MATH1013

University Mathematics II

Dr. Yat-Ming Chan

Department of Mathematics
The University of Hong Kong

First Semester 2012-13

Content Outline
1. Pre-Calculus Topics
Functions and Graphs, Composite and Inverse Functions, Limits and Continuity
2. Single Variable Calculus
Dierentiability, Mean Value Theorem, Implicit Dierentiation, LHopitals rule,
Maxima and Minima, Curve Sketching, Calculus of Trigonometric, Exponential
and Logarithmic functions, Taylor approximation, The Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus, Techniques of Integraton, Improper Integrals
3. Matrices and Vectors
Matrices and their operations, Determinants, Vectors
4. Complex Numbers
The Algebra of Complex Numbers, Polar Form, De Moivres Theorem
5. Dierential Equations
First Order Ordinary Dierential Equations, Separable Equations, Linear Equations
Reference Books
Main Reference
1. Class lecture notes This course will follow closely with the lecture notes which
can be downloaded from the course website. You are expected to have the relevant
notes during the lectures.
2. George B. Thomas, Maurice D. Weir and Joel Hass, Thomas Calculus, 12th edition,
Addison Wesley
Suggested Readings
1. Martin Anthony, Norman Biggs, Mathematics for Economics and Finance: Methods
and Modelling, Cambridge University Press (1996)
2. Raymond A. Barnett, Michael R. Ziegler, Calculus for business, economics, life
sciences, and social sciences, Prentice Hall
3. Adrian Banner, The Calculus Lifesaver: All the Tools You Need to Excel at Calculus,
Princeton University Press (2007)

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Chapter 1. Preliminary Set Theory

(Please read this chapter yourself.)
This preliminary chapter provides a brief introduction to set theory. It also sets up the necessary
notations and conventions for later chapters.

1.1. Set notation

One of the most fundamental concepts in modern mathematics is the theory of sets. A set is a
collection of objects defined in a precise way such that any given object is either in or not in the set.
Sets are conventionally denoted by capital letters.
To define a set, we may either use any of the following methods:
Word description
For example, let S be the set of currencies used in England, France, U.S.A. and Japan.
Listing
Elements of a set are listed within a pair of braces. Note that the ordering of elements within the
braces does not matter.
For example, S := { Pound, Euro, Dollar, Yen }.
Set-builder notation

For example,
S := {x : x is the currencies used in England, France, U.S.A. and Japan.}
Example 1.1 Represent the set A = {x : x2

4 = 0} by listing.

Solution. It is a set containing the elements 2 and

2, that is, A = {2, 2}.

Example 1.2 Represent the set S of all positive integers less than 6 by listing and by set-builder
notation.
Solution. The set S can be expressed as S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, or
S = {x : x is an integer and 0 < x < 6}.

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Definition 1.3 An object of a set is called an element of the set. If x is an element of a set S, then
we write x 2 S. The Greek symbol 2 means belongs to. If x is NOT an element of S, then we write
x2
/ S.
Example 1.4 Given S = {1, 2, 5, a, b}, then 2 is an element of S. So 2 2 S. But c is not an element
of S, so c 2
/ S.
Definition 1.5 A set containing no element is called an empty set, which is denoted by ; or { }.
Example 1.6 Denote A by the set of prime numbers greater than 23 and less than 29. Then A = ;
as 24, 25, 26, 27 and 28 are not prime numbers.

We shall denote the set of all natural numbers, integers, rational numbers, real numbers and complex numbers by N1 , Z, Q, R and C respectively. Set notation is very useful for specifying a particular
interval of real numbers.
Interval notation
If a and b are real numbers with a < b, then
1. (a, 1) := {x 2 R : a < x}.
2. ( 1, a) := {x 2 R : x < a}.

1. The set of a<infinity such that equals to the

element of x. A real number that is larger than a.

3. [a, 1) := {x 2 R : a x}.
4. (a, b) := {x 2 R : a < x < b}.
Similarly, we can define ( 1, a], [a, b), (a, b] and [a, b]. These sets are called intervals. Intervals of
the type (a, b) are called open intervals and the endpoints are excluded in the set. Intervals of the type
[a, b] are called closed intervals and the endpoints are included in the set. Intervals using both square
and round brackets are called half-closed intervals or half-open intervals.

Example 1.7 The set

can be written as ( 1, 4].

{x 2 R :

1 < x 4}

Example 1.8 Find the sets of (real) solutions, or simply solution sets, of (i) 2x + 3 = 0,
x2 + 2x 3 = 0 and (iii) x2 + 1 = 0.
Solution. (i) { 3/2}, (ii) { 3, 1} and (iii) ;.
1 We

shall not treat 0 as a natural number in this course.

(ii)
2

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Example 1.9 Find the solution sets of (i) 2x + 3 < 0, (ii) x2 + 2x

x2 + 1 < 0.

3 0, (iii) x2 + 1

Solution. (i) ( 1, 3/2), (ii) [ 3, 1], (iii) R and (iv) ;.

0 and (iv)
2

We use the notation R2 for the set of ordered pairs (x, y) of real numbers. Thus elements in R2
are of the form (x, y) where x, y 2 R, and the set R2 is usually represented by the coordinate plane
with x and y being the coordinates of a point with respect to a pair of axes.
Example 1.10 In economics, there is a simple mathematical model describing the supply and demand
model. This model is concerned with the relationships between the price p per unit of the good, the
the quantity q of it on the market. We usually take the horizontal axis as the q-axis and the vertical
axis as the p-axis. For example, the demand set consists of points (q, p) 2 R2 where q is the quantity
which would be sold at the selling price p.

Example 1.11 Let S = {(x, y) 2 R2 : y = 2x + 3}. Try to illustrate the points of S in the coordinate
plane R2 . This is the concept of drawing the graph of y = 2x + 3. We will discuss this in details in
Chapter 2. Does the graph help you to find out the answer in Example 1.9 (i)? Try to do the same
thing for other parts in Example 1.9.
Subsets
Definition 1.12 Let A and B be sets. If every element of A is an element of B,
x2A

=)

x 2 B,

then A is a subset of B. We write also A B.

This definition can be reworded by saying that A is a subset of B if there are no elements of A that
are not also elements of B. If A is NOT a subset of B, then we write A 6 B.
Example 1.13 {1} {1, 2, a, b} and {1, 2} {1, 2, a, b}, but {1, 2, 3} 6 {1, 2, a, b}.
Example 1.14
(i) { 7, 4, 11} 6 {x : x is an odd integer}.

1 29
(ii) 3, ,
Q.
7 9
Example 1.15 The open interval (0, 1) is a subset of [0, 1), so (0, 1) [0, 1).
(0, 1) (0, 1], (0, 1) [0, 1]. But (0, 1] 6 [0, 1).

We also have

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1.2. Universal set and Venn diagram

Definition 1.16 A universal set, denoted by U , is a set that contains all the elements being considered
in a certain investigation.
The universal set can change from problem to problem. Any set can be a universal set, as long as
you are studying that particular set. For example, if you are studying real numbers, then the set R will
be the universal set and you can treat R as the universe and study everything inside.

Definition 1.17 Let A be a subset of the universal set U . Then the complement of A, denoted by
Ac , is the set
Ac := {x 2 U : x 2
/ A} .
Example 1.18 Given that U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Then
Ac = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} .
The Venn diagram is a visual tool to investigate relations among subsets of a universal set.
The universal set U is represented by the region enclosed by a rectangle (or other shape you like).
Each subset of U is represented by a region inside the rectangle enclosed by a circle (or other
shape you like).
The region inside the rectangle but outside the circle is then representing Ac .

Example 1.19 We may represent the sets U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} by a
Venn diagram.

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1.3. Review of Set Operations

(i) Union of sets
Definition 1.20 Let A and B be sets. Then the union of A and B, denoted by A [ B, is the set
A [ B := {x : x 2 A or x 2 B}.
(ii) Intersection of sets
Definition 1.21 Let A and B be sets. Then intersection of A and B, denoted by A \ B, is the set
A \ B := {x : x 2 A and x 2 B}.

Example 1.22 Let S = {(x, y) 2 R2 : y = 2x + 3} and T = {(x, y) 2 R2 : y = x2 + 2x

Determine the set S \ T .

3}.

Solution. We need to find the solution of the simultaneous equations

y = 2x + 3,

y = x2 + 2x

The x-coordinates of the points in S \ T can be found by eliminating y. Simple calculation gives
p
x = 6. Therefore we have
p p
p
p
S \ T = ( 6, 2 6 + 3), (
6, 2 6 + 3)}.

Use a graphical method to obtain the above answer. What is the geometric meaning?

Theorem 1.23 (De Morgans Laws) Let A and B be subsets of a universal set. Then
c

(A [ B) = Ac \ B c and (A \ B) = Ac [ B c .

Example 1.24 Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Then
c

A [ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9}, and so (A [ B) = {6, 8, 10}.

Also,
Ac = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} , B c = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, and so Ac \ B c = {6, 8, 10}.

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(iii) Complement of A in B
Definition 1.25 Let A and B be sets. Then the complement of A in B, denoted by B \ A, is the set
{x : x 2 B but x 2
/ A}.

Example 1.26 {1, x, y} \ {x, z} = {1, y} and {1, y} \ {x, z} = {1, y}.
Exercise Find
(a) [1, 2] \ {1},
(b) [1, 2] \ {1, 2},
(c) [1, 2] \ {1, 2, 3},
(d) [1, 2] \ (1, 1.5),
(e) [1, 2] \ ;,
(f) R \ [1, 2].