,i.

<

f
,,

! ) ',V
rT>

J
e
.

/: '

I,

(.

'1

,:--

)~ ,
'I ( /I
DESIGN NOTE

., oY

"

'J

l/ \

,"

...... .J

Published by the Brick Development Association

"

')

.)

i )

if

V
C

'\

'

WITH"FApING~ .BRICKWORK
1

.I

r /

,\

f,
.
RESIS ~ING , R,Al~j P~~ETf..A ~I~N
I

<L

)\

r
\

'(

)I ,

'~

I Michael Hammett Dip Arch ARIBA

>J.../)

"

.' )

)\
J

1
1

If
/

CONTENTS
PAGE
... 3

INTRODUCTION
SCOPE

DESIGN PROCEDURE ASSESS AND SELECT

ASSESSING EXPOSURE FOR SPECIFIC LOCATIONS

.... 4

SELECTION OFMATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION TO RESIST WINDDRIVEN RAIN

1

TYpe of brick

2
3

Mortar composition

5
6
7
8
9
10

................................ ........................ 7

Thickness of leaf
Cavity walls
Width of air space within any cavity
Mortar joint, profile and finish .

..

8
8
8
9

....................

Cavity insulation "'

Architect ural feature s and local practice

Applied external surface finishe s
Quality of workmanship to be achieved on site

10

..
12
...... ......... ........................... .. 13

..

DAMP PROOF COURSES AND CAVITY TRAYS

...............14

General

Perfonnance
[unctions

.......... 14

... 15
... 15

..

Continu ity and support

Resisting rising damp
Immediately above ground level
Below ground level

..

................................................................ 15
.. 15

.......

Controlling downward movement of wat er

Cavity walls
Over openings
Arches
Stop ends
Weepholes

.... 16
. 16
..
.. ..

16

.... 17
..

17

Requirements for damp proof cou rses and cavity trays for specific parts of buildings

At jambs to openings
..
Sills
..
Requiremen ts for additional cavity trayswith cavity insulation
External wall becoming an internal wall
..
Parapets
Copings a nd ca ppings
Chimneys
Structural frames

..

Flashings and weat herings

18

19
19
20
.. 20
21
22
22

..

23

CONCLUSION

........................ 23

REFERENCES

...................................................... 23
....................................... 24

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLES
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4

Classification of exposureto local winddriven rain ,

Minimum thickness of solid brickwork walls, with and without rendering,

to resistrain penetration in various categories of exposure..
Thermalinsulation materials forusein cavity insulated walls
Summary of materialsusedfordamp proofcourses and cavity trays

..

5
7
10

.......... 15

INTRODUCTION

Brickwork has bee n a dependable form of

construction for weather resistant walls for

hundreds of years, but conventional bricks and

mortars are not themselves waterproof.
Moisture may penetrate brickwork by diffusing
through microscopic voids in the materials, or by

percolating or flowing into and through hairline or

more noticeable cracks in the fabric. The
effectiveness of a solid brick wall in resisting
penetration by wind-driven rain is in direct

proportion to wall thickness. Traditio nally, for

buildings in locationswhere greater severity of

exposureto wind-driven rain is experienced. thicker

walls are used compared with those for buildings in
more sheltered situations.
In the mid-nineteenth century there was

considerableinterest in the construction of low-cost

housingforworkers. Economy of material was
sought, but thinner walls equated with reduced

resistance to rain penetration. This shortcoming of

solid walls led to expe rime ntation with hollow wall
construction by the use of part icular bo nding
arrangements such as rat-trap bond, Silverlock
bond and Dearne's bond and also by the
development of patent hollow bricks. However, the
most significant development was the introduction
of double-leaf cavity walling. By the twent ieth
century this technique had becom e esta blished and
by th e' 930's it was widely used in housing.
The design of the cavity wall accepts that solid
masonry subjected to wind-driven rain will not be
absol ute ly waterproof but is capab le of providing
substantial resistance to penetration. To divert the
passage of any moisture that may pass throug h the
externa lleaf of the wall the cavity is introduced to
drain it down and out again to the exterior.
This ensures that water willnot penetrateto the
intern al leaf of the wall causing dam p cond itions
within the building.

SCOPE
The resistance of masonry to wind-dnven rain
involves assess ing performance relative to
anticipated exposure, as opposed to achieving an
absolute condition of its being waterproof. This
publication examines and comments on the relative
significance of the various factors that need to be
consideredwhen assessing exposure and then
specifying an appropriate wall construction for any
pa rticular application.
Solid brick wallconstruction is considered and
also the protection offered by rendered finishes is
acknowledged, but the publication concentrates on
the deta il design and s pecificat ion of cavtty walling

with an outer-leaf of fairface brickwork. The effects

of incorporating thermal insulating materials within
the cavity are also examined.

As damp proof courses and cavity trays are

essential components in correctly detailed cavity
wall design, guidance is included on their
specification and installation.
With an und erstan ding of the constra ints a nd
opportunities that attend differences in severityof
exposure and in the performance of diverse
construction features, a designer can exploit the
great choice offered by brickwork to provide
effective protection and attractive appearance.

DESIGN PROCEDURE - ASSESS AND SELECT

Because the performa nce of a specific form of

wall constructionhasbeen satisfactory in a
particular locality it must not be assumed that it
will be equally suitable in other regions. Design and
specification assuming worst caseconditionsmay

be considered to provide notionaluniversal

applications, but for the majority of buildings on the
majority of sites such a basis for the cho ice of
construction would be un justifiably restricted and

lead to unwarranted expense.

The acknow ledged procedure is to assess the

severity of exposure that is experienced at the

location of the proposed building and then select
and specify a construction to provide the
appropriate resistance to rainpenetration.
folloWing this meth odical approach a

construction that has relatively low resistance to

rain penetration may be quiteacceptable in a

Location. site factorsandbuildingdesign

can increase the anticipatedseverity01

sheltered locatio n, but be who lly inappropriate

where more severe conditions areanticipated.

exposure, but even so, well considered

cavitywall construction can be effective

ASSESSING EXPOSURE FOR SPECIFIC LOCATIONS

Assessmentof exposure to wind-driven rain

should be regarded as a necessary and worthwhile

windspeeds recorded at various meteorological

first step in the des ign proced ure. When

determining the likely expos ure of a building, the
most exposed part shou ld be given particular

used in calculationsto determine driving rain

attention and this may affect decisions concerning

the widevariation of exposureto wind-driven rain

the choice of design and materials for the whole of

the building.

experienced nationally, but it was of limited

Having determined the level of risk likely to be

experienced the designer, using the guidance on

resistance to rain penetrationof differe nt formsof

construction and the factors affecting rain resistance
described in this Design Note, should select the
materials and form of construction that together
will provide adequate performance, paying due
regard to the importance of correct detailing and
appropriate standards of workma nship .

stations throug hout the United Kingdom could be

indices relative to the geogra phical locatio ns of
proposed building sites. This meth od demonstra ted

practical value because of the rather generalised

nature of the dataand the assessment method.
Collection of data continued in the 1970's
and1980's and with the benefit of computer
analysts the Meteorological Office was able to
produce improved data, based on the ob serva tion
that prolonged rainfall was usually associated with

stronger thanaverage winds.

In 1976 the Building Research Establishment

Report Driving Rain Indez.' 1proposed a method
of assessing the quantity of rain falling on a vertical

A more refined and rea listic method of

prediction was eventually develop ed and published
by the British Stan da rds Institution as BS8104
Bri tish Standard Code of practice for Assessing
exposure of walls to wind-driven rairP I. lt allows

surface such as a wall. Annualrainfall and average

calculationsof driving rainfall for different

orientations. It alsoallows annualaverage values to

be calculated as well as quantities forthe worst

likely spellin any three year penod.
Rainfall varies considerably across the country
but is largely unaffected by local features.
Conversely, the general wind speed does not change
much across the country but It is affected

Table 1 gives exposure categories defined in

terms of woll spell indices calculated using the locol

spell index method specified in BS 8104. The
indices, denved as they are from inherently variable
meteorological data, should not be regarded as
precise. Where assessment produces an index near

the borderlinethe designer should decide which is

the most appropliate category forthe particular

significantly by local features such as the spacing

and height of neighbouling trees and buildings and
whether the ground is flat or rises steeply.

case, using local knowledge and experience.

BS B104 permits corrections to be made for

ground terrain, topography,local shelter, and the

Table 1 is based on the 4 exposure zone series

form of the building concerned. These factorscan

defined in BRE Report BR 262 Thermal insulation:

avoiding risksl31, which simplifies the 6 category
series specified in Table 10 of BS 5628 : Part 3

have a major effect on the calculations and it is

British Standard Code of practice for the use of

important to recognise that , because of their

influence,within any geographical locality

masonry : Materials and components, design

and workmanship4J. As can be seen in Table 1

considerable variation of exposure can be expected

there are no overlaps in the definition of the 4

from site to site.

categories. Considerable overlaps in the definitions

BS 8104 gives recommendations for two

methods of assessing exposure of walls in buildings
to wind-driven rain, namely the local spell index

method and the locol onnuol index method. The

locol spell Index method should be used when
assessing the resistance of a wall to rain
penetration. The locol onnuol index is intended for
usewhen considering the average moisture content
of exposed building material or when assessing
durability, weathering and likely growth of mosses
and lichens.

of the 6 category series caused some confusion and

uncertainty of interpretation. TheBR 262 series is
thereforegenerally considered to be an

improvement on the BS 5628 : Part 3 selies.

BR 262 provides a simple procedure for
assessing exposure to wind-driven rain forwalls up

to 12 m high. It is plimalily intended for low rise

domestic buildings but may also be considered
suitable forother categories of buildings of similar
scale.

The simplified guidance is based on a map

which defines zones in which similar exposure

conditions are predicted. The predictions are based

on calculations in accordance with BS 8104. The

Categoryof Exposure

Colculated quantity of wind

zones are numbered 1 to 4 and correspond with

driven rain

categolies Sheltered to Very Severe as noted in Table 1.

{/it1f!$Im2 P'"~

The calculations defining the mapped zones in

Sheltered

Less than 33

BR 262 assume "worst case" conditions and so

Moderate

33 to less than 56.5

provide very conservative guidance. Using the BR

262 map to predict exposure restlicts the choice of

5evere

56.5 to less than 100

construction becauseit is not able to identify sites

Very severe

More than 100

within each zone which may benefitfrom shelter

that considerably reduces exposure to wind-driven
rain. Greater choice of construction is justified by

Based an exposure zones defined in BRE Report BR 262

the more specific assessment possibleby fcllowing

the B5 8104 method.

Maximum wall spell indexcalculated usIng the /oca/ spell

Index methodspecifiedinBS 8104

Tolile

Classification of exposure to localwind-driven rain

SELECTION OF MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION TO RESIST WIND-DRIVEN RAIN

The following factors affect the resista nce of

b rickwor k walls to winddriven rain. The order of th e
listing does not indicate relative importance. Each

driving rai n will be ab sorbed into th e bricks . If the

duration of the rainfall is short this behaviour may

factor must also be considered in relation to other

the water reaching the mortar joints. However,

when the surface of the mate rial approaches

funct ions of the wa ll such as st rength, dura bility,

be conside red beneficial because it prevents mo st of

sound and thermal insulation:

saturation point water tendsto run more readily

type of brick

down the surface and, as in wallsof dense units,

may penetrate via paths at the mortar joints. In

mortar composition

very severeand prolonged conditions of driving rain

thicknessof leaf
presenceof a cavity
width of airspace within any cavity

ceases long before such complete saturation and

mortar jointprofile and finish

presence, type and thickness of any cavity
insulation
architectural features and local practice

presence of applied external surface finishes

quality of workmanship to be achieved on site

Detailed considerations
1 7'fpe of brick
Brick ty pes vary considerably in their physical
properties, bu t when specifying brickwork with

regard to resistance to wind-driven rain no

distinctionis made between them.
In a wa ll constructed of dense bricks, with low

water absorption characteristics (for example those

of the Enginee ring Classes), on ly a relatively sm all
qu a ntity of water will be absorbed into the bricks.
The greater proportion of a ny rainwa te r falling on to
th e wa ll will ru n down its face a nd may be blow n
into a nd th rough it via paths in the mortar joints,

particularly at the interfaces between the mortar

and the bricks (see 6 below).
In contrast, in a wa ll of bricks havi ng relativel y

high water absorption characteristics, such as many

han dmade and stock bricks, much of th e water
runningoverthe wall surface in conditions of

ABSORBENT

water may be abs orbed further into t he brick s and

eventually reach their inner surface, first as
dampness and then as free water. Generally rain

DENSE

water is evaporated from the wall by the drying

effect of wind and air movement.

These two modes of action are sometimes

referred to as the raincoat effect, in the case of

dense, low absorption units, and the overcoat effect,
in th e case of high a bso rption units . Solid wa lling
can ultim ately be pen etrated by pro longed
exposureto wind-drive n rain regardless of the water
absorption characteristics of the bricks .
Altho ugh water a bso rpti on va ries greatly
between different bricks, this property has only a
relatively small influe nce on the resistance of the

finished wall to wind-driven rain. In persistent

conditions of wind-driven rain waterwill penetrate
masonry leafs th rou gh the m ort ar joints regardl ess
of the b rick type.

Nodifference is detectable between the rain

resista nce of brickwork built of the va rious forms of
brick unit, ie. so lid, frogged or perfo rated . There

have been anxieties expressed that walls built of

perforated bricks m ight be less resist an t to wind
drive n rain tha n those built with solid or frogged
ones, bu t such fea rs a re unfou nded.

A report on UK experience in the use of

pe rforated bricks, BRE Digest 273 Perforated clay
bricks'S), points out th a t mo st of them a re m ad e
with bodies of low water abs orbe ncy an d th at , with

regard to rain penetration, there is no evidence of

any significant difference in performance between
solid a nd perfo rated br icks with equiv alent low

porosity bodies. It also comments that there is no

evide nce to support the suggestion th a t

perforations may act as reservoirs in which

rainwa te r collects dun ng rainy pe riod s,
subsequently giving rise to pro blems such as

efflorescence or frost attack.

the "OVERCOAT" effect

the " RAINCOAT" effect

Designation ( i ) and ( ii It e.g. 1:0-1J.. a nd 1 :'4 : 41/;

ceme nt : lime: san d respectively, being the least
perm eabl e. These m ortar Designati ons are often
used in conjunctio n with den se, low wa ter
abso rption fired clay b ricks. This combination is
satisfacto ry but sho uld not be regarded as providing

Of th e various mixes s pecified for the mortars of

each Design ation those incorpor ating lime in th eir
composi tion show a n improvement in bond
development an d, as a consequ en ce, a bett er
resistance to rain penetration th an those morta rs
based on air entrainme nt a nd /or mineral m aterials
other tha n lime. Howeve r, althoug h this advantage
is detectable, it is no t significa nt enough to justify
limiting the application of any particular type of mix.

a waterp roof. or near waterproof, co nstruc tion (see

6 below).

3 Thickness of leaf

2 M ortar composition
Mortars vary in water permeability relative to
their cem ent content, high strength mortars of

Solid wall construction of brickwork, in commo n

with ot her forms of ma sonry, gets wet when
subjected to ra in and absorbs so me of the wa ter,
but when the rain sto ps it dries out again losing the
moisture to the air by eva poration, an action which

Strong den se Design ation ( i ) mort ar is no t

suitable for use with calc ium silicate bricks and

se lection is governed by other facto rs such as
accom mo dati on of movem en t, durab ility and
stre ngth. Design ation ( iii ) an d ( iv I mo rtars are
often mo re appropriate for th ese bricks, eg 1:1:6

is often accelerated by wind .

and' :2:9 cement : lime: sand.

The resista nce to rain pen etrati on of a solid wall

is th erefore dep endent upon its thickness a nd this is
reflected in tra ditional const ructlcn - th in walls are

For alternative mortar ty pes and mixes of

Designations (i) to (iv) see Table 15 of BS 5628 : Part
3. The ta ble lists various mixes for ceme nt, lime and
sa nd m ort ars, masonry ceme nt and sa nd mortars,
and mort ars of ce me nt and sa nd with the addition
of air-entra ining addi tives.

used in very shelte red location s an d th ick ones

wh ere exposure is greate r. Table 2 sho ws the
recomm en ded minimum thickn esses for both
ren dered and unrendered solid wa lls for va rious
categories of expos ure.

Maximum recommended category of exposure rsee "'bI'

Thickness

Unrendered

Rendered

Extemally
insulated

Impervious
Cladding

(SlMJn I}

{saMJrl: 2}

(SarAAT3)

(SEl NOff 4/

of brickwork(mm)

90
2'5

not recommended _"-51

not recommended

61

328

440

betwee n the internal surface of the masonry and

any intem al lining.

NaTE5: Walls of half-brick thickness are Widely used

for do mestic garages and garden sto res, but they
may be penetrated by persistent driving rain.

NaTE2: Rendering should comply with BS5262.

NarE 6: Historically 215 mm thick unrendered brick

NaTE 1: A notional cavity should be provided

NarE 3: External insulation should have a Technical

Approval for use on solid walls subjected to

Exposure Category 3.

walls are commonly found performing satisfactorily

in z-sto rev houses in towns and cities in the UK.
Such locations are generally very sheltered where
local spel1 indices are of 20 11m 2 or less .

NaTE4: Examples of typical impervious cladding

syste ms are noted in 9 below.
nib e 2:

Minimum thickness ofsolid brickwork walls, with and without rendering. to resist rain penetration in various
categories 01 exposure (Based onTable 11 inBS 5628: Part31

Typical section of cavity wall

Typical section of cavity
w all at opening

'I.e

4 Cavity walls

Table 2 does not apply to cavity construction. In

cavitywallsit is accepted that some water will
inevitablypenetrate the outer leaf in prolonged
periods of winddriven rain, but proper design and
positioning of dampproofcourses and trays and of
any insulation will minimise the risk of penetration

further into the building. Where the cavity is

unavoidably bridged, e.g. at window and door
openings, correct detailing is essential.
Cavity wallswith a half-brick thick outer leaf
(90mm minimum)can performacceptably in all
categories ofexposure listedin table 1. Nevertheless,
a designer mayconsider theuse of a thicker outer

leafto reduce the quantityofwaterreaching the cavity.

No relia nce should be placedon the inner leafof
a cavitywall to resist water penetration.

5 Width of air space within any cavity

In cavity walls the space between the two leaves

For all practical purposes brickwork can be

effectively jointed with the mortars conventionally
used in traditional and modernconstruction, but
the jointsshould not be considered waterproof.
The brickto mortar interfaces in the wall are the
positions most vulnerable to rain penetration. A

microscopiclabyrinth of voids exists at the interface

because of the physical nature of mortar bonding.
The interface is also a likely location for capillary
cracks dueto imperfect adhesionbetween a mortar

and bricks. Good adhesion is difficult to achieve

with absolute consistency and the interfacemay be
degraded further by crackingdue to moisture and
thermal movements subsequent to construction.
The toolinginvolved in finishing joints such as
those with bucket handled and struckweathered
profiles firms the mortar, reducing its permeability
at the surface, and pushes it tight to the bricks,
thereby improving its adhesion to them. Both

--l'> >c__

of masonry is intended to prevent any water from

passing from the outerleaf to the inner one. In most

situations a cavitywallwith a half-brick thick outer

leaf (90mm minimum), a SOmm cavity and an inner

leaf is satisfactory. In conditions ofmore severe

exposure considerationshould begiven to theuse
of wider cavities.

6 Mortar joint, profile and finish

Regardless of the type of brick or the mortar

composition, it is essential to fill completely all bed
joints andcross joints (sometimes referred to as

"perps" or "perpends") to minimise the risk of rain

penetration. Workmanship is very importantin this
regard , see 10 below.

characteristics improve the

joints' resistanceto

~
-~
.
..
. )
.
-_. -

penetration by water.
Recessed joint

profiles form ledges

which impede the
run-off of water and
encourage it to enter
the walling at the
mortarI brick interfaces.
Recessed joint profiles formed by rakingout the
mortarwithout subsequent tooling to firmits
surface further increases the vulnerability of the

"

wall to rain penetration. Recessed joints also reduce

the width of the mortar joints. Compared with

bucket handled and struck weathered profiles, the
risk of rain penetration is greaterwith recessed

joints and so they s hould only be used in Sheltered

exposurecategory locationswhen resistance to rain
penetration is important.

Bucket
Handle

Struck
Weathered

Flush

Recess ed

Mortar joint profiles

7 Cavity insulation

Thermal insulation materials may be effectively

installed within the cavity of a cavity wall to
increase its overall resistance to thermal
tra nsmittance, there by redu cing heat loss from the
building. But if the insulation is not installed
correctly, or without due care, its presencecan
constitute an increased risk of rain penetration of

the wall tsee Thermal insulation: avoiding

risk9' 11.

Some insulation materials are built-in so that a

Some thermal insulation materials, egoinjected

foamed urea forma lde hyde . are subject to

restrictions of their use vis-a-vis severity of

exposure. All thermal insulation materials s hould be

specified a nd installed in acco rdance with the
relevant British Standa rds, Technical Approvals and
the manufacturer's instructions.
The inclusion of insulation materials in a cavity
wall sometimes requires the installation of

add itional cavity trays (see page 19).

free airspace is retained, Le. a partial'fill system. The

retained air space should be a minimum target

width of 50 mm. Inner leafconstruction of face

_Intem.r
brick or block

insulated blocks require a retained air space.

In a fullfill system the cavity space between the

inner and outer masonry leaves is filled
wit h insulation material either

by

building it in as construction proceeds

or by injecting or blowing it into the

cavity after the wall has been
comp leted . The cavity space s hould be
a minimum target width of 50 mm , but
the risk of rain penetrationwill be reduced if a
wider cavity is used,
Thermal insulation materials are provided in a

form specifically inte nded for a particular

insta llation method. Products for partial fill
applications shou ld not be used for fullfill ones, an d
vice versa. Only products specifically manufactu red
for insulating masonry cavity walls should be used;
other forms of insulation material must neverbe

substituted. A su mmary of the ty pes of materials

appropriate for use in partial-fill a nd full-fill cavity

Cavity wall with partial-fill

cavity insulation

wall insulation systems is given in Table 3.

Cavity wall with full-fill

cavity insulation

8 Architecturalfeatures and lacalpractice

British Standard

Product
..... ; ..

Partial-Fill Cavity Insulatian

Mineralfibreslabs

Examples of features that cause concentrated

wetting are:

Foamedglass slabs
Expanded polystyrenebead board
Extrudedexpanded polystyrene board

Architectural featu reshavean important affect

the risk of rain penetraticn. Thedesigner shauld
always cansider whether the destgn details will
increase the tendencyfor the masonry to be wetted
mare than it wauId be by incident rainfall alone.
an

3837 : Part 1 Specification

~

3837 : Port 2 Specification

Rigid polyurethane (PUR) board

4841 ' Part , Specification

Polyisocyanurare (P1R) board

4841 : Part, Specification

a) An area of glazing or imperviouscladding can

produce a large amount of surface water run -off
and unless there is a gutter to collect it, or a
projecting sillto throw it clear, excessivewetting
and possible waterpenetration can occurin any
masanry below

Futl-Fill CavityInsulation
UTTS to U 811U.TIN

Mineralfibre bolts

6676 Part 1 Specification

6676

Part 2 Installation

LOOSEMAnxtAL TOU .. toWN IN

Mineralfibre

Polystyrene beads

Polystyrene granules

tNTCfU) FOAMD nASf1C

Ureaformaldehyde (UF) foam

5617 Specification
5618 Installation

Polyurethane (PUR} foam

7456 Instal/ation

(/or stabilization and insulation

7457 Sped{icotion

of Cavity walls)

mble 3

Thennal insulation materials for use in cavity

insulated walls

b}

Because of its profile a recessed bandcoursecan

cause local concentration of wetting.
Corresponding intrusions intothe cavity dueto
the setting back of bricks ar ather masanry units
to farm the feature may increase the riskof water
crossingthe cavity, The use of reduced width
unitsto form the recesswould avoid intrusion
inta the cavity Alternatively, the introduction of
a cavity tray immediatelyabave the set-back
may be considered.

Thedegree af welting of masanry can be

reduced by ensuring that rainwater is thrown clear
of the walls by adequate averhangs and drips ar by
providing drainage to takewater away from the masonry,

Append ix E of BS 8104 contains a deta iled

com mentary on the protection afforded by
projecting features such as sills, copings, string
courses, roof eaves andverges. It explainswhy

small overhangs areso effective in protecting walls.

It might be anticipated that water
dripping from a projection would
quickly be blown onto the wall a short
distance below. However, airclose to
the wall forms an almost still boundary
layer and to the exte nt that it moves at
all, it flows parallel to the surface.
Because of this drop lets falling from
projections tend to fall vertically down to
the ground .
In general the Appendix
corroborates the beneficial effects
tra ditionally asc ribed to projecting

features, but it also reports on studies which

indicate that in some conditionsof high winds an

overhang at the top of a wall ca n lead to greater
welli ng when com pared with a flush topped wall.
These findings are embodied in the allowances
relating to gable ends and eaves to pitched and flat
roofs in the BS 8104 method for assessing exposure
to winddriven rain. The Appendix also reports on
the effect of surface texture and also the
concentration by wind of surface waterrun-offat
external and internal corners of buildings.
The designer should always take account of
local knowledge, experie nce and the evidence of
local traditio nal forms of cons tru ction and building
detail. The fact that some building design features

are not characteristic of a particular area orregion

may indicate their unsuitability for the rigours of

local exposure.

Unsightly patchiness due to differences in wetness caused bythe application 01

water repellent treatmentto brickwork at parapet level

9 Applied external surface finishes

Forboth smgle-leafand cavity walls, total
resistanceto rain penetration can be achieved only
by the use of impervious cladding systems . lYpically
such systems are panels, boards or sheeting of
metal, plastics or timber with weatherproof joints,
and overlapping slates, shingles. or tiles.
As indicated in Table 2 rendering can
substantially enhance the rain resistance of
brickworkwalls. It may be applied to solid walls and
to cavity walls. It is essential, however, to select the
right type of mortar mix , the thickness and number
of coats and to deta ilthe wall correctly in order to
minimise shrinkage cracking, which may otherwise
reduce the effectiveness of the rendering. The
recommendations of BS 5262 British Standard
Code of practice for external rendered finisheiJ6}
and BCA publication Appearance matters - 2 :
External rendering71should be followed .
The combination of full-fill insulation and
rendering inhibitsthe drying out of any moisture
that may enter the outer leaf of masonry. The
moisture contentof the outerleafmay consequently
rise increasing the risks of frost action of the
maso nry and sulfate attack of the jointing and
rendering mortars. Claybricks of durability
designations ML or MN las specified in BS 3921
British Standard Specification for Clay brickiJ 8I1

arenot recommended for such wallsin locations

exposed to Severe or Very Severe categories of
exposure to wind-driven rain. FL or FN clay bricks
may be used.

In all categories of exposurewhereFN or MN

clay bricks are to be used behind rendering the
jointing and render undercoat mortars should be
made with Sulfate Resisting Portland Cement ISRPCI.
The use of masonry paint systems (see BS 6150
British Standard Code of practice for painting of
buildingiJ911 and other proprietary external finishes

including colourless treatments, e.g. silicone-based

water repellents (see BS 6477 British Standard
Specification for water repellents for masonry
surfaceg. 10Il, may increasethe resistance to rain

penetration. However. they may also reduce the rate

of evaporation of any water from the wall and so the
moisture content of the wall can increase if water
gets behind the paint or surface treatment eitherby
penetrating imperfections in it or entering from
adjoining construction. In some cases this has lead
to localisedwater penetration and/or saturation of
the brickworksufftcient to cause frost damage to
clay bricks of ML and MN durability designation in
winter conditions.
Water repellent surface treatments arenot
generally recommended for clay brickwork.
Traditionally brickwork that is correctly specified
and constructed is durable, withstand s weathering
and resists the penetration of wind-driven rain
without the needof waterrepellent treatments.
They should not be applied to clay brickwork
without the approval of the manufacturer of the
bricks specified.

"'Tipping andtailing" generall y produces cross

joints with poorreslst ance te fain penetration

severe and Very Severe categories of exposure, most

periods of wind-driven rain are interrupted by a
drying period beforethe bricks in the wall have
become so saturated that the rain passes through .
By contrastrain falling on a wallof low water
absorption bricks(raincoat effect) will run down
overtheirglass-like surfaces to enter immediately
any imperfections in the jointing.

10 Quality of workmanship to be achieved on

site

The quality of workmanship actually achieved,

both when constructing masonry and when
installing any insulation material, is the most
important factor affecting resistance to rain
penetration, All workmanship should be in
accordance with BS 8000 : Part 3 British Standard
for workmanship on building sites : Code of
practice for masonry " l. Detailed guidance on
workmanship is also given in BOA Building Note 1
Brickwork " Good site practice ' ' I.
Some brickwork requires particular care in its

construction compared with others. For example,

considerclay bricks of low waterabsorption and
those of high water absorption. It has been stated
that allmortar joints should always be filled (see6
above), but from the description of the raincoat
effectand the overcoateffect (see 1 above) it will be
evident that minor imperfections in the jointing of

high water absorption bricks (overcoat effect) will

not always be critical. This is because. except in

The importance of filling all mortar joints to

ensure good resistance to rain penetration cannot
be overstated, but the cross-joints ("perps") are often
not filled properly because they are formed using a
poortechnique known as "tipping and tailing".
Small dabs of mortar are Wiped on the leading and
trailing edges of the end of each
brickwhen laying. This bad
practice leads to cross-joints
that are not adequately filled
and therefore do not have the
best resistance to rain
penetration. Any anticipation
that the joints willsubsequently be
filled by mortar flowing down into them
from the next layer of bedding mortar is fallacious.
Filling cross-joints by this means is imposs ible.
Stretcherbonded walls have sixty cross-joints per
square metre and so if they are poorly filled the
shortcoming can be significant. Filling cross-joints
properly by applyinga fulllayer of mortar to the
end of each brick is not difficult or time consuming.
It is regarded as good practice and therefore it is not
unreasonableto insist that it is done.

- Buttering- the end of a brickwith

mortargives 8 fully fill ed cross joint

DAMP PROOF COURSES AND CAVITY TRAYS

Genera l
Adamp-proof course(dpc) in a building is
intendedto provide a barrierto the passage of
water from the exterior of the building to the
interior, or from theground to thestructure, or from

one part of the structure to another.

Where the dpc is intendedto prevent the

upward movement of water due to capillary action
throughmasonrymaterials continuity is important
although, in normal circumstances, no hydrostatic
pressureis involved. loints shouldbe made in
accordance with the instructions of the
manufacturer of the dpc material used. Where no
specific instructions are given, the dpc shouldbe
lapped a minimum 100 mm orthewidth of the
masonry leafat comersorintersections. Penetration
ofdpc's and cavitytrays by services, reinforcement,
fixings, etc. shouldbe avoided as far as possible.
Where they have to pass throughcare shouldbe
taken to form the necessary holeneatly and
carefully seal around the breach.
Where water is subjected to hydrostatic
pressure, or ismoving in a downwards direction

under the Influence ofgravity, any jointsInthe dpc

shouldbe made waterproof by lapping and sealing
following the dpc manufacturer's specification for
sealant or adhesive.
Opc's shouldextend throughthe full thickness
ofa wall or leaf, and to the externalface whereit
shouldbe clearly visible. Adpc shouldnot be
bridged by pointing, rendering, plastering, wall
tiling, etc. To prevent penetrationofwater beneath
the dpc,whichcan occurIfit Is placed directly on an
irregular bed surface, and to producea good bond
to resistsubsequentmovement, dpc's shouldbe
laid on a smoothbed offresh mortar. The use of
coarseaggregates for the mortar shouldbe avoided
as they mightdamage the dpc. Sometimes dpc's are
Installed to form a slipplane to accommodate
differential sliding movements betweenadjacent
parts of the building structure; Insuch a case the
mortar bed shouldbe trowelled smooth, allowed to
set, and then cleaned offbefore the dpc is laid.
Alternatively, a doublelayerofappropriate sheet
dpc material with no mortar or adhesive between
them may be specified.

itoo ve

Ope's should be sandwiched betwee n mortar

Performance
To ensure adequate performance, dpc's and
cavitytrays should have the following material
properties:

an expectedlife at least equal to that of the

building
(b) resistance to compression without extrusion
(c) resistance to sliding wherenecessary
(d) adhesionto units and mortar wherenecessary
(e) resista nce to accidental damageduring
Installation and subsequent building operations
10 workability at temperatures normally
encountered duringbuildingoperations, with
particular regard to forming and sealing joints,
fabricating junctions, steps and stop ends, and
the ability to retainshape
(a)

table 4 gives Information on performance of

Individual materialscurrently used fordpc's.
BSB215 British StandardCode of practice for
des/gn and installation of damp-proofcourses
in masonry construction " )gives guidance on the

basic principles concerning dpc's, their function and

their Installation Inmasonry. Itcontains
recommendations for the selection, designand
Installation ofdpc's Inboth solid and cavity
construction.

Material

Limitations or benefitsin use

Resistant to extrusion : Ease ofiointing

..... ~~~~'.~iii~l~ .ad

..:.

Rigid Materials
OA r DI'C MICKS
complying with as 392 1

.t

SUitable against rising moisture only

SLAn
comptying with as 743

.t

Suitableagainst riSing moisture only.

Goodperformance in resisting flexural stress.

Semi-Rigid Materials
MASTIC AsnlALT

nf a

complying with 85 6925 or 6577

..... .. . .. ... .

..... .;

Flexible Materials
UADSHET

Requires protective coatingagainst

comptying with as 1178

corrosion when setIn mortor > 25mm.

Requires protective coatingto avoId

staining masonry.

COP1'EJt SHEET

compTying with C 104 or C 106

ofBS2870
MTUMEN SHEET

compTying withas 6398

- withHessian base(class A)
- withFibre base(class B)
. wtth Hessian base andlead (Class DJ
. withFibre baseand lead (class E)
LOW DENSlTF 1'OLrETHnENI! SHEET

complying with as6515

Difficult to handleIn cold weather

Difftcultto handlein cold weather.
Di/flcultto handleIn cold weather
Difftcultto handleIn cold weather

~
~
~
~

Poor bond performance. Norrecommended

tor use In conditions offlexural stress.

'"

Goodbondingperformance with mortar.

rrTCH I"OLYMElI SHUT

laDle 4

Summary of materialsused for damp proof courses and cavity trays

Junct ions

Resisting rising damp

Dpc and cavity tray detailscan be simple and

straight forward in straight plainwalls, but at

Immediately abovegroundlevel

corners, junctions, returns, curves, changes in level,

changes in plane, around openings, etc., the need

forcontinuity oftenrequires quite complicated
installation of dpc material. During the preparation
ofdetail design and specification for a building
careful consideration should be given to these
positions and detailedthree-dtmensto nal drawings
made ofall dpc's and trays at junctions, steps,
angles and stop ends. Many common details cannot
be formed satisfactorily In-situ, unless they are
fabricated in lead. If materialsother than lead are to
be used in complex situations, then pre-formed
cloaks should be specified, so as to restrict the site
operation to simple jointing.

Continuity and support

Where practicable, dpc's and cavitytrays should
be formed Ina continuouslength of material to
minimise the need for joints. Cavity trays should be
supported at their joint positions to facilitate
effective sealing. Continuous support is
advantageous as it avoids sagging and deformation.

In everyexternalwall, a dpc shouldbe provided

at least 150 mm abovethe finished level of the
external groundor paving. To preventthe transfer of
moisture from external wallsinto solidfloors, the
damp'proof membrane in the floor, and the dpc in
the wall, should overlap a minimum of 100 mm or
be sealed. In cavity workthe cavity should be filled
to ground level with fine concrete, and weepholes
should be left In the vertical cross jointsof the outer
leaf, at intervals not greater than 1 m, immediately
abovethe top of this fill. The purpose of the fill is to
prevent the leaves of the cavity wall beingdisplaced
into the cavity by pressurefrom the groundduring
backfill operations orsubsequent loading ofthe ground.

Belowgroundlevel
Horizontal and vertical dpc's are required where
the lowestfloor of the buildings is belowground
level. Inthis situation it may be necessaryto
considertanking (seeas 8102 Bri dsh Standard
Code of pracdce for

protection of structur es

against water fr om the groun d 14 ) ).

._--.-_

... .....,."-'r'

Pre-formed cavity tray for anarch

Stop ends fmedto discontinuous

cavity tray

Controlling down word movement of woter

Cavity walls
The design and specification of a cavity wall

should be based on the ass umption that, in

conditions of persistent driving rain, water will
penetrate the outerleaf and run down its inner

surface within the cavity, Wherethe cavity is

bridged, egoby lintels, structural beams, floor slabs,
pipes, and ducts, dpc's in the form of cavity trays,
with stop ends and weepholes, should be provided

Arches
The curved form of an arch makes the use of a
normal cavity tray impossible. A conventional cavity

tray can be installed in the bed joint immediately

above the crown of an arch and for a minor
segmental arch in a relatively sheltered location this
may be considered acceptable. The tray should
extend beyond the width of the arch and be filled
with stop ends. To improvethe construction short

lengths of flexible sheet dpc material can beset around

to divert water out again.

the curve of the arch in an overlapping arrangement.

Over openings

use a pre-formed arch tray (see figure above).

Depending on the detail design of the opening the

A simpler and more reliable construction is to

In cavity walls, cavity trays should be provided

over all openings(including small openings for

tray may be installed at the intrados or the extrados,

ducts, services, etc), unless they arewell protected

i.e. under or over the arch ring.

by a roof or balcony overhang.

The cavity tray should step down or slope
across the cavity not less than 150 mm towards the
external leaf and, preferably, terminate in a small
drip on the face of the wall.

The cavity tray over an opening should overlap

the vertical dpc's at the jambs to ensure continuity
of damp'proof measures (see figure on page' 8)

A pre-formed tray should incorporate stop ends

and, becausethe
arch form inevitably
drains any
penetrating water to
its bearings, care

should be taken to
ensure effective
weepholesare

provided.

In this building there is a cavity tray in the

fifth course above thesoldier course. Note the

weepholesatthislevel- open crossjointsat
900mm intervals

'Right

Stopends

A proprietaryplastic wind baffleinsert to

form a weephole

Weepholes

Where trays are discontinuous, andin a position

that is not well protected by a roofor balcony

overhang, stop ends should be filledat or near the
ends of the tray, generallycorresponding to cross
joints in the brickwork. They
should be bonded to the tray
to givea waterproofseal. Stop
ends prevent the possibility of
water in thecavity running

down onto the tray and being

thrown offits ends into the
cavity at the jamb of an
openingsuch a concentrated flow of watercould
run behind the verticaldpc in that part of the
walling, wet the inner leaf and lead to dampness of
the internal faceof the wall. Stop ends are
particularly desirablewhen cavity insulation is
installed.
Steel lintels are available which are shaped and
finished to act as a cavity tray without the addition
of sheet dpc material.These lintels also require stop
ends to be filled.

Weepholes are required in the outer leaf

immediately above any cavity tray so that water
collected on the tray can be diverted out to the exterior
of the building. They should be formed in vertical
cross joints at intervals not greater than 1m. There
shouldbe not lessthan two weepholes over eachopening.
It is usual to form weepholes by leaving a
nominal 10 mm wide cross joint unmortared. The

height of the weephole is generallydetermined by

the height of the brickbut it is not critical. It should
be large enough to avoid any tendency to become
blocked by debris. Weepholes formed between
soldier bricks may be full height, but need only be
about 40 mm.
In tall buildings subjected to harsh exposure
there has beenexperienceof rainpenetration due to
high winds blowing into cavity wallsthrough
weepholes and moving water up beyond the
upstand of dpc trays. Proprietary devices are
available to assist the formation of weepholes that
allow water to drain from the cavity but restrict the
ingressof wind andl or rain.

Tray ove, lintel note stop ends

Vertical dpc where

cavity closed at jamb

Lapping of vertical dpcat jambs to

openings in cavrty wall

Requirements for damp proof courses and

cavity trays for specific parts of buildings
At jambs of openings

Where a cavity wall is closed at the jambs of

ope nings by masonry, a vertical dpc should be
inserted to prevent moisture passing from the outer

leaf to the inner parts of the wall. The vertical dpc

shou ld extend into the cavity at least 25
mm beyond the width of the closer and
any cavity tray above shou ld exte nd
beyo nd it tsee figure above). Insulation
material may also be placed in this

Arrangement ofvertical dpcand insulalion at

jambs to openings in a cavity wall

A frame in a n opening should be locat ed an d

fixed in such a manner that transmission of water

past the vertical dp c is avoided . Where the frame is

to be built in, the dpc should be secured to th e
frame first. If the fram e is to be fixed later, the dp c
should be left projecting within the opening. Vertical
d pc's at openings shou ld be positioned to overlap
any horizontal d pc at the sill of the opening and be
overlapped by any cavity tray at the head [see
figure above).

position to minimize cold bridging.

Proprietary closers are ava ilable which

combine the functions of closing the
cavityat the jamb, preventingmoisture
transfer, stabilizing the masonry leaves, reducing

cold bridging and providing fixing for window or

door frames. If these are used follow manufacturer's
instructions for installation and linking with

assoc iated dpc's at the head and sill.

A proprietary plastic cavity closer I frame fixing

Sills
All pervious or jointed sills, or sub -sills, shou ld
be provided with a dpc for the full length and width
of the sill bed. The dpc should be overlapped by the
vertical dpc's at the jambs of the openings [see
figure on page 18). Where the sill is in contact with
the inner leaf, the dpc should be turned up at the
back and ends for the full depth of the sill(see figure
on page 8).

Requirements for additional cavity trays with

cavity insulation
When cavity insulation is present but not
installed throughout the fullvertical height of the
cavity (eg. stopped at eaves level in gable ends) a
cavity tray is required immediately above the
insulation to protect from the hazard of mortar
droppings or other debris forming a bridging of th e
cavity on the top of the insulation .
In buildings over 12 m high, with insulated
cavity walls, cavity trays are required to subdivide
the cavity so as to avoid surcharge by water that
may penetrate the outer leaf of ma sonry. They
should be insta lled at a maximum of 12 m above
ground level and at a maximum spacing of 7 m
thereafter. In framed building with brickwork
cladding the trays required to subdivide the cavity
can be the same as those associated with the
cladding support system .
In both these cases trays should step down a
minimum of 150 mm towards the outer leaf and
weepholes should be provided at intervals not
greater than 1 m.

Addrtion al cavity tray 10 protect

top of cavityinsulation

Additional cavity trays to subdivide

tall walls with cavity insulation

Deta il of parapet showing dpc tray

External wall becomingan internal wall

Parapets

If, in its height, an external wallbecomes an

internal wall at lower level, as inthe case of a roof
abutting a wall (e.g. in a stepped terraceof houses,
ora porch, garage orconservatory annex)a cavity
tray shouldbe installed to drainthe cavity above
the level of the lower roof.

Ina solid parapet wall a dpc shouldbe provided

at a heightof not less than 150 mm above the top
surface of an abutting roofsystem and lap overthe
flashing to the roofing to give continuity,

Ahorizontal abutment requires a level cavity

tray withstop ends and weepholes. When a pitched
roofabuts such a wall, a cavitytray stepped to
correspond with the slopewill be required;
alternatively a system ofoverlapping preformed
trays may be installed to collect and discharge
water from the cavity. Ineithercase stop ends and
weepholes are essential.
Proprietary systems exist forthese applications.

In a cavity parapet wall a cavity tray shouldbe

installed to provide the same function. It should
step at least 150 mm within the cavity. When cavity
fill insulation is installed the tray shouldstep down
to the outer leaf(away from the roof]. When there is
no cavityinsulation the designer should consider
carefully which way to step the tray in any given
case. It is saferto directwater towards the outer
face (away from the roof]. Concern that this may
cause staining on the face of the wall belowis
exaggerated. Ifslopedinwards (towards the roof)
experience shows that there is a danger in that
rainwater may be driven below the tray and track
along its underside and so gain accessto the inner
leafof the wall, the underside of the roofcovering
and the interior of the building.
Itshouldbe noted that dpcs and cavitytrays
impairthe structural integrity of the parapet and
the wall beneath and also the coping above. Opc
materialswith good bonding performanceshould
be specified.

stability of the assembly the dpc can be placed in a

beddi ng two or three courses below the to pmost
one . All materials above the dpc must be frost

resistant. In cavity walls flexible dpc's require

support overthe cavity to avoid sagging and
deformation and to facilitate effective sealing of
lapped joints.

Resistanceto waterpenetration should not

prejudice provision for masonry movement.
Movement control joints in the masonry should be
carried th rough any coping or capping and sea lant
applied as in the corresponding joint in the wall below.
Consideratio n sho uld be given to copings and
cap pings being displaced by lateral loads, and to
the possibility of vandalis m. L-sha ped copings and
Brickwork withflush capp ings canbe very successful. but
requires extracare inthe selection of materials for durabili ~
tv. anundemanding oftheirweathering characteristics. and
ofthe implicationsofdesignfeatures on weathering

Copings and coppings

A coping is a construction that protects t he top
of a wall and sheds rainwater clear of the vertical
wall surfaces below, generally by having a
weathered top surface and a throa ted overha ng to

clip-over copingsmay be more satisfactory insome

situations. Where necessary, cop ings should be
SUitably fixed down and may be doweled or jogglejointe d together. Copings a nd ca ppings to the
sloping tops of gable end walls present particular
problems of sta bility and security. They require
careful consideration of the practicality of construction.

one or both edges. A capping is a construction at

the top of a wall, but it does not shed rainwater
clear of the wall surfaces below. Cappings are
genera lly flush, but they may have featu res which,
althoug h they overha ng the surface of the wall
below, do not adequately protect it by throwing
water clear.The traditiona l detail of bricks set onedge with tile creasing below sho uld be regarded as
a cappi ng rather tha n a coping.
Preferably parapet walls, chimney terminals,
freesta nding walls and retaining walls shou ld be
provided with copings. The drip edge of a throating
should be POSitioned a minimum of 40mm from the
face of the wall it is inte nded to protect. Where for

aesthetic or other reasons a cappingis used special

care is needed in the choice of materials for
durability, both for the capping itself and for the
walling beneath.
Where the capping or coping is [ointed, a
continuou s sheet dpc should be provided in the

bedding mortarjoint.To increase the weight and

Copings givepositive protection against

wetting ofwallingbelow

Chimneys
Chim neys may be built in solid or cavity wall
construction. Wherea chimney stack is
incorporated in an outer cavity wall, preferably the
outerleaf and cavityshould be continuous around
the chimney stack for the full height of the outer
wall and then comp letely surround the chimney
stac k whe re is projects above the roof. Corbelling
from the chimney breast may be necessary below
the roof line, to sup port the outer leaf at the sides
and back of the chimney stack.
If the chimney is set in an internal partition or
party wall and the roof is steeply pitched, a
reasonable height of chimney willbe exposed in the
roof void and a ny dampness in the masonry will be
able to dryout in a ventilated roofspace. However,
with a low pitched roof, whe n a chimney is located
at the eaves, or the roofspace accommodates
habitable rooms this beneficial effect will not apply
and particular carein the design and construction
of the roof/chim ney intersection wtll be necessary
to prevent moisture penetrating into the masonry

below.
Opc trays should be provided to prevent the

downward passageof water. Horizontal trays

shou ld extend through the thickness of the chimney
wall and into the flue liner,with an upturn at the
inner face of the flue. Externa lly it should be linked
with any flashing at the intersection of the chimney
with the roof. The figure below illustrates typical
arrangements.

It should be noted that a sheet d pc at the point

of intersection with the roofreduces the structural
integrity of the masonry, and the sta bility of the
chimney stack and its resistance to lateral wind
loading needs to be considered. Chimney stacks
built in cavity work may be provided with a dpc tray
of a material stiffenough to form a cavity tray
without beingbuilt into the inner leaf and this

provides structural continuity.

A horizonta l dpc shou ld always be provided
below any coping or capping at the top of the stack
unless it is a jointless, waterresistant material, egoa
one-piece dense terracotta, slate orreconstructed
stone unit, or a sheet metal assembly in one-piece
or with waterproof joints.

Structuralframes
Maso nry supported by a structural fram e,
requires particular attention to be paid to the
detai ling of trays and dpc's to ensure their
continuity. Where cavity brickwork is supported on
a n edge bea m, or floor slab, a cavity tray with a
minimum upsta nd of 150 mm should be provided
to prevent moisture penetration into the structure.
The cavity trayshould be continuous around any
column, or other structural member, that obstructs
the cavity. When a structural memb er bridges the
cavity, a vertical dpc should be included between
the structural member and the external leaf, and
stop ends fitted to any ad jacent cavity trays.
Where complex shapes are needed,
prefabricated cloaks should be cons idered to
minimise difficulties of construction.

eft

Opc trays andflashings in masonry

chimney at roof penetration

Flashing s and weatherings

The material to be used should be sufficiently

malleable to perm it dressing into shape, but
sufficiently stiff to maintain its shapeand to resist

lifting by the wind . Meta l flashings ot her tha n lead

should, preferably, be pre'formed .
Flashings sho uld be bedded into the work a
minimum of 25 mm, and be provided with welted ,

or otherwise sealed, joints, or adequate overlaps.

The designer shouldconsider how flashings areto

be fixed and at what stage in the construction
programme to provide secu re fixing and avoid
damage to dpc's. The materials should be selected
with due regard to the likelihood of corrosion and
given protective treatment asnecessary.

To avoidstaining of masonryfrom the run-off of

rain water, consideration should be given to the
need for surface treatment of some metals.

CONCLUSION

Most external wallsareexpected to prevent rain

penetrating to the interior of buildings .

In masonry cavity walls it is accepted that

some water will pass thro ugh the outer leaf in
prolonged periods of winddriven rain, but the
design of the wall is intended to dea l with this
inevitable eventuality. The risk of furthe r penetration
throug h the wa ll a nd into the building is minimized
by the pro per des ign and installation of the wall's
associated damp-proof systems.
Environmental and ecanomic benefits have led
to the incorporation of various types of thermal

insulationmaterials into modern cavity walls.

Effectiveinstallation met hods have been deve loped

to ensure that this is done without impairing the
wall's performance in bad weather.

The incidence of wind and rain experienced in

the United Kingdom can be very testing, but walls
with facing brickwork can efficiently meet the
cha llenge. With care and attentio n to design and
workmanship, stra ightforward and well established

construction methods can provide walls that are

resistant to rain penetration and also attractive,
durable and economical.

REFERENCES
1. Building Research Establishment. Repo rt Driving
Rain Index (1976)

9. B5 6150 : 1991. British Stan dard Code of practice

for painting of bu ildings .

2. BS8104: 1992. Britis h Standard Code of practice

for Assessing exposure ofwalls to wind-driven rain.

10. B5 6477: 1992. British Standard Specification for

3. BRE Report BR 262 : 1994. Thermal insulation:

11. B58000 : Part 3: 1989. British Standard for

workma nship on building sites : Code of practice

avoiding risks.
4. B5 5628: Part 3: 1985. British Standard Code of

practice for the use of masonry: Materials and

components,design and workmanship.
5. BRE Digest 273 : 1983. Perforated clay bricks
6. B5 5262: 1991. British Standard Code of practice
for external rendered finishes.
7 . British Cement Association publication

no.47.1 02. Appearance matters - 2: External

renderi ng (1992) W Monks

8. BS 392 1: 1985. British Standard Specification for

Clay bricks.

waterrepellents for masonrysurfaces.

for masonry.
12. Brick Development Association Building Note 1. .
Brickwork Good Site Practice. (1991) TLKnight
13. B5 8215: 1991. British Standard Code of practice

for design and installation of damp-proofcourses

in masonryconstruction.
14. BS8102: 1990. British Standard Code of practice

for protection of structures against waterfrom

the ground.

ISBN

o 900191 OS

ACKN OWLE DGEM EN TS

All photography by Brick Development Association except as follows:
Frankwalter - covers,p.u upper. p.21 lower
Cover & p.1IglI :z 1: Houses at Victoria Park. Virginia Water, Surrey

....rchitects: The Howell Smith Partnership

Page 4:

Cascades Hotel and flats, Isle of Dogs, London E14

Architects: ClWG

Page 11 upp er :

Flats & maisonettes, Hadrian Estate, Hackney. London E2

Architects: Levitt Bernstein Associates li d

Page 11 lower:

Compass Pomt HouSing. Isleof Dogs. LDndon E14

Archuects:

Page 21 upper:

~~mVD~on

HartlepooJeve Centre, develand

Architects: TheCulpm Partnership

All enquiries should be addressed to the a utho r at the Brick Development Assoc iation.
The contents of this pubhcatmnare intended for general guidance only and any person intendmg to use these contents for the purpose of design. construction or

repair of bnckworkor any related prcject should first consult a Professional Adviser.
TheBrick Development Association. Itsservants. and any persons who contributed to or who were In any way connected With this publicationaccept no babihty
arising from negligence or otherwise howsoevercaused for any inluryor damage to any person or property as a result of any use or reliance on any method,
product. instruction. idea,or other contents of this publication.