis current
magnitude. It is also noted that the grid voltage do not change since the grid is modelled as a threephase balanced voltage supply. Note the grid voltage presented in figure.6.13 is the phase voltage.
In order to observe the effectiveness of the implemented UPF control, single phase voltage and
current of phase A is compared in figure.6.14 below.
Figure.6.14 shows the phase A grid voltage and current are in phase hence the UPF condition is
satisfied. It is also noticeable that the control implemented keeps the currents in phase with voltage
even when the input power to the grid is increased or decreased.
55 | P a g e
Stator resistance
Stator inductance
Pole pairs
Inertia
Permanent magnet flux linkage
Rated speed
Rated voltage
12.5 m
0.165 mH
2
0.011
0.2388
20000 rpm
56 | P a g e
Figure.6.15 shows that the d and q-axis current follows its reference current closely. There is a slight
dip in the d-axis current during the transient period of the q-axis current. This is due to the dip in
speed of the machine when applied shaft torque is varied. This idea will be elaborated in a later
section. Figure.6.16 is a zoomed in version of figure.6.15, as can be seen the settling time of the
current loop step response is approximately 1.2ms with slight overshoot. This complies closely to the
results obtained from the machine-side current controller design section in chapter 5.
6.3.2 Speed step response of the machine-side converter
For the speed control loop, the input reference value for the q-axis current loop is provided by the
outer speed loop. The reference value for the speed loop is provided by a step input. The output
speed of the machine is now fed back to the outer speed control loop and the torque is kept
57 | P a g e
constant. Note the reference value for the speed loop is provided in electrical terms governed by the
equation:
This is due to the way the mathematical model of the machine was setup. Figure.6.17 below
presents the result obtained from the step test for the machine-side speed loop. The simulation runs
from t = 0s to t = 1s. The machine speed set-point was stepped at t = 0s to half rated speed i.e.
10000rpm then it was stepped at t = 0.5s to rated speed i.e. 20000rpm.
Figure.6.17 shows the machine speed loop step response, the speed measurement was presented in
both electrical and mechanical form, as well as in revolutions per minute form. Observing the
58 | P a g e
measurements, the machine model again shows good accuracy. The actual speed of the machine
tracks the reference speed very well. Figure.6.18 is a zoomed in version of figure.6.17, it shows step
response has a settling time of approximately 40ms and an overshoot approximately 15.3%. This
complies closely to the results obtained from the machine-side speed controller design section in
chapter 5.
6.3.3 Speed control in relation to applied shaft torque due to load demand variation
The main purpose of the machine-side converter is to keep the operating speed of the machine at a
constant set point regardless of the applied shaft torque. Since the PMSG will be connected to a
micro-turbine, the amount of power produced by the mechanical torque is directly related to the
grid load demand. Referring back to equation (13) that is:
(
If
then the speed of the machine will increase. The difference between the
electromagnetic torque and the applied mechanical torque is known as the acceleration torque.
Note if the difference is negative then the machine will decelerate. The speed control is
implemented in conjunction with current control in such a way that if the applied mechanical torque
was increased, the q-axis current will increase accordingly governed by equation (7) that is:
Since maximum torque per amperes method is implemented, d-axis current is kept at 0. By
controlling the q-axis current, the electromagnetic torque will be increased or decreased to counter
the change in the applied mechanical torque hence keeping the speed constant. The friction and
windage losses of the machine were neglected in the model. Hence torque differences only occur
during transient periods of the q-axis current. The simulation for this section uses grid load power
demand and a speed set-point as inputs. The output is the speed of the machine and power
generated by the machine-induced electromagnetic torque. The simulations are first performed with
the machine running at rated speed, then the speed was stepped down to half rated speed and the
same load power requirement was applied. Figure.6.19 below shows the reference power demand
and required torque at rated speed.
59 | P a g e
Figure 6.19 Required power and torque from the machine at rated speed
The input and output power of the machine is related to the torque by the following equation:
The required load power is divided by the reference speed of the machine to determine how much
torque must be applied. Using the above presented torque values as the input for the system at
rated speed, results obtained from the simulation for the machine at rated speed are presented in
Figure.6.20 to 6.26 below. The simulation runs from t = 0s to t = 3s with input power and torque
steps at t = 0s, t = 1s and t = 2s as shown in figure.6.20.
Figure 6.20 Torque response to the load demand variation at rated speed
60 | P a g e
Figure.6.20, 6.21 and 6.22 illustrates the relationship between q-axis current and speed of the
machine during input torque variations. At t = 1s, input torque step causes the electromagnetic
torque produced to increase and eventually settle at the same value as the input torque. Since
is
bigger than
the machine decelerates causing the speed dip at t = 1s shown in figure.6.21. The
speed control loop calculates the error between the decreased speed and the reference speed
hence providing the reference value for the q-axis current. The q-axis current is increased in order to
increase
so as to eliminate the deceleration caused by torque imbalance and hence bringing the
speed back to the reference value. At t = 2s, input torque was decreased causing a reversal effect
compared to the input step at t = 1s. The rotor axis current component remains at zero throughout
as expected since MTPA control was implemented. This means the stator current of the machine will
only be dependent on the q-axis current i.e. q-axis current value equal to the amplitude of the stator
current as shown in figure.6.23 below. The stator voltage stays constant with the generator speed
also shown in figure.6.23.
61 | P a g e
The frequency of the output stator voltage and currents are governed by the equation:
From figure.6.23, it can be seen that the frequency of the three-phase stator voltage and current is
666.67 Hz. This frequency can be obtained using the above equation as well. The frequency
validation shows that the derived mathematical model of the machine is fully capable of handling
high speed operations. Since the machine is running at rated speed thus 666.67 Hz is the rated
output frequency of the machine. Since the friction and windage losses of the machine are
neglected, the only losses should be due to the internal impedance of the machine; this is shown in
figure.6.24 below as the output power is compared to the input power.
62 | P a g e
Figure 6.24 Output power response compared to the reference input power at rated speed
Note the turbine connected to the generator is not within the scope of this project, it is assumed
that the turbine has an instantaneous response to load variations. Using the ratio between the input
and output power shown in figure.6.24, an approximation for the efficiency of the designed
machine-side system at rated speed to be 95%.
The above simulations are then repeated for half rated machine speed. The same analysis will not be
presented again, only relevant information with respect to the effect of varying the machine speed
will be extracted and analysed. As speed of the machine was decreased, to generate the same
amount of power, the mechanical torque input required from the microturbine will be increased.
The new set of input torque with the same power demand is shown in figure.6.25 below.
Figure 6.25 Torque and power demand for half rated machine speed
63 | P a g e
Figure.6.25 shows that the power input remains the same, however, the corresponding torque
demand has doubled as compared to the torque demand for the machine at rated speed. This
results in the stator current to increase and the stator voltage to decrease. The results are shown in
figure.6.26 below.
Figure 6.26 Stator current and voltage and half rated machine speed
From figure.6.26 it can be seen low speed operation of the PMSG is undesirable as the current
produced for the same amount of power output is much greater at lower machine speed. This
implies much more losses during machine operation.
6.3.4 DC-link voltage variation with respect to machine torque variation
As discussed in section 6.2 with the grid-side simulation, as current from the machine side varies due
to varying load demand, the dc link voltage will vary accordingly until the current from machine side
is balanced with the current flowing into the grid-side. This section demonstrates the DC-link voltage
variation from the machine-side perspective. The simulation was performed using a resistor
connected to the terminal of the DC-link to dissipate the power generated by the machine. This is for
the reason that during the simulation it was found that the capacitor will charge up infinitely due to
the constant current input from the rectifier. The resistor is modelled as a constant impedance load.
The simulation runs from t = 0s to t = 4s. The DC-link capacitor was assumed to be initially charged at
700V. At t = 1s, a resistor of 100 is connected to the terminals of the DC-link capacitor. Figure.6.27
below shows the shaft torque variation.
64 | P a g e
Figure.6.27 shows that the shaft torque of the machine was stepped from -6 N.m to -8 N.m at t = 1s,
then decreased to -5 N.m at t = 2s. An increase in the shaft torque will cause the DC-link current to
increase and a decrease in shaft torque will cause the DC-link current to decrease. This causes an
imbalance in the DC-link currents. As the resistor side current tries to balance the generator side
current, the DC-link voltage will either increase or decrease. The resulting DC-link voltage variations
as well as the DC-link currents are shown in figure.6.28 and 6.29 below.
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Figure.6.28 and 6.29 shows that as the generator side current increases, the resistor side current
raises so as to keeping the DC-link current in equilibrium. During the transient period of the currents,
the DC-link voltage is increasing due to the capacitor charging. When the generator side current
became balanced with the resistor side current at t = 1.6s, DC-link voltage stopped increasing and
remained constant. When the currents started decreasing at t = 2s, the same principle applies.
However, the capacitor is now discharging hence the reduction in DC-link voltage. These variations in
the DC-link voltage is regulated by the grid-side control as shown in section 6.2.
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Figure 6.30 Applied torque to the machine for the complete system
As the input torque for the machine varies the current flowing into the DC-link increases as shown in
figure.6.31 below. The DC-link voltage will try to decrease at t = 0s and t = 1s and increase at t = 3s.
This voltage variation will be regulated by the grid-side voltage control loop as can be seen in
figure.6.32. Note the DC-link current is filtered for ease of presentation.
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From figure.6.32 it can be seen that the voltage is regulated at 700V by the grid-side voltage control.
The active and reactive power flow from the machine to the grid is shown in figure.6.33 below
where the power produced by the machine-side is compared to the power into the grid. The reactive
power is kept at 0 since UPF is implemented.
From figure.6.33, by comparing the input machine-side power and the output grid-side power, the
efficiency for the complete system is determined to be approximately 95.6%. The losses are mainly
due to the switching of the converters as well as filter and grid impedances. One of the main
purposes of the AC to AC converter is to change the frequency of the generator output voltage and
currents to the grid fundamental frequency. Figure.6.34 and 6.35 below shows the frequency
transformation by comparing the machine output voltage and current waveforms to the resulting
grid voltage and current waveforms.
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Comparing the voltage and current waveforms from figure.6.34 and figure.6.35, it can be seen that
the machine-side waveform frequency is 666.67 HZ and the grid-side waveform frequency is 50 Hz
which is the grid fundamental frequency. Hence it can be concluded that the high frequency output
of the machine is effectively transformed to the fundamental frequency required for grid operations.
6.4.1 Back-to-Back Power flow
The chosen converter topology is a back-to-back PWM voltage source converter. As discussed in the
literature review, this topology allows power to flow from grid side during machine start-up
operation. Since the converter is a voltage source that means the reversal of the power flow is a
result of current reversal. The back-to-back power flow operation is illustrated in this section as a
comparison to the previous section where the power is flowing from generator to the grid. The same
amount of torque was applied to the generator model; however, positive this time which means the
machine is operating in motoring mode. Figure.6.36 and 6.37 shows the machine and grid-side
voltage and current waveforms during the inverse operation of the complete system.
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By observing figure.6.36 and 6.37 then comparing them to figure.6.34 and 6.35, it can be seen that
during machine generating mode, the currents are in anti-phase with the voltage indicating the
power is flowing from the generator to the grid. During machine motoring mode, the power is
flowing from the grid to the machine side since the current is in phase with the voltage as can be
seen from figure.6.36 and 6.37. Figure.6.38 below shows the DC-link voltage is kept positive as
mentioned earlier that the power flow reversal is dependent only on the current reversal.
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Comparing figure.6.38 to figure.6.32 it can be seen that the DC-link voltage dips and rises are
opposite during machine generating and motoring mode. This is expected since the current is
flowing in the opposite direction during both operating modes.
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By comparing figure.6.40 and 6.39, it can be seen that the THD content of the grid-side current
before filtering is 30.27% and the THD content of the grid-side current after filtering is 1.70%. From
the FFT analysis it can be seen that harmonics at higher frequencies are almost completely
eliminated by the LCL filter, this is expected since these kind of filter are known to have superior high
frequency attenuation. The corresponding current waveforms are shown in figure.6.41 and 6.42
below.
From figure.6.41 and 6.42, it can be seen clearly that the current waveforms after filtering has much
less harmonics than the current waveforms before filtering. Since the grid current after filtering has
a THD of 1.70% which is within the 5% THD limit, it can be concluded that the designed filter is
effective for the system under analysis.
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Chapter 7 - Conclusions
The goal of this project was to design a system that will effectively interface a high speed PMSG to
the grid by converting the high frequency output of the generator to the grid fundamental
frequency. Suitable control and switching strategy must be chosen based on the literature review
conducted on the possible converter topologies for such high speed application. Furthermore, a grid
filter must be chosen based on efficiency with respect to harmonic attenuation. A model of the
PMSG must be derived for implementing the chosen control strategy. The entire system must be
properly designed and implemented in simulation to verify the accuracy and effectiveness of the
designed system. From the analytical and simulated results obtained throughout this thesis certain
conclusions can be drawn. These are discussed in this section.
7.4.2 Design and simulation of the system with control algorithm implemented
The Controllers are designed based on the models derived for the machine and grid-side systems.
Theoretical system responses with designed controllers were obtained using Matlab/Sisotool. These
controllers are first tested independently in simulation on the machine and grid-side system. System
response results from actual simulations were compared to the theoretical system responses and it
can be concluded that the designed controllers are suitable for application. Minor differences did
occur due to approximations used during the design phase. The machine-side and grid-side were
connected for the simulation of the complete system. Results show that the designed controller was
able to regulate the speed of the machine and the DC-link voltage. The high frequency output of the
generator was converted to the grid fundamental frequency.
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Chapter 8 - Recommendations
Based on the above conclusions, the following recommendations are made.
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Texas, 1998.
[15] Y. Zhao, W. Qiao and L. Qu, "A space-vector modulated sensorless direct-torque control for
direct-drive PMSG wind turbines," in Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, Las Vegas,
2012.
[16] J. G. d. l. Bat, "Development of a System for Testing Grid-Connected Permanent Magnet Wind
Generators," Cape Town, 2011.
[17] A. Opritescu, "Control of a saturated permanent magnet synchronous motor," AALBORG
University, AALBORG, 2010.
[18] M. Moussa, A. Helal, Y. Gaber and H. Youssef, "Unity Power Factor control of permanent
magnet motor drive system," in Power System Conference, Middle-East, 2008.
[19] A. Consoli, G. Scarcella, G. Scelba, S. Sindoni and A. Testa, "Steady-State and Transient Analysis
of Maximum Torque per Ampere Control for IPMSMs," Industry Applications Society Annual
Meeting, vol. vol., no. no., pp. pp. 1, 5-9, 2008.
[20] G. A. Raducu, "Control of Grid Side inverter in a B2B Configuration for WT Applications," Master
Thesis, Aalborg University , Aalborg, 2008.
[21] R. Marouani and A. Mami, "Voltage Oriented Control Applied to a Grid Connected Photovoltaic
System with Maximum Power Point Tracking Technique," American Journal of Applied Sciences,
vol. vol.7, no. no.8, pp. pg.1168-1173, 2010.
[22] K. P. Rao, D. S. Sao and D. J. Subrahmanyam, "Development of a Grid Connected Inverter for
Solar PV Systems with Energy Capture Improvement Based on Current Control Strategy,"
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, vol. vol.3, no. no.4, p. pg., 2013.
[23] I. H. G. V. M. Surprenant, "Phase locked loop control of inverters in a microgrid," Proc. IEEE
EnergyConvers, vol. vol.9, no. no.4, pp. pp.667-672, 2011.
[24] F. Blaabjerg and S. H. M. Liserre, "Design and Control of an LCL-Filter_based Three-phase Active
Rectifier," IEEE Transactions On Industry Applications, vol. vol.41, no. no.5, p. pg., 2005.
[25] S. A. M., "Wavelet modulated DC-AC power inverters," Memorial University of Newfoundland,
2007.
[26] A. Tatu, P. Kapil, V. Patel and J. Patel, "Review of modulation schemes for loss analysis in
inverters," in Nirma University International Conference, Nirma, 2012.
[27] H. Hussin, A. Saparon, M. Muhamad and M. D. Risin, "Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation Design
and Implementation by Focusing on Reducing Harmonic Content," in Mathematical/Analytical
Modelling and Computer Simulation, Asia, 2010.
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[28] J. Holtz, "Pulse width Modulation - A Survey," IEEE Transactions On Industrial Electronics, vol.
vol. 39, no. no. 5, 2010.
[29] K. Michal and P. Krzysztof, "Analysis Of Pulse Width Modulation Techniques For AC/DC Line-Side
Converters," University of Technology Studies and Materials, 2006.
[30] M. A. Boost and P. D. Ziogas, "State-of-the-Art Carrier PWM techniques: A critiacal Evaluation,"
IEEE transactions on Industry Applications , vol. vol. 24, no. no. 2, pp. pp. 271-280, 1988.
[31] A. Devices, "Reference Frame Conversions," Analog Devices Inc, 2002.
[32] T. Instruments, "Digital Signal Processing Solution for Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor,"
Texas Instruments Incorporated, Texas, 1997.
[33] Haoran, "Study of PWM Rectifier/Inverter for a High Speed Generator Power System," in Power
and Energy Engineering Conference (APPEEC), Asia-Pacific, 2010.
[34] M. Liserre, P. Rodriquez and R. Teodorescu, "Grid Converters for photovoltaic and Wind Power
systems," 2011.
[35] R.-E. Precup and S. Preitl, "An extension of tuning relations after symmetrical optimum method
for PI and PID controllers," Automatica, pp. pp. 1731-1736, 1999.
[36] M. Braae and M. Machaba, "Explicit Damping Factor Specification in Symmetrical Optimum
Tuning of PI Controllers," 03 09 2014. [Online]. Available:
http://www.nt.ntnu.no/users/skoge/prost/proceedings/afcon03/Papers/050.pdf. [Accessed 03
09 2014].
[37] Mohan, Undeland and Robbins, Power Electronics - Converters, Applications and Design, New
Jersey: JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., 1989.
[38] D. Lee, "Design Methodology of an LCL filter for Grid Connected Inverter Applications," Thesis
project, UCT, Cape Town, 2011.
[39] X. M. Zha, Y. Zhou, S. Duan and F. Liu, "Design and Research on Parameter of LCL filter in ThreePhase Grid-Connected Inverter," in Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference, 2009.
[40] F. Blaabjberg and S. H. M. Liserre, "Design and Control of an LCL-Filter based Three-phase Active
Rectifier," IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. vol. 41, no. no. 5, 2005.
[41] A. D. H. P. S. F. B. Florin Iov, "Wind Turbine Blockset in Matlab/Simulink," Aalborg University,
Denmark, 2004.
[42] J. Rodriguez, J. Dixon, J. Espinoza, J. Pontt and P. Lezana, "PWM regenerative rectifiers: state of
the art," Industrial Electronics, vol. 52, no. no.1, pp. 5 - 22, 2005.
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Chapter 10 Appendices
10.1 Appendix A: PLL Model
The model for the PLL implemented in Matlab/Simulink is presented in Figure.10.1 below.
The derivation for the PI controller parameters for the PLL is shown in this section. The transfer
function for the PLL consists of the PI controller and an integrator:
The closed loop transfer function of the PLL can be derived as:
The requirements for the PLL are 5% overshoot, settling time within 2% band and the damping ratio
is 0.7071. The restriction imposed on the natural frequency is thus
where
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][
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10.8 Appendix H: Simulink schematic for the complete system with full
control strategy implemented
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Xiao Ming Hu
If a Student:
Degree:
YES
BSc in Electrical
Engineering
Department:
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Supervisor:
there is no apparent legal objection to the nature or the method of research; and
the research will not compromise staff or students or the other responsibilities of the University;
the stated objective will be achieved, and the findings will have a high degree of validity;
the findings could be subject to peer review and publicly available; and
I will comply with the conventions of copyright and avoid any practice that would constitute plagiarism.
Signed by:
Full name and signature
Date
Principal Researcher/Student:
16 October 2014
Xiao Ming Hu
16 October 2014
Professor M.A. Khan
16 October 2014
Janine Buxey
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NO
NO
NO
NO