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Reversible Processes
Before considering some reversible processes and cycles we summarize once again the
characteristics of a reversible process:
1. A reversible process must be such that, after it has occurred, the system and the
surroundings, can be made to traverse, in the reverse order. All energy transformations
of the original process would be reversed in direction. The form and the magnitude
remains unchanged.
2. The direction of a reversible process can be changed by making infinitesimal changes
in the conditions that control it.
3. The process must be a quasi-static (quasi-equilibrium) process, i.e. during the process,
the system and the surroundings at all times be in states of equilibrium or
infinitesimally close to states of equilibrium.
4. A reversible process must be free from friction, unrestrained expansion, mixing, heat
transfer across a finite temperature difference or inelastic deformation.
Reversible processes are, therefore, purely ideal, limiting cases of actual processes. However,
these are important because they provide the maximum work output from work-producing
devices (such as turbines and expansion engines) and the minimum work input to devices that
absorb work to operate (such as pumps and compressors). The reversible processes are,
therefore, standards of comparison.
(6.1)
If there is no entropy production in the process then the entropy can change only through heat
transfer over the system boundary. We can then write according to Eq. (5.37):
2
(Q12 )
rev
TdS
1
(6.2)
For isothermal processes applying equations (6.1), (6.2) and (5.76) we can write
(W12 ) rev U 2 U1 T ( S2 S1 ) (U TS ) 2 (U TS )1
or
(W12 )
rev
A2 A1
(6.3)
(6.4)
where A is the Helmholtz free energy. Thus the difference in the Helmholtz free energy gives
the maximum work output for an isothermal reversible process for a closed system.
For open systems and steady state flow follow similar equations considering the
enthalpy balance [neglecting the changes in potential and kinetic energies]
Q12 ( P12 ) t H 2 H 1
(6.5)
(Q 12 ) rev TdS
(6.6)
For the isothermal reversible processes follows then the work output
( P12 ) trev H 2 H 1 T ( S2 S1 ) ( H TS ) 2 ( H TS )1
(6.7)
(6.8)
where G is the Gibbs free energy. Thus the difference in the Gibbs free energy gives the
maximum work output for an isothermal reversible process for open systems and steady state
processes.
In case the work is only the work due to change in volume [compare Equation (5.5)]
then
2
(W12 )
rev
pdV
1
and if the substance could be modelled as ideal gas i.e. U2 = U1 and H2 = H1 then using ideal
gas equation pV = mRT follows:
2
(W12 ) rev
1
V
p
mRTdV
mRT ln 2 mRT ln 2
V
V1
p1
(6.9)
and
2
( P12 ) trev
1
m RTdp
p
V
m RT ln 2 m RT ln 2
p
p1
V1
(6.10)
cig
R
dT d 0
T
v
ig
cp
R
ds ig
dT dp 0
T
p
ds ig
and
(6.11)
(6.12)
If the heat capacities cvig and c igp are considered to be independent of temperature then it
follows from Eq. (6.11) and (6.12) that
and
T2
R ig
( 1 ) c
T1
2
(6.13)
T2
p R cig
( 2) p
T1
p1
(6.14)
c igp cig R
and
we find
and
c igp
cig
T2
( 1 ) 1
T1
2
T2
p 1
( 2)
T1
p1
(6.15)
(6.16)
(6.17)
Simple equations (6.15) and (6.16) are used to calculate the change of state in
reversible adiabatic processes in many practical applications. It should be remembered that
these have been derived assuming ideal gas model and that the heat capacities remain constant
in the temperature range considered. This is an approximation which holds good for many
technical applications.
The isentropic change of state for real fluids cannot be represented by simple
equations like (6.15) and (6.16). However many processes may be approximated fairly well as
polytropic processes for which pvn = const. where 1 < n < . It is then possible to take into
account the condition of constant entropy while interpolating the state properties from
substance property tables (eg. steam table). In this way the isentropic change of state for real
fluids are accessible. For this purpose the so called T-s and h-s diagrams (entropy diagrams)
are used.
q rev Tds
1
So, if one constructs a T-s diagram (s = specific entropy) for a simple system (Fig.
6.1), the area under the curve for a reversible process is equal to the heat interaction of 1kg of
material. This is analogous to the work interaction of a reversible process described by the
area under the curve of a p - diagram (see Fig. 6.1). For an irreversible process the areas
under the curves in the respective diagrams are larger than the actual heat or work
interactions. Still the T-s diagram is of importance as it gives the highest value for the heat
interaction for a given path.
rev
pd (wif )
i
Tds ( q
)rev
pd w
Tds q
if
if
if
Figure 6.1 : p-v and T-s diagrams for reversible and irreversible processes.
pd and
du Tds pd 0
(6.18)
dq Tds
dw pd
(6.19)
However,
and
(6.20)
s v
T
p
p
T
The schematic T-s diagram for a real substance (water) is shown in Figure 6.3. The
bell-shaped curve represents the saturated region. The top of the bell is the critical point. The
left hand side corresponds to the saturated liquid while the right hand side corresponds to the
saturated vapor. Inside the bell (in the liquid-vapor region), constantpressure curves are
horizontal and thus coincide with the constant temperature lines, while outside the bell, i.e. in
the superheated region, the shape of a constant pressure curve approaches an exponential
form, as the vapor approaches ideal gas behavior. The constant specific volume lines are not
shown in this diagram. But they have a steeper slope than constant pressure lines. The lines of
constant vapor content (vapor quality) are also shown in the two phase region. In the
superheated vapor region, constant specific enthalpy lines become nearly horizontal as
pressure is reduced. So in this region the enthalpy is determined only by the temperature. The
variation in pressure between states has almost no effect: h = h(T) and the ideal gas model
provides a reasonable approximation. The T-s diagram finds its greatest application in the
analysis of heat and power cycles. The importance lies in the fact that the amount of heat
transferred during a reversible change of state can be determined according to equation (6.2)
or (6.6) as the area under the state points.
10
=3
/kg
kJ
10 0
50
0
= 50
p, b
ar
h,
1100
30 0
1200
50
32
00
900
30
00
26
700
0.1
00
800
x =0
0.2
00
x=
p = 0,006107bar
14
80 0
00
300
Tripel line
200
12
400
x=1
.8
x=0
x =0.6
500
x =0.4
600
Sublimation area
100
kJ/kgK 9
s
Figure 6.3 : T-s diagram for water.
-2 -1
10
t, C = 650
3800
600
kJ/kg
550
0,2
500
50
0,5
200
0,1
0,0
250
0,7
5
4,0
1,5
p,
x=
x=
1
0,0
50
5
2600
2400
85
80
2200
0,
75
x=
0 ,7
2000
x =0
,6 5
x =0,50
x =0,60
4.0
0 ,9
0 ,9
3000
2800
x=
0,
0,
3200
300
100
x=
12
2,0
1,01
6,0
20
350
150
x=
3400
400
30
200
100
bar
=3
80
300
150
450
5.0
6.0
7.0
kJ/kgK
s
1800
9.0
t1,p1
c1 0
t2,p2
c2 >> 0
Figure 6.5: Conversion of thermal internal energy into kinetic energy in a nozzle.
Similarly by braking a flowing stream in a diffuser the kinetic energy of flow may be
converted for increasing the enthalpy or for increasing the pressure (see Figure 6.6).
t1,p1
t2,p2
c1 >> 0
c2 0
The flow of fluids is quite complicated but for many practical engineering problems,
the fluid properties may be assumed to be dependent on only one space coordinate (one
dimensional flow). It may be assumed that all properties of flowing fluid are uniform across
each cross section normal to the direction of flow. No real flow is truly one dimensional but
provided there is no sudden change in the area or direction, and that average values of the
properties at any cross-section are used, the one-dimensional treatment yields quite reliable
results.
A diffuser is sometimes also called a diverging nozzle and the nozzle, a converging nozzle.
m 1 m 2 m
and the mass flow rate m is equal to the volume flow rate [velocity(c) x flow area(A)]
divided by the specific volume() of the fluid
m
or
cA
c1 A1
c 2 A2
constant or cA = constant
(6.21)
(6.22)
where the specific density = 1/. Equation (6.22) is known as the continuity equation.
The first law for the study of fluid-flow problems then states for steady flow between two
planes 1 and 2:
q12 h2 h1
1 2
(c2 c12 ) g ( z2 z1 )
2
(6.23)
If the process is reversible then q12 Tds and it follows for reversible steady flow
1
Tds h
h1
1 2
(c2 c12 ) g ( z 2 z1 )
2
(6.24)
For a simple fluid we have, from the property relation (Eq. 5.73)
2
Tds h
h1 dp
(6.25)
dp 2 (c
2
2
c12 ) g ( z 2 z1 ) 0
(6.26)
If the change in potential energy is negligible the two velocities are connected by
2
1 2
(c2 c12 ) dp
2
1
(6.27)
For any given fluid there is a definite relation between p and (Equation of state) and
hence dp term may be evaluated. Thus the velocity change may be calculated.
When a fluid flows through a duct (tube) of varying cross-sectional area the kinetic
energy and the pressure change. For reversible and adiabatic processes the entropy remains
constant (isentropic process). This fact is used to calculate the enthalpy in state 2 if the
pressure is known. Since s2 = s1, it holds
h2 h( p2 , s2 ) h( p2 , s1 )
For the steady state flow m through a tube of constant cross-sectional area A the change in
the kinetic energy is given according to the continuity equation (6.21) as
2
1 2
1 m
(c2 c12 ) 22 12
2
2 A
(6.28)
10
c2 c12 2(h1 h2 )
(6.29)
If we assume the specific heat to be independent of temperature then we can write for
specific enthalpy
h1 h2 c igp (T1 T2 )
(6.30)
(6.31)
(R / M )
in equation (6.31) we
1
get the relation between the velocities at the state point 2 and state point 1 as
p
R
c2 c 2
T1 [1 ( 2 )
1 M
p1
2
1
(6.32)
c 2 1 2
c1 2 1
(6.33)
(6.34)
11
Equation (6.34) is a special case of equation (6.32). These equations are consistent only under
the conditions p2=p1 and c2=c1. Therefore the isentropic flow of ideal gas in a duct of constant
area is isobaric and without any change in kinetic energy.
p2
p2
1
R
p
R
( )T2
T1 ( 2 )
M
M
p1
The mass flow rate may now be calculated using equation (6.32)
m c2 2 A2
p
2
[1 ( 2 )
1
p1
p
2
[1 ( 2 )
1
p1
or
or
m A2
where
p
2
[1 ( 2 )
1
p1
p
1
( 2 )1 / p1 A2
R
( )T1 p1
M
p1 p 2 1 /
( ) A2
1 p1
p1
(6.35)
(6.36)
](
p2 1 /
)
p1
(6.37)
p2
). Hence the mass flow rate depends on the pressure
p1
ratio.
For
and for
p2
=0
p1
p2
=1
p1
=0
=0
p2
ratio we have a maximum value of and of mass flow rate. The pressure
p1
p
ratio for the maximum m may be determined by differentiating (6.37) with respect to ( 2 )
p1
and equating to zero.
For a certain
12
d
0
p2
d( )
p1
The result is that m is a maximum when
p2 *
2 1
) (
)
p1
1
(6.38)
This pressure ratio corresponding to maximum flow is called the critical pressure ratio.
For a stationary system, as in a piston and cylinder machine (see Figure 6.7), the cycle
consists of the following four successive processes:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
13
Adiabatic cover B
Adiabatic
Source,T
WE
Diathermic
cover A
WP
Sink,T0
Adiabatic
Two reversible isotherms and two reversible adiabatics constitute this cycle. It is
represented in p-V and T-S coordinates in Figure 6.8. The area within the p-V diagram of
Figure 6.8 represents the net work of this cycle. The area within the S-T diagram represents
the net heat transfer. Since the system executes a cycle, the net change in its stored energy is
zero. The net effects of this cycle are:
(a) heat is removed from the energy reservoir (source) at T,
(b) heat is added to the energy reservoir (sink) at T0,
(c) work is produced.
T
Rev. adiabatic
Rev. isotherm
Rev. adiabatic
4
3
Rev. isotherm T
Gas
V
w W
net
Q Q0
If the working fluid were a liquid vapor mixture of a pure substance instead of a gas,
the isothermal processes 1-2 and 3-4 would also be constant pressure processes. During
14
process 1-2 evaporation would occur, and during process 3-4 condensation would take place.
If all the liquid were evaporated and the vapor became superheated during the isothermal heat
addition, only that part of process 1-2 which occurred in two phase region would be constant
pressure process. The p-V diagrams for these are shown in Figure 6.9.
Figure 6.9 : p-V diagram for a Carnot cycle (working fluid is a liquid-vapor mixture).
For a steady flow system, the Carnot cycle is represented in Figure 6.10. Here heat Q
is transferred to the system reversibly and isothermally at T in the heat exchanger (A), work
WE is done by the system reversibly and adiabatically in the turbine (B), then heat Q 0 is
transferred from the system reversibly and isothermally at T0 in the heat exchanger (C), and
then work WP is done upon the system reversibly and adiabatically by the pump (or
compressor) (D). To satisfy the conditions for the Carnot cycle, there must not be any friction
or heat transfer in pipeline through which the working fluid flows. In steady flow systems like
this, the ideal reversible process can be more closely approximated by actual processes than is
the case with the closed system engine described before.
Source, T
Flow
.
WP
Flow
Heat exchanger A
Turbine B
.
WE
Compressor D
Heat exchanger C
Flow
Q0
T0
Sink, T0
Surroundings, Atmospheric temperature T 0
15
The thermal efficiency of the system shown in Figure 6.10 can be expressed in terms of the
net work output compared to the heat input
th t
Q
(6.39)
and hence
th
(Q Q 0 )
1
Q
Q 0
Q
(6.40)
(6.41)
(Q 0 ) rev TdS T0 S
(6.42)
34
is the heat rejected by the system. We know that entropy taken by the system during a
reversible cyclic process must also be rejected, i.e. S12 S S .
34
It follows then
threv 1
T0
C
T
(6.43)
The thermal efficiency of such a reversible heat power cycle (Carnot cycle ) is also known as
the Carnot efficiency (factor).
It is thus seen that the thermal efficiency of a Carnot process depends only on the
temperatures at which heat is absorbed, T and that at which heat is rejected, T0. It does not
depend on the nature of the medium (fluid) or the mechanical details of the devices. It is
always less than unity. The Carnot efficiency (factor) is the upper limit for the efficiency of
any heat plant working between the same temperatures.
16
Flow
Heat exchanger A
WP
Turbine B
Compressor D
WE
Heat exchanger C
Flow
Sink, T0
The reversible Carnot heat engine and the reversed Carnot heat engine are represented
in block diagrams in Figure 6.12. If E is a reversible Carnot heat engine (Fig. 6.12 a) and R is
the reversed Carnot heat engine (Fig. 6.12 b) then the quantities Q, Q0 and W remain of same
magnitude in both; only their directions are reversed. The reversed heat engine R takes heat
from a low temperature body, receives an inward flow of work (net work is done on the
system), and discharges heat to a higher temperature body. The reversed heat engine is known
as heat pump or refrigerator (see chapter 4.4.3).
T
Q
WP
A
D E B
Q
WE
Wnet =WP-WE
WP
A
D R B
C
Q0
T0
(a)
WE
Wnet =WE-WP
Q0
T0
(b)
Figure 6.12: Block diagrams for Carnot heat engine and reversed Carnot heat engine.
17
2
q12
Turbine
|(w23)t|
Boiler
1
(w01)t
Feed pump
3
Condenser
0
|q30|
In the vapor cycle, the working fluid, which is water, undergoes a change of phase. For each
process in the vapor power cycle, it is possible to assume a hypothetical or ideal process
which represents the basic intended operation and involves no external effects. For the steam
boiler, this would be a reversible constant pressure heating process of water to form steam, for
the turbine the ideal process would be the reversible adiabatic expansion of steam, for the
condenser it would be a reversible constant pressure heat rejection as the steam condenses till
it becomes saturated liquid, and for the pump, the ideal process would be the adiabatic
reversible compression of this liquid up to the initial pressure. When all these four processes
are ideal, the cycle is an ideal cycle, called an ideal Clausius-Rankine cycle (or simply
Rankine cycle). As all the processes are reversible, this is a reversible cycle. In Figure 6.14,
the cycle has been plotted on the p-, T-s and h-s planes. The numbers on the plots correspond
to the numbers on the flow diagram.
18
T
p
1
0
01
3
s
C
3
10
s
Figure 6.14: p-, h-s and T-s diagram for a Rankine cycle.
The cycle consists of four processes:
1-2, heat addition in a boiler at constant pressure; q12
2-3, reversible adiabatic (isentropic) expansion from boiler pressure down to
condenser pressure; work done by the turbine ( w23 ) trev
3-0, isothermal heat rejection in a condenser to saturated water state; q30
0-1, reversible adiabatic (isentropic) pumping from condenser pressure back to boiler
pressure; work done on the pump ( w01 ) trev
Applying first law on the cycle we have the net work
wt
rev
(6.44)
Since all the components involve steady flow, the work of the turbine and pump can be found
by applying the steady flow energy equation.
The lowest temperature for heat rejection is limited by the atmospheric temperature.
The heat q30 will be rejected at a temperature higher than atmospheric temperature, tatm
t0 = tatm + t
19
As the heat rejection takes place in wet vapor area, the pressure (after the expansion) in the
turbine is also fixed, p0 = ps (t0). For example by heat rejection at t0 = 29C the p0 can have a
value of p0=0.04 bar.
The state of steam as it enters the turbine can also take a limited value depending upon
the nature of fuel and the material used in boiler. For coal fired boilers t2 = 550 C and p2 =
190 bar. The state points 1 and 3 may be calculated from a knowledge of the state points 0
and 2 and considering isentropic change of state (as their pressure and entropy are fixed). The
cycle is thus fully defined.
The thermal efficiency for this cycle can be expressed in terms of the net work output
compared to heat input
rev
th
wtrev
q12
q30
q12
T0
Tm,12
(6.45)
where the mean thermodynamic temperature Tm,12 for heat reception during 1-2 is obtained by
combining the first and the second law for reversible process q12 = h2-h1 =Tm,12(s2-s1).
Tm,12
q12
h h1
2
s2 s1 s2 s1
(6.46)
The mean thermodynamic temperature for heat reception depends on the properties of
working medium and the process. The thermal efficiency of a Clausius-Rankine cycle is
principally lower than the thermal efficiency of a Carnot cycle operating between the same
temperatures T2 and T0 as Tm,12 < T2.
It should be noted that even when Rankine process is a reversible process and hence there is
no devaluation of energy, only threv part of the heat supplied is converted into work.
20
Fuel
Q 12
2 p
1
Combutsion Chamber
Turbine
Heater
(P01)t
Turbine
|(P23)t|
Compressor
|Pt|
Compressor
0
p0patm
Exhaust
gas
Air
Cooler
p0
p0
3 p0
(a)
(b)
Q 30
Figure 6.15 : (a) Simple gas turbine power plant. (b) Schematic closed cycle gas turbine
power plant.
Figure 6.16 gives the p-, h-s and T-s diagrams for the cycle shown in Figure 6.15(b).
1
p
2
h
p2 = p1
p2 = p1
1
3
0
p3 = p0
p3= p0
21
Expression for the thermal efficiency can be found by taking the model of ideal gas for
air. The net work may be obtained from the specific turbine and compressor work transfers:
wtrev (w23 ) trev ( w01 ) trev (h2 h3 ) (h1 h0 )
or
(6.47)
(6.48)
rev
th
q12
(T2 T1 )
(6.49)
We can express the temperatures in terms of the pressure ratios as 0 -->1 and 2 --> 3 are
isentropic processes.
For the above isentropic processes holds:
T1
p
( 1)
T0
p0
and
T2
p
( 2 )
T3
p3
p
( 1 )
p3
p
( 1 )
p0
threv
where
1
1
1
p1
)
p0
(6.50)
It is clear from equation (6.50) that the thermal efficiency of the ideal cycle is a function of
pressure ratio only. A high pressure ratio is needed to attain a high thermal efficiency. For air
as working fluid with = 1.4, the thermal efficiency is shown in Figure 6.17.
22
0,8
rev
th
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
1
10
20
50
p/p
0
Figure 6.17 : Thermal efficiency of Joule Processes (=1.4).
It is to be noted that like Rankine process here also only a part of the heat supplied can be
converted into work. The reason is the high temperature T3 at which heat is rejected. This
high temperature is required by the enthalpy balance around the turbine, i.e., that the entropy
remains constant during a reversible adiabatic expansion. The mean temperatures at which
heat is taken and at which heat is rejected depend on each other. For a given pressure ratio the
isobars of the process are fixed. Normally the temperature T0 is also given. The temperature
T2 will be fixed by the heat taken. The ratio of heat taken and heat given by the system and
hence the reversible thermal efficiency of a Joule process depends only on the pressure ratio.
The specific technical work is given by the area enclosed by the state points 0-1-2-3-0 in a T-s
diagram. Figure 6.18 shows the specific work as a function of pressure ratio. It is seen that in
contrast to the thermal efficiency the technical work at a fixed inlet turbine temperature
increases with increasing pressure ratio up to a maximum value and then falls.
1,5
-wt /(c p T0 )
t 2 =1100 C
1,0
rev
ig
t 2 =800 C
t 2 =600 C
0,5
0
1
10
20
50
p/p
0
Figure 6.18 : Specific work of Joule Processes (T0 = 288 K, =1.4).
With T0 at 288 K and T2 at 1000K, the optimum pressure ratio is 8.8. With this pressure ratio
the mass flow of air for a given power output is minimum, i.e. the size of the power plant is
optimum.
23
Combustion
patm
STROKE 3
Expansion
STROKE 2
STROKE 4
Compression
Discharge
Inlet valve open
STROKE 1
Exhaust valve closed Sucking
Exhaust valve
open
Inlet valve
closed
V
Inlet valve
Fuel-air
mixture
Ignition system
Combustions
products
Exhaust valve
24
Stroke 1 :
Stroke 2 :
Stroke 3 :
Stroke 4 :
The inlet valve is open, the piston moves to the right, fuel-air mixture is sucked
into the cylinder at constant pressure.
Both the valves are closed, the piston compresses the mixture to the minimum
volume.
The mixture is ignited by means of a spark. On combustion the pressure and
temperature increases.
The piston is pushed to the right (work is done on the piston), and the pressure
and temperature of the gas mixture falls.
The exhaust valve opens, and the pressure drops to the initial pressure.
With the exhaust valve open, the piston moves inwards to discharge the
combustion gases from the cylinder.
This is the mechanical cycle. It is completed in four strokes of the piston. The
thermodynamic cycle corresponding to this engine is the Otto cycle which consists of two
reversible adiabatics and two reversible isochores. It is shown in Figure 6.20.
Process 1-2: Air is compressed reversibly and adiabatically.
Process 2-3: Heat is added reversibly (equivalent to combustion process in real engine) at
constant volume.
Process 3-4: Work is done by the air in expanding reversibly and adiabatically.
Process 4-1: Heat is rejected by the air reversibly at constant volume (blow-down process
in real engine).
3
T
v = const.
heat
addition
expansion
S=const.
Isentropic
expansion
Isentropic
compression
2
4
compresion
S=const
heat
rejection
4
1
v = const.
1
V
The intake and exhaust operations in real engines cancel each other in thermodynamic
consideration.
The net work done during a complete cycle is
WV Q23 Q41
and the thermal efficiency of the cyclic process is given as
(6.51)
25
Q
T
WV
(6.52)
1 41 1 m, 41
Q23
Q23
Tm, 23
where Tm,41 is the mean thermodynamic temperature for heat rejection and Tm,23 is the mean
thermodynamic temperature for heat reception.
th
and
th 1
T4 T1
T3 T2
(6.53)
Using the relations between the properties for isentropic compression and expansion
processes for ideal gas have
T
T2
( 1 ) ( 1) 3 ( 4 ) ( 1) ( 1)
T1
2
T4
3
where
(6.54)
1
is the compression ratio. The compression ratio is thus fixed by the geometry
2
of the engine.
By algebraic manipulation of equation (6.54) follows that
T3 T2 ( 1) T4 ( 1) T1 ( 1) (T4 T1 )
(6.55)
threv 1
T T4
(T4 T1 )
1
1 ( 1) 3
(T4 T1 )
T3
( 1)
(6.56)
It is to be remarked at this point that the temperature T4 cannot fall below a certain minimum
value because of the restriction of the isentropic (s=const.) condition and thus limits the ideal
thermal efficiency of an Otto cycle.
It may be seen from equation (6.56) that the efficiency of the air standard Otto cycle is
a function of the compression ratio only. The higher the compression ratio, the higher the
efficiency. Practically it is limited by the ignition temperature of the fuel-air mixture. As the
value of ignition temperature is exceeded the combustion starts during the compression. The
compression ratio cannot, however, be increased beyond a certain limit, because of a noisy
and destructive combustion phenomenon, called detonation. It also depends upon the fuel, the
engine design, and the operation conditions.
26
Normally the values range between 5 and 8 (with threv =0.47 and 0.56 respectively).
For air ( =1.4) we have the following values for the efficiency:
p2
p1
3
4.7
4.5
8.2
5.5
10.9
7.5
16.8
threv
0.356
0.452
0.494
0.553
STROKE 3
Expansion
STROKE 2
Compression
patm
STROKE 4
Discharge
STROKE 1Sucking
Inlet valve open, piston moves to the right. Air is sucked into the cylinder at
constant pressure.
Stroke 2:
Both valves are closed, the air is compressed to the minimum volume. Fuel is
sprayed. Ignition takes place.
Stroke 3:
The piston is pushed to the right and the pressure and temperature fall. The
exhaust valve opens, and the pressure drops to the initial pressure.
Stroke 4:
With exhaust valve open, the piston moves inwards to discharge the
combustion gases from the cylinder.
The simplified model cycle for the thermodynamic study is shown in Figure 6.22.
27
Ex
s = pa
co nsi
n s on
t.
ns
Expansion
s=const.
co
t.
Cooling
st
.
V=
co
n
Co
s = mp
co res
ns sio
t. n
p=
Compression
s=const.
Heating
3
In this cycle the heat addition occurs at constant pressure. It consists of following processes:
1-2 :
2-3 :
3-4 :
4-1 :
The specific heat transfers in this cycle may be calculated by taking the model of ideal gas
and considering heat capacities to be constant in the entire temperature range.
(6.58)
wV q 23 q 41
cig (T4 T1 )
th
1 ig
q 23
q 23
c p (T3 T2 )
or
th 1
T4 T1
(T3 T2 )
(6.59)
The efficiency may be expressed in terms of the compression ratio and the cut-off ratio
V
3 . The temperatures in Eq.(6.59) may be eliminated as shown below.
V2
For isentropic process 1-2, we have
T2
1
T1
28
and hence
1
T1 T2
(6.60)
T2 V2
T4 V3
T3 V4
(6.61)
1
V V
3 2
V2V4
(6.62)
so that
T4 T2
(6.63)
Substituting for T1, T3 and T4 in equation (6.59) we have for the ideal efficiency
threv
1
T2 ( ) 1 T2 ( ) 1
1
1
1
1
{
}
(T2 T2 )
( 1) 1
(6.64)
It may be seen from equation (6.64) that the ideal efficiency of the Diesel cycle depends upon
cut-off ratio (and hence upon the quantity of heat added) and on the compression ratio .
Since the term in braces, { }, is always greater than unity (except when =1, i.e. when there
is no heat addition), the Diesel cycle always has a lower efficiency than the Otto cycle of the
same compression ratio. This is not a very significant result because practical engines based
upon the Diesel cycle can employ higher compression ratios than those based on Otto cycles
and thus reach a higher efficiency. For cycles with air (=1.4) having a typical compression
ratio =14 we get the following values for the ideal efficiency:
threv
1.5
0.620
2.0
0.593
2.5
0.568
3
0.546
4
0.506
29
Q H
Pt
(6.65)
where Q H is the rate of heat supply at higher temperature and Pt is the net power consumed.
Since Q is negative we take the absolute value to make a positive quantity. It may be seen
H
Q 0
Pt
(6.66)
30
| Q 23 | Q H
3
2
|(P34)t|
(P12)t
Q 41
2
T
3
1
s
and
q41 h1 h4 q0 T0 s0
31
Since s0 = sH, we can write the coefficient of performance for the heat pump rev as
rev
rev
or
qH
rev
qH
qH q0
(h3 h2 )
(h2 h1 ) (h4 h3 )
Tm,H
Tm,H T0
(6.67)
The value of rev depends on temperatures at which heat is rejected and received.
The coefficient of performance for the refrigeration process 0rev is
0 rev
0 rev
or
q0
rev
12 t
(w )
rev
34 t
(h1 h4 )
(h2 h1 ) (h4 h3 )
q0
T0
qH q0 Tm,H T0
(6.68)
In an actual vapor refrigeration cycle, an expansion machine is not used, since power recovery
is small and does not justify the cost of the expansion machine. A throttle valve or a capillary
tube is used to reduce the pressure of the fluid from that in the condenser down to that in the
evaporator. Figure 6.25 shows the flow diagram of such a cycle.
Q 23
3
Condenser
2
Throttle
valve
Compressor
(P12)t
Evaporator
Q 41
Figure 6.25 : Vapor compression refrigeration process with a throttle valve.
Since the flow through a throttle valve is irreversible, the expansion is accompanied by
an increase in entropy. Because the expansion is irreversible the whole cycle is irreversible.
As the throttling process is an adiabatic steady flow process in which no work crosses the
boundary (see Section 4.4.2.3), the net work is now equal to the compression work. The heat
transfer in the condenser is unaffected, but the heat extracted in the evaporator is reduced.
Both and 0 are, therefore, reduced.
32
h
p
2
3
p1
h=c
p1
s=c
p2
4
p2
T
3
p1
h=c
p2
(COP) hp rev
(h3 h2 )
(h2 h1 )
(6.69)
(h1 h4 )
(h2 h1 )
(6.70)
33
Cooler
(P12)t
Compressor
1
Heat Exchanger
4
|(P45)t|
Turbine
Q 56 Q 0
Cooling Space
34
T
p
Tatm
p0
T0 4
6
5
We again use the model of ideal gas and consider the heat capacities to remain
constant. The application of the first law of thermodynamics to this steady flow process with
mass flow rate of m yields
(h2 h1 ) m
c igp (T2 Tatm )
( P12 ) t m
(h h ) m
c ig (T T ) m
c ig (T
Q m
23
and
atm
T2 ) Q H
(h5 h4 ) m
c igp (T5 T0 )
( P45 ) t m
(h6 h5 ) m
c igp (T6 T5 ) m
c igp (T0 T5 ) Q 0
Q 56 m
or
Q 0
T0 T5
Pt
(T2 Tatm ) (T0 T5 )
1
1
T2 Tatm
T
1 Tatm ( 2 1)
Tatm
T0 T5
1
T0
T5 ( 1)
T5
p
T
T2
0
Tatm T5 p0
or
1
1 p
T5 T0 p0
(6.71)
35
Now putting the values of temperature ratios in terms of pressure ratio we get the coefficient
of performance for refrigerator:
1
rev
(COP) rev
ref 0
Tatm p
T0 p0
(6.72)
1
Example :
In an Otto process with Vmax= 2 dm3 and Vmin= 0.25 dm3 the air at 20 oC and
0.1 MPa is sucked and compressed isentropically. It is then heated at constant
volume till the pressure reaches 3 MPa. Afterwards the gas expands
isentropically upto full piston stroke and attains the initial state through
isochoric cooling.
(a) Sketch the process in a p-V diagram.
(b) Calculate the properties at all state points and the ideal thermal efficiency
of the process.
DATA: Molecular weight of air = 29 g/mol
for air = 1.4
Solution:
We look the process in a p-V diagram:
p
3
isentropic
isochoric
V3=V2
4
V1=V4
isochoric
isentropic
1
V
What we know is
p1 = 0.1 MPa
V1 = Vmax = 2 dm = 2 l
T1 = 20 C =293.15 K
V2 = Vmin = 0.25 l
p3 = 3 MPa
Also that V1 = V4 and V3 = V2
36
The specific volume of air in the initial state 1 may be calculated from a knowledge of
the other state properties T1, p1 and using ideal gas equation
(R
M
p1
)T1
or
1 0.0008405
m3
m3
0.8405
g
kg
V1 Vmax
2dm 3
8
V2 Vmin 0.25dm 3
1
8
0.10506
m3
kg
Now 1-2 is an isentropic process and so we can calculate T2 if we know T1 through the
relation
T2
( 1) or T2 T1 ( 1)
T1
T2 = 293.15 [K] (8)0.4 = 673.48 K
p2
(R
)T2
or
p2 = 1.838106
N
= 1.838 MPa
m2
The temperature in state 3 may be calculated by considering the isochoric condition i.e. 3 =
2
p 3 3
3 10 6 [ N ] 0.10506[m 3 ][molK ]29[ g ]
T3
[kg]8.315[ Nm][mol ]
[m 2 ]
(R
M)
or
T3 = 1099.25 K
Process 3-4 is the isentropic expansion. The temperature T4 may be calculated using the
relation
T4
1
( 1)
T3
37
or
T3
1099.25[ K ]
478.47 K
( 1)
8 ( 0.4 )
m3
Since 4 1 0.8405
, we can calculate p4.
kg
T4
p4
(R
)T4
0.1632 MPa
[molK ]29[ g ]
0.8405[m 3 ]
m2
The ideal thermal efficiency may be calculated directly using the relation
threv 1
1
( 1)
1
8
( 0.4 )
0.565
To calculate the heat and work transfer for isochoric process we need cig [for isobaric
process we need cpig].
We know that for molar heat capacities holds
c igp cig R
and
Hence
or
c igp
cig
c igp cig R
R cig
cig
R
1
cig
(R )
M
cig
( 1)
cig
Now
or
or
cig
R
( 1)
[molar]
8.315[ Nm][mol]
Nm
kJ
0.7168
0.7168
[molK ]29[ g ]0.4
gK
kgK
threv
wV 172.35
0.565
q 23 305.19
kJ
kg