FM Global

Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

7-13
January 2012
Page 1 of 21

MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION

Table of Contents
Page
1.0 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Changes .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................... 3
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Construction and Location ............................................................................................................... 3
2.3 Occupancy ....................................................................................................................................... 4
2.4 Protection ......................................................................................................................................... 7
2.5 Equipment and Processes .............................................................................................................. 8
2.6 Operation and Maintenance ............................................................................................................ 8
2.7 Contingency Planning ...................................................................................................................... 8
2.8 Ignition Source Control .................................................................................................................... 9
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 9
3.1 Loss History ..................................................................................................................................... 9
3.1.1 Causes of Losses .................................................................................................................. 9
4.0 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 10
4.1 FM Global ....................................................................................................................................... 10
4.2 Others ............................................................................................................................................ 10
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS ..................................................................................................... 11
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ..................................................................................... 11
APPENDIX C SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION ...................................................................................... 11
C.1 General .......................................................................................................................................... 11
C.1.1 Refrigerant Classification .................................................................................................... 11
C.1.2 Ammonia Effects on Personnel .......................................................................................... 12
C.1.3 Ammonia Explosibility ......................................................................................................... 14
C.1.4 Safety Devices .................................................................................................................... 14
C.1.5 Lubrication Systems ........................................................................................................... 14
C.1.6 Leak Detection Systems ..................................................................................................... 14
C.2 Ammonia Systems ........................................................................................................................ 15
C.2.1 Regulation ........................................................................................................................... 15
C.2.2 Process Information ............................................................................................................ 15
C.3 Halocarbon Systems ..................................................................................................................... 15
C.4 Cleanup after an Ammonia Release ............................................................................................. 17
C.4.1 Ventilation ........................................................................................................................... 19
C.4.2 Absorption ........................................................................................................................... 19
C.4.3 Neutralization ..................................................................................................................... 20
C.5 Effects of Ammonia on Foods ....................................................................................................... 20
C.5.1 Product Contamination ....................................................................................................... 20
C.5.2 Assessing Ammonia Damage ............................................................................................. 21
C.6 Leak Detection Systems ................................................................................................................ 21

List of Figures

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Ammonia piping in pallet warehouse .................................................................................................. 5

Ammonia refrigeration unit in rack warehouse ................................................................................... 6
Equipment Diagram for Basic Vapor Compression Cycle ................................................................ 12
Typical ammonia refrigeration plant .................................................................................................. 16
Reciprocating compressor, vertical single acting ............................................................................. 17

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Mechanical Refrigeration

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Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

6.
7.
8.
9.

FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

Reciprocating compressor, horizontal double acting ........................................................................ 17

Rotary Screw Compressor (courtesy The York Corporation) ........................................................... 18
Centrifugal refrigeration machine using a halogenated refrigerant .................................................. 18
Ventilation after ammonia spill. ......................................................................................................... 19

List of Tables

Table
Table
Table
Table
Table

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Venting Equation Constant ............................................................................................................. 4

Recommended Maximum Spacing of Hangers and Minimum Hanger Rod Size for Steel ........... 7
19751989 Losses Involving Ammonia Refrigeration Systems ................................................... 10
Refrigerant Classification and Selected Properties ....................................................................... 13
Effects of Ammonia ....................................................................................................................... 13

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Mechanical Refrigeration
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1.0 SCOPE
This data sheet provides recommendations for fire and explosion protection and prevention for (and protection
against contamination from) industrial-type refrigeration equipment. Included are both nonflammable
(chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs) and flammable (ammonia and light hydrocarbon) refrigerants. The hydrocarbon refrigerants typically appear only in the petrochemical industry. Small package systems for comfort
cooling are not included.
Equipment hazard aspects of mechanical refrigeration systems are covered in Data Sheet 12-61, Mechanical
Refrigeration.
1.1 Changes
January 2012. Terminology related to ignitable liquids has been revised to provide increased clarity and
consistency with regard to FM Globals loss prevention recommendations for ignitable liquid hazards.
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS
References to Group 2 refrigerants in these recommendations essentially apply to ammonia, as the others
in the group are rarely used. In most cases, recommendations for Group 2 refrigerants do not apply to sulfur
dioxide, which is nonflammable.
Most of the recommendations below are related to machinery rooms, except where specifically noted as
applicable to refrigerated areas. Contingency planning is applicable to both areas.
2.1 Introduction
Details on mechanical requirements of refrigeration systems (piping, pressure relief, etc.) may be obtained
from ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 15, Safety Code for Mechanical Refrigeration, or the pertinent FM Global Boiler
& Machinery data sheets (Series 11Series 17).
2.2 Construction and Location
2.2.1 The preferred location for indoor equipment using Group 2 through 4 refrigerants is as follows (in order
of decreasing desirability):
1. Separate building (or sharing a building with other central utility systems).
2. Peninsular part of main building with three exposed walls and exposed roof remote from heavily occupied
areas such as offices.
3. Along exterior of main building having one or two exposed walls and exposed roof remote from heavily
occupied areas.
2.2.2 Do not locate equipment using Group 2 through 4 refrigerants in basements.
2.2.3 Equipment using Group 1 refrigerants can be located in any properly arranged cutoff area.
2.2.4 Construct refrigeration machinery rooms of noncombustible or fire resistant materials.
2.2.5 Ensure walls common to other occupancies are vapor tight and have fire ratings as follows:
1. One hour for Group 1 and 2 refrigerants
2. Two hours for Group 3 and 4 refrigerants
2.2.6 Ensure machinery rooms for Group 2 through 4 refrigerants are of damage-limiting construction with
pressure resistive and pressure venting walls as follows:
1. Ensure the venting walls are as light as practical, not exceeding 2.5 lb/ft2 (12.2 kg/m2).
2. Ensure vent panels release at as low an internal pressure as possible, yet stay in place when subject
to expected wind forces. Typically, this pressure is 20 psf (1 kPa) but could be somewhat higher.
3. Ensure the vent panels are held in place using fasteners specifically designed for explosion-venting wall
systems.

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4. Calculate the vent panel area follows: Av =

C As
(Pred)0.5

Where Av
As

= Vent area (ft2 or m2)

= internal surface area of the enclosure (walls, roof and floors) (ft2 or m2)

Pred = maximum internal overpressure that can be withstood by the weakest non-relieving wall (psi or kPa)
C

= venting equation constant, psi0.5 (kPa0.5)

Table 1. Venting Equation Constant
Refrigerant

Ammonia
Other Group 2 thru 4 (except sulfur dioxide)

C (psi0.5)
0.05
0.17

C (kPa0.5)
0.13
0.45

5. The strength of the non-relieving walls (Pred, in psi or kPa) must exceed the vent relief pressure (Pv, in
psi or kPa) by at least 0.35 psi (50 psf) (2.4 kPa), i.e.,:
Pred = Pv+0.35 psi or Pred = Pv + 2.4 kPa
Additional guidance on the design of the resistive walls can be found in Data Sheet 1-44, Damage-Limiting
Construction.
2.2.7 Locate group 3a and 4a based refrigeration systems outside or in a light-weight structure with maximum
possible explosion venting.
2.2.8 Ensure doors to adjoining occupancies are tight, self-closing, and with a fire rating equivalent to the
wall. Ensure doors in pressure resistive walls have equal pressure resistance.
2.2.9 Tightly seal pipes through interior walls, ceilings and floors using noncombustible sealing systems or
compounds.
2.2.10 In refrigerated areas, ensure construction and protection are in accordance with Data Sheet 8-29,
Refrigerated Storage.
2.3 Occupancy
2.3.1 Do not locate boilers and other flame-producing equipment in the room for any refrigerant (excluding
CO2). Group 1 refrigerants, on decomposition, evolve halogen acids (HF, HBr), free halogens (Br2), etc.
2.3.2 Do not store lubricants or other combustible materials in the room.
2.3.3 Ensure machinery rooms using Group 2 through 4 refrigerants have pressure vessels, such as
accumulators and receivers, outside the building to minimize the holdup of flammable liquid or liquefied
flammable gas.
2.3.4 Ensure the following ventilation requirements are met:
a) For Group 1 refrigerants, ventilation is needed only as required for equipment cooling or as required
by local authorities for personnel comfort.
b) For Group 2 refrigerants, natural ventilation at roof level is acceptable with electrical equipment rated
for Class I, Division 2.
c) For Group 3 and 4 refrigerants, provide continuous mechanical ventilation with suction at floor level
at a rate of at least 1 cfm/ft2 (0.3 m3/min/m2).
d) Locate intake louvers and the exhaust device (fan or roof openings) to promote mixing and avoid short
circuiting of airflow. Exhaust to outdoors.
e) Power fans from a source separate from the machinery room so a shutdown of power to the room
does not affect the fans.
f) Provide remote actuation for any emergency ventilation fans.
2.3.5 Ensure piping complies with ANSI Standard B31.5, Refrigeration Piping.

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2.3.6 Have all threaded joints used with Group 2 through 4 refrigerants seal welded or brazed.
2.3.7 Use welded pipe and fittings on pipe larger than 1 in. NPS (25.4 mm) when used for Group 2 through
4 refrigerants.
2.3.8 Protect piping from mechanical damage (Figs. 1 and 2 provide examples of a method) and properly
support them with minimum hanger size and spacing as indicated in Table 2. Where unusually high loads
might be placed on the piping, e.g., risers over 10 stories and systems with expansion joints for pipe over
3 in. (76 mm) diameter, have a qualified engineer design/review the pipe supports. Ensure short sections of
drain piping on receivers with valves or other weighty devices, are properly supported. While not a good
practice, this piping is also frequently used as a step during maintenance or other operations. Design all piping
to support a 250 lb (113 kg) load.

Fig. 1. Ammonia piping in pallet warehouse

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Fig. 2. Ammonia refrigeration unit in rack warehouse

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Table 2. Recommended Maximum Spacing of Hangers and Minimum Hanger Rod Size for Steel
Nominal Pipe Size
in.
(m)
Up to 1
(2.5)
112
(3.8)
2
(5.1)
212
(6.4)
3
(7.6)
312
(8.9)
4
(10.1)
5
(12.7)
6
(15.2)
8
(20.3)
10
(25.4)
12
(30.5)
14
(35.6)
16
(40.6)
18
(45.7)
20
(50.8)

Maximum Span
ft
7
9
10
11
12
13
14
16
17
19
22
23
25
27
28
30

(m)
(2.1)
(2.7)
(3.1)
(3.4)
(3.7)
(4.0)
(4.3)
(4.8)
(5.2)
(5.8)
(6.7)
(7.0)
(7.5)
(8.1)
(8.4)
(9.0)

Minimum Rod Diameter

in.
(cm)
38
(0.95)
38
(0.95)
38
(0.95)
38
(0.95)
12
(1.27)
12
(1.27)
58
(1.59)
58
(1.59)
34
(1.91)
78
(2.22)
78
(2.22)
78
(2.22)
1
(2.54)
1
(2.54)
114
(3.18)
114
(3.18)

Adapted from ASHRAE 1988 Equipment Handbook.

2.3.9 Ensure refrigerant piping is clearly labeled (color coded) as to service and contents when Group 2
through 4 refrigerants are used.
2.3.10 In refrigerated areas, do not use direct systems with flammable refrigerant (except ammonia in certain
cases) in areas that cannot be properly ventilated and provided with explosion vents.
2.3.11 In refrigerated areas, direct systems with ammonia are acceptable without ventilation and explosion
venting if the equipment in the cooled area is limited to piping and the evaporators. Ensure valves are outside
the cooled area.
2.4 Protection
2.4.1 If the machinery room is of combustible construction, install automatic sprinklers in accordance with
Table 5 in Data Sheet 3-26, Fire Protection Water Demand for Nonstorage Sprinklered Properties.
2.4.2 If the machinery room is of noncombustible construction and the refrigerants are either Group 1 or
ammonia or sulfur dioxide, and there is no other combustible storage or occupancy, automatic sprinklers are
not needed.
2.4.3 If flammable refrigerants are used (methyl chloride, methyl formate, Group 3 or 4), install automatic
sprinklers in accordance with Data Sheet 7-14, Fire and Explosion Protection for Flammable Liquid,
Flammable Gas, and Liquefied Flammable Gas Processing Equipment and Supporting Structures.
2.4.4 Have valves that could control the release of flammable refrigerant liquids interlocked to close on
operation of sprinklers, if practical.
2.4.5 Regardless of refrigerant type, provide manual extinguishers rated for at least Class B & C fires in
accordance with Data Sheet 4-5, Portable Extinguishers.
2.4.6 In refrigerated areas, institute one of the following precautions where goods subject to contamination
are cooled by direct ammonia systems:
a) Visits by responsible personnel at least once every eight hours, or
b) A suitable ammonia detection system that alarms to a constantly attended location. Ensure detector
spacing and location are in accordance with manufacturers guidelines or at least within 10 ft (3.05 m) of
any evaporators. Arrange detectors to alarm at the lowest practical level, not to exceed 1000 ppm.

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2.5 Equipment and Processes

2.5.1 For refrigeration compressors with large, force feed lubrication systems, mechanical integrity and fire
protection issues are addressed by Data Sheet 7-95 (see Section C.1.5, Lubrication Systems).
2.5.2 Arrange pressure relief devices to discharge to a safe outdoor location.
2.5.3 Provide liquid level gauge glasses with automatic shutoff valves and protect against mechanical
damage. Armoured-type with ball-type excess flow checks are preferred.
2.6 Operation and Maintenance
2.6.1 Provide a high level of preventive maintenance to reduce the chance of a leak or refrigerant release,
as well as increase system availability and efficiency. Adhere closely to manufacturers guidelines for
maintenance.
2.6.2 In refrigerated areas, ensure industrial trucks meet the criteria in Data Sheet 7-39, Lift Trucks,
especially relative to care in operation and the use of well-trained operators.
2.7 Contingency Planning
2.7.1 Ensure operating personnel are well trained with respect to proper operating procedures, the various
hazards of the refrigerants, and operating machines, and proper steps to be taken in the event of a leak
or other emergency.
2.7.2 Iidentify and train personnel (operating, maintenance or watch service) who might respond to a
refrigerant leak or spill. Ensure they are well versed in the hazards of the particular refrigerant. Ensure
adequate and proper equipment is available and accessible, including vapor detectors, self-contained
breathing apparatus (SCBA), protective clothing, fans, chemicals, etc. Conduct periodic drills.
2.7.3 Identify personnel, outside of plant personnel, to be notified in an emergency. This could include local
fire, health, and environmental authorities.
2.7.4 Make at least two self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) available at a convenient location outside
the mechanical room. Instruct personnel in their use and limitations. Gas masks with canisters approved
for the specific refrigerant are a less desirable alternative due to their ability only to remove the contaminant,
not provide oxygen.
2.7.5 Ensure critical valves that control flow of refrigerant in the mechanical room or refrigerated area are
accessible and clearly identified. If valves are not accessible from the floor, provide chain operating
mechanisms or permanent ladders. Consider providing remote operating capability from outside the machine
room. Locate a drawing with the location of critical valves and key components outside the mechanical room
for reference in an emergency.
2.7.6 Where ammonia refrigerant is involved, its effects can be best mitigated by prompt action. The action
can be divided into three categories: ventilation, absorption, and neutralization. The following additional steps
may further minimize the damage involving ammonia:
1. Investigate the effects of ammonia on the product and packaging material. Identify temperatures or other
conditions that could increase or decrease product damage. Determine procedure to identify salvageable
products.
2. Test the area for vapor concentration. Recognize the possibility of exceeding the lower explosive limits
in addition to the toxicity potential.
3. Locate and isolate the source of the leak promptly. Begin repairs.
4. Isolate the affected area, if possible, and begin ventilation or neutralization procedures. Have a record
of sources for fans, chemicals, etc.
5. Remove product from affected area(s) and store in an isolated, clean area within the facility, or in outside
refrigerated areas (trailers, rental facilities, etc.). Decontaminate product.

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2.8 Ignition Source Control

2.8.1 Minimize electrical equipment not related to the operation in the machinery room. Separate electrical
rooms cut off by suitable walls are particularly important with Group 2 through 4 refrigerants.
2.8.2 Consider machine rooms using Group 2 through 4 refrigerants to be Class I, Division 2, in accordance
with the NFPA 70 National Electrical Code, Article 500.
2.8.3 For existing ammonia machine rooms, the following can substitute for Class I, Division 2 electrical
equipment and will reduce the probability of an explosion in the event of a small liquid/vapor release:
1. Provide continuous mechanical exhaust ventilation at the roof capable of supplying at least 1 cfm/ft2
(0.3 m3/min/m2) of room area. Arrange for failure of this ventilation to sound an alarm at a continuously
supervised location, and;
2. Install an FM Approved (see Appendix A for definition) ammonia detection system set to alarm to a
continuously supervised location and initiate an emergency ventilation system at 25% of the LEL
(approximately 4% by volume) and shut down all electrical equipment at 50% of the LEL.
a) Locate detectors in accordance with manufacturers requirements. Suggested locations are in the
vicinity of potential releases, e.g., above compressors and large receivers.
b) Have detectors calibrated at least monthly by qualified personnel.
3. Ensure emergency ventilation is capable of 10 cfm/ft2 (3 m3/min/m2). This ventilation can take suction
at roof level.
4. Ensure the system complies with recommendations 2.3.4(d) through 2.3.4(f).
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS
3.1 Loss History
Loss experience with refrigeration systems is generally as follows:
CFC refrigerants are generally nonflammable and do not have fire and explosion hazards under normal
conditions of use in refrigeration systems. Under some unusual conditions, a few exhibit some flammability,
e.g., R-134a.
Flammable refrigerants, excluding ammonia, are mostly found in chemical and petroleum plants and have
fire and explosion hazards associated with circulation of large amounts of flammable refrigerant liquids.
Frequently these units also have large force-feed lubrication systems involving high-flashpoint material. They
may be driven by large electric motors or steam turbines. High pressure spray fires are an inherent hazard.
Data Sheet 7-14, Fire and Explosion Protection for Flammable Liquid, Flammable Gas and Liquefied
Flammable Gas Processing Equipment and Supporting Structures, Data Sheet 7-95, Compressors, and Data
Sheet 7-101, Fire Protection for Steam Turbines and Electric Generators, address these occupancies.
Ammonia refrigeration is used mostly in food processing and storage, and occasionally in chemical and
petroleum plants. Since ammonia is a flammable gas there is a potential for explosions and fire, although
fires dont occur as often as explosions. Finally, leakage can result in a significant contamination potential,
particularly since food products are often involved.
Table 3 summarizes loss statistics from 1975 to 1989 that involve ammonia refrigeration systems. Other
data from the same period show about one percent of food industry fires involve ammonia refrigeration
systems whereas almost seven percent of food industry explosions involve ammonia refrigeration systems.
Ammonia contamination can show up in the loss statistics under the categories Vehicle, Water Damage,
Escaped Liquids, and Miscellaneous in Table 3. It is interesting to note that nearly all the losses involving
ammonia in these categories involved the food industry.
3.1.1 Causes of Losses
Of the 22 fire and explosion losses reported, at least five were initiated outside the machinery room. Most
often a part mechanically failed or was improperly installed or maintained, which resulted in the release.
Electrical equipment was the primary source of ignition.

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Table 3. 19751989 Losses Involving Ammonia Refrigeration Systems

Number of Losses
8
14
1
2
7
3
12
9
18
24
3
101

Fire
Explosion
Sprinkler Leakage
Wind & Hail
Vehicle
Collapse
Water Damage
Escaped Liquids
Miscellaneous
Boiler and Machinery1
Other
Totals
1

Includes implosion, electrical, mechanical, and pressure equipment breakdown and service interruption.

Of the 22 ammonia releases that are documented as involving product contamination only (no fire or
explosion) and resulted in losses over US$100,000, all occurred in the refrigerated area. Seventeen involved
mechanical damage to piping or equipment or pipe/valve failures due to poor maintenance, fatigue or
materials deficiencies. Five were caused by impact with the pipe.
In summary, good maintenance can go a long way toward avoiding a loss involving ammonia.
4.0 REFERENCES
4.1 FM Global
Data
Data
Data
Data
Data
Data
Data
Data
Data
Data

Sheet 1-44, Damage Limiting Construction.

Sheet 3-26, Fire Protection Water Demand for Nonstorage Sprinklered Properties.
Sheet 4-5, Portable Extinguishers.
Sheet 7-14, Fire and Explosion Protection for Ignitable Liquid, Flammable Gas, and Liquefied
Flammable Gas Processing Equipment and Supporting Structures.
Sheet 7-39, Lift Trucks.
Sheet 7-43/17-2, Loss Prevention in Chemical Plants.
Sheet 7-95, Compressors.
Sheet 7-101, Fire Protection for Steam Turbines and Electric Generators.
Sheet 8-29, Refrigerated Storage.
Sheet 12-61, Mechanical Refrigeration.

4.2 Others
ANSI/ASME B31.5-1987, Code for Pressure Piping, Refrigeration Piping.
ANSI/ASHRAE 15-1989, Safety Code for Mechanical Refrigeration.
ANSI/ASHRAE 34-1989, Number Designation of Refrigerants.
Ballou, D.F., The Venting of Ammonia Using Positive Pressure Ventilation, 1990.
Harris, G.F.P. and MacDermott, P.E., Flammability and Explosibility of Ammonia, I. Chem. E. Symposium
Series No. 49, pp 2937.
Institute of Ammonia Refrigerated Warehouses, Operations Manual, Prevention and Control of Ammonia
Spills, Leaks and Odors 1987, pp L53L70.
International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration, Guidelines for Ammonia Machinery Room Ventilation, Bulletin
No. 111, 1990.
International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration, Process Safety Management Guidelines for Ammonia
Refrigeration, 2nd Edition, 1998.

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Page 11

International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration, Risk Management Program Guidelines for Ammonia
Refrigeration, 1998.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), Standard 68 Guide for Venting of Deflagrations, 1988.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), Standard 70 National Electrical Code.
Smith, M.A., Ammonia Spills and the Effect of Ammonia on Products Stored in Refrigerated Warehouses,
The Refrigeration Research Foundation, 1987.
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
FM Approved: Rreferences to FM Approved in this data sheet mean the products and services have
satisfied the criteria for FM Approval. Refer to the Approval Guide, a publication of FM Approvals, for a
complete listing of products and services that are FM Approved.
Ignitable Liquid: Any liquid or liquid mixture that is capable of fueling a fire, including flammable liquids,
combustible liquids, inflammable liquids, or any other reference to a liquid that will burn. An ignitable liquid
must have a fire point.
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY
January 2012. Terminology related to ignitable liquids has been revised to provide increased clarity and
consistency with regard to FM Globals loss prevention recommendations for ignitable liquid hazards.
May 2007. Editorial changes were made for this revision.
September 2005. The ventilation criteria in 2.8.3 was modified for considerations of practicality.
May 2003. Minor editorial changes were made for this revision.
September 2002. Clarification was made to the recommendation 2.5.1.
January 2000. This revision of the document has been reorganized to provide a consistent format.
October 1975. Document was updated from information provided in the Handbook of Industrial Loss
Prevention.
APPENDIX C SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
C.1 General
Mechanical refrigeration systems use a vapor compression cycle employing a refrigerant that changes state
from liquid to vapor as it absorbs heat in the evaporator.
All vapor refrigeration systems, regardless of the type of compressor used, operate because of a difference
in pressure that permits the collection of heat by the refrigerant at a low temperature and disposal at a higher
temperature. To establish the proper heat flow direction in the evaporator, the suction vapor pressure must
have a value sufficiently low so that the corresponding saturation temperature will be below the source
temperature. The discharge pressure must be sufficiently high so that the corresponding condenser
temperature will exceed the temperature of the heat sink to ensure the necessary rate of heat transfer. The
compressor provides the means of establishing the necessary difference between the low side and high
side pressures. A simplified sketch of a basic refrigeration system is shown in Figure 3. Refrigerating
systems are divided into two classes in accordance with the method of extracting heat as follows:
A direct system is one in which the evaporator or condenser of the refrigerating system is in direct contact
with the air or other substances to be cooled or heated.
An indirect system is one in which a secondary coolant, cooled or heated by the refrigerating system, is
circulated to the air or other substance to be cooled or heated. The secondary coolant may be sprayed into
a cooling chamber or circulated through pipes in either a vented or a closed system.
C.1.1 Refrigerant Classification
Refrigerants are classified into groups (per ANSI/ASHRAE 34) as shown in Table 4. The dominant
characteristics of each group are as follows:

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Fig. 3. Equipment Diagram for Basic Vapor Compression Cycle

Group 1: Nonflammable and nontoxic to the extent that moderate release of refrigerant would not cause
undue hazard.
Group 2: Predominant hazard is toxicity.
Group 3a: Predominant hazard is high flammability.
Group 3b: Predominant hazard is moderate flammability1.
Group 4b: Refrigerant mixtures, predominant hazard is moderate flammability under some leakage situations.
Selected physical property information on major refrigerants is in Table 4. Except for ammonia, Group 2
refrigerant usage is essentially nonexistent.
C.1.2 Ammonia Effects on Personnel
Table 5 is a brief summary of the effects of ammonia. As a result, specific training is needed to ensure proper
emergency response, which will also reduce subsequent product damage.

Moderately flammable refrigerants have an LEL of more than 6.2 lb/1000 cu ft (0.1 kg/cu m) and a calculated heat of
combustion of less than 8200 Btu/lb (19,000 kJ/kg).
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Page 13

Table 4. Refrigerant Classification and Selected Properties

Gr. 2:

Gr.
3a:

Gr.
3b:
Gr.
4b:

Boiling Point
C

Autoignition
Temperature

Flammable Limits by
volume in air

Lower

Upper

Toxicity

Trichlorofluoromethane

CCl3F

76

24

4.79

Slight

R-12

Dichlorodifluoromethane

CCl2F2

-22

-30

4.17

None

R-13

Chlorotrifluoromethane

CClF3

-114

-81

3.60

None

R-13B1

Bromotrifluoromethane

CBrF3

-72

-58

None

R-14

Tetrafluoromethane

CF4

-198

-127

None

R-22

Chlorodifluoromethane

CHClF2

-42

-41

2.98

1170

632

Very weakly
flammable

Slight

R-113

Trichlorotrifluoroethane

CCl2FCClF2

118

48

6.46

1256

680

Very weakly
flammable

Slight

Name

Specific
Gravity
(Air = 1)

R-11

Refrigerant
Gr. 1:

Chemical
Formula

R-114

Dichlorotetrafluoroethane

CClF2CClF2

39

5.89

None

R-115

Chloropentafluoroethane

CClF2CF3

-38

-39

Slight

R-C318

Octafluorocyclobutane

R-400

R-12 and R-114

R-500

N/A

CCl2F2/
C2Cl2F4

C4F8

21

None

Dichlorodifluoromethane,
73.8, and Difluoroethane,
26.2

CCl2F2/
CH3CHF2

N/A

R-502

Chlorodifluoromethane, 48.8
& Chloropentafluoroethane,
51.2

CHClF2/
CClF2CF3

Slight

R-503

Trifluoromethane, 40.1, and

Chlorotrifluoromethane, 59.9

CHF3/CClF3

N/A

R-744

Carbon Dioxide

CO2

-109

-79

1.52

R-40

Methyl Chloride

CH3Cl

-11

-24

1.8

1170

632

R-611

Methyl Formate

HCOOCH3

90

32

2.07

853

456

R-717

Ammonia

NH3

-28

-33

0.59

1204

651

R-764

Sulfur Dioxide

SO2

14

10

2.21

Slight

19.1

Moderate

4.5

23

Moderate

16

25

R-170

Ethane

C2H6

-128

-89

1.04

959

515

R-290

Propane

C3H8

-44

-42

1.56

871

466

2.2

C4H10

31

-1

CH(CH3)3

11

-12

High
V. High

12.5

Slight

9.6

Slight

R-600

Butane

R-600a

Isobutane

2.06

761

405

1.9

8.5

Slight

2.0

860

460

1.8

8.4

Slight

R-1150

Ethylene

C2H4

-155

-104

0.98

842

450

2.7

36

Slight

R-1270

Propylene

C3H6

-53

-47

1.5

851

455

2.0

11

Slight

R-142b

1-Chloro-1,1-Difluoroethane

CH3CClF2

14

-10

1.19

9.0

14.8

Slight

R-152a

1,1-Difluoroethane

CH3CHF2

-13

-25

3.7

18.0

Slight

R-22 and
R-142b

CHClF2/CH3CClF2

N/A

Table 5. Effects of Ammonia

Ammonia Concentration1
3,000 ppm
(0.3 percent)
1,000 ppm
(0.1 percent)
500 ppm
200 ppm
100 ppm
20 ppm
10 ppm
5 ppm

Effect on Personnel
Highly toxic. Area accessible for short periods with a portable oxygen supply, and a fullface oxygen mask. High degree of skin irritation.
Toxic. Accessible with cartridge type gas mask but only for short periods.
Very annoying to throat, lungs, nose and eyes. Essentially accessible only with gas mask.
Still very annoying to skin.
Still very annoying to all but experienced ammonia personnel. Gas mask recommended.
Very noticeable, and fairly annoying. Experienced personnel can tolerate this indefinitely.
Distinct, but not very annoying.
Noticeable, but only mildly.
Scarcely detectable, and not at all annoying.

Source: IAR Operations Manual1987

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C.1.3 Ammonia Explosibility

The following table lists a comparison of ammonia explosibility at near stoichiometric concentration compared
to pentane at its near stoichiometric concentration in a similar test bomb.
Maximum
Explosion Pressure
psi (bars)
86 (5.9)
118 (8.1)

Ammonia
Pentane

Rate of Pressure Rise

psi/sec (Bars/sec)
Average
Maximum
260 (17.9)
141 (9.7)
2750 (189.5)
6502 (448)

As can be seen from this data, ammonia burns more slowly (rate of pressure rise) than a typical hydrocarbon
and produces a somewhat lower maximum pressure. This, to a degree, explains why ammonia explosions
generally seem to be less violent and less damaging.
The same data source compares these two materials for ease of ignition and on a similar basis shows
ammonia to be much more difficult, but it still ignites. (Reported minimum ignition energy of 1-2 mj for
pentane-air, but greater than 40 mj for ammonia-air.)
Finally, there have been discussions that the real cause of ammonia explosions is the lubricating oil that is
usually entrained. This would be expected to lower the effective mixture LEL and increase the ease of
ignition. At present there is no data to quantify these conclusions.
C.1.4 Safety Devices
A refrigerant safety relief device is designed to prevent pressure in a vessel from rising above a safe limit
when operating controls fail or when the vessel is exposed to excessive heat.
When a vessel containing liquid refrigerant is shut off from other parts of the system, a rise in temperature
will cause a rapid and excessive rise in pressure due to the expansion of the liquid. If the vessel contains both
liquid and vapor, which is normal for refrigerant receivers, the pressure will rise according to the temperature
saturation characteristics of the refrigerant. Exposure of the vessel to excessive heat can cause the
saturation pressure to increase rapidly to an unsafe value.
If pressure builds high enough to cause the vessel to rupture, large quantities of liquid refrigerant are released.
The sudden reduction of pressure causes the liquid released to vaporize almost instantly. If the refrigerant
is ignitable, it has the potential for forming a flammable vapor/air mixture.
With a suitable relief device installed on the vessel, the refrigerant is released at a controlled rate and a safe
pressure is maintained in the vessel.
Information on sizing, location, and maintenance can be found in applicable codes such as ANSI/ASHRAE
15, ASME Standards, etc.
C.1.5 Lubrication Systems
Industrial refrigeration compressors do not normally have large, external, force-feed oil lubrication systems
and associated fire hazard. Additional details regarding such systems can be found in Data Sheet 7-95,
Compressors.
C.1.6 Leak Detection Systems
Combustible gas detectors are meant to operate in the 0-100% of LEL range, but measurement is not reliable
under 10% LEL. This type of detector would be used to alarm and actuate ventilation systems in existing
ammonia refrigeration areas where replacement of ordinary electrical equipment with Class I, Division 2 is
not practical. FM Approved detectors, calibrated for ammonia, are available for this service.
Low concentration gas detection systems are calibrated in the ppm range and would be used in areas with
a contamination potential. None of the detectors presently FM Approved in this category are rated for
ammonia service.

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C.2 Ammonia Systems

C.2.1 Regulation
Ammonia refrigeration systems present a unique exposure to property. This document provides basic
guidelines for safe operations from a property loss prevention perspective. Large systems, exceeding
10,000 lb (4.5 tonnes) of ammonia, are also subject to U.S. federal regulation in the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) Process Safety Management regulation (29 CFR Part 1910.119) and the
Environmental Protection Administration (EPA) Risk Management Program (40 CFR Part 68). (Outside the
United States, similar regulations may apply). Both of these regulations require hazard review, mechanical
integrity, emergency response, and operator training.
Whether or not they are subject to these regulations, the principles of process safety management provide
useful tools and guidelines for safe design, maintenance, and operation of these facilities. FM Global
guidance on this process is covered in Data Sheet 7-43/17-2, Loss Prevention in Chemical Plants, and it
can be applied to large refrigeration facilities. The International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration (IIAR) also
provides guidance on both these programs specifically for ammonia refrigeration facilities.
C.2.2 Process Information
Anhydrous ammonia is classed as a Group 2 refrigerant by the ANSI/ASHRAE-15 Safety Code for Mechanical
Refrigeration. This code includes requirements pertaining to the location of equipment, permissible quantities
of refrigerants, and rules for the installation and protection of various kinds of refrigerating systems.
The ammonia system of refrigeration consists of a compressor designed to compress the low pressure
ammonia gas leaving the evaporator to a pressure of approximately 150 psi (1 MPa) (10 bars). The gas is
then discharged into the condenser.
When ammonia gas is under a pressure of 150 psi (1 MPa) (10 bars), it will liquefy at a temperature of 78F
(25C). Therefore, if water, at a temperature of 70F (21C) or less, is circulated through pipes in the
condenser, the gas will liquefy and give off its latent heat to the water.
The liquid ammonia in the condenser is then stored in a receiver or accumulator and from there is allowed
to flow out through a small pipe to the expansion coils (evaporator). On this pipe is a valve which controls
the amount of liquid passing. As soon as the liquid passes through this valve the pressure is greatly reduced
so the liquid vaporizes and reverts again to a gas, and in doing so, absorbs heat from the surrounding
atmosphere of the room, which becomes colder. If the coils are placed in a brine (cooled fluid, whether it
be water, salt brine, or other fluid) tank, the brine is chilled. When the ammonia has absorbed sufficient heat
to be converted to a low-pressure gas and liquid, it flows back to the compressor and the operation is
repeated. Figure 4 illustrates a typical ammonia refrigeration plant.
Compressors used in ammonia refrigeration plants are both heavy-duty reciprocating types (Figs. 5 and 6),
occasionally high-capacity centrifugal types and more frequently, in newer systems, rotary machines (Fig. 7).
Older reciprocating systems can be either electric motor or steam turbine driven in the higher capacity
systems. Most newer systems are electric motor driven.
Ammonia refrigeration systems are particularly common in the food industries due to the efficiency and
economy of large-scale systems. With increasing restrictions on halocarbon use, due to atmospheric ozone
depletion effects, ammonia will be appearing in more places.
C.3 Halocarbon Systems
Some of the commonly used refrigerants for industrial processes and air conditioning are halogenated
hydrocarbons: R11 (trichlorofluoromethane), R-114 (dichlorotetrafluoroethane), and R-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane), known by trade names such as duPonts Freon, Union Carbides Ucon, Allied Chemicals Genitron,
Carriers Carrene 500, and Penwalts Isotron.
R-11 and R-114 are low pressure refrigerants, the pressure in the evaporator being below atmospheric
pressure, and the pressure in the condenser relatively low. R-11 is commonly employed for the higher
temperature range, such as in cooling water for air conditioning and industrial processing. R-114 finds its use
in the lower-temperature range for the cooling of brines at temperatures ranging from 20F (-7C) down to
-20F (-29C). R-12 is used in centrifugal and reciprocating units for extremely low-temperature requirements
down to -120F (-84.4C).

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Fig. 4. Typical ammonia refrigeration plant

For the most part, compressors using halogenated hydrocarbons as refrigerants are centrifugal types with
large capacity, suitability for extremely low temperatures, and ability to carry varying loads within their
operating range with satisfactory efficiency.
Essentially high-speed units, centrifugal machines may be directly driven by steam or gas turbines, motor,
or internal combustion engine. Top speed of these units is about 8,000 rpm. While many standard models are
available, it is not uncommon to design and build custom units for a specific job, selecting any suitable
refrigerant.
The centrifugal refrigeration machine (Fig. 8) is a compact assembly of seven major components. A list of
these components and their functions follows:
a) Cooler or evaporator, which cools the brine passing through the tubes by the evaporation of the
refrigerant in which the tubes are immersed.
b) Compressor, which compresses the evaporated refrigerant and discharges it to the condenser.
c) Condenser, which liquefies the refrigerant coming to it from the compressor.
d) Economizer, which partially cools the condensed refrigerant before passing it on to the evaporator.
The cooling of the refrigerant liquid is affected by its partial evaporation. The vapor thus formed is passed
to the second stage of the compressor.
e) Purge recovery unit, which extracts a mixture of air (or other noncondensable gas) and refrigerant
from the condenser, and condenses and returns recovered refrigerant to the cooler while the air is
discharged to the atmosphere.
f) Drive, which supplies the power to drive the compressor. It may be an electric motor driving through
speed increasing gears, or a turbine directly connected.
g) Controls for protection of the various elements of the machine. When specified, additional automatic
controls for regulation are furnished.

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Page 17

Fig. 5. Reciprocating compressor, vertical single acting

Fig. 6. Reciprocating compressor, horizontal double acting

C.4 Cleanup after an Ammonia Release

As evidenced by the loss statistics, product contamination from an ammonia release is much more likely
than a fire or explosion. Preventive maintenance and good work practices are the best way to prevent an
ammonia release but once released, the damage to property can be minimized by prompt and effective action.
This includes isolating and plugging the source of the leak, controlling ventilation to limit spread of ammonia
vapors, sealing off areas not already exposed, and relocating goods to isolated clean areas, such as
refrigerated trailers. Steps can then be taken to decontaminate exposed areas and goods.

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Fig. 7. Rotary Screw Compressor (courtesy The York Corporation)

Fig. 8. Centrifugal refrigeration machine using a halogenated refrigerant

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C.4.1 Ventilation
The first line of defense after a spill of ammonia is ventilation. The more quickly the ammonia vapors can
be dispersed the less the product damage and the easier to complete decontamination. It is best if a
pre-planned response to a spill is available, including sources of equipment. The typical arrangement is to set
up the fans to exhaust the area, with fresh air inlet opposite the exhaust (Fig. 9(a)).

Fig. 9. Ventilation after ammonia spill.

Some have suggested using positive pressure ventilation for removing the vapors. In this case the fan is
arranged to blow fresh air into the area while exhausting the room through an opening (existing or created)
near the spill (Fig. 9(b)). To use this method it is important to have sufficient ventilation, enough for at least
two air changes per hour. Also, the cone of air from the fan or fans must completely cover the inlet opening
to prevent spill back from the opening.
As a rule of thumb, the velocity into the opening should be at least 350 ft/min (1.78 m/sec) and the exhaust
opening should be 75% to 100% of the area of the inlet opening.
This method would not be very effective if the room that is pressurized cant be reasonably sealed from other
areas. Use of positive pressure ventilation is most effective when the exhaust opening can be provided close
to the source of the spill or leak. It has the added advantage of providing a direct fresh air pathway that
salvage teams can use for entry.
C.4.2 Absorption
Ammonia is readily soluble in water, forming ammonium hydroxide, so using a water spray or fog can be
an effective way of absorbing the vapors. With perfect mixing about 1.1 lb (.50 kg) water is needed to absorb
1 lb (.45 kg) of ammonia. In a typical spill situation, three or more times as much water than ammonia is
likely to be needed. There also must be a way to dispose of the water/ammonia solution. Also, be aware of
possible ice formation (warm the area first) and water damage to the product (relocate or otherwise protect).

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C.4.3 Neutralization
C.4.3.1 Carbon Dioxide
Ammonia reacts readily with carbon dioxide (CO2) in the presence of water vapor to form ammonium
carbonate, a harmless white powder. This powder, however, decomposes back to ammonia vapor at 136F
(58C) so care must be taken to remove and dispose of the powder. Again, with perfect mixing, about 1.3 lbs
(.60 kg) of carbon dioxide plus 1.1 lbs (.50 kg) of water would be needed to dispose of each pound (.45 kg)
of ammonia.
Carbon dioxide is available as a stored liquid in cylinders (and fire extinguishers) or as dry ice.
When using CO2 as a neutralizing agent, care must be taken to minimize the personnel hazard caused by
oxygen displacement. In general it is recommended that no more than 1 lb per 100 ft3 (2.2 kg per 2.8 m3) of
room volume be used for any one treatment. A treatment would last about 12 hours and good circulation
needs to be maintained in the treated space for CO2 to do the job. Also, warming of the space will increase
the rate of ammonia dissipation when it has been absorbed by packaging materials.
C.4.3.2 Other Acid Gases and Liquids
Sulfur dioxide, acetic acid (vinegar), and citric acid may be used to disperse the last traces of ammonia odors.
Sulfur dioxide is used in commercial treatment of grapes, almonds, and filberts and the concentration used
in treating ammonia exposure should not exceed those levels. Typically this is about one percent for grapes
and five percent for unshelled almonds and filberts.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) forms relatively corrosive sulfuric acid vapors and is carefully monitored in connection
with air pollution. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has also established regulations on the use
of SO2 or other sulfiting agents on food to be sold or consumed in the fresh or raw state.
Acetic acid is relatively non-reactive with ammonia but is slightly more effective than water in reducing
ammonia odors. It can be sprayed full strength throughout the affected area to reduce traces in cracks and
crevices.
Citric acid has about the same effects as acetic acid and would be used similarly.
C.5 Effects of Ammonia on Foods
C.5.1 Product Contamination
The degree of damage resulting from an exposure to ammonia is determined by the concentration of
ammonia, duration of exposure, temperature, product, and packaging. Long-term exposure to ammonia at
low concentrations may be as damaging as short-term exposure at higher concentrations.
Ammonia damage tends to increase with increasing temperatures and moisture content, as well as with other
factors.
Acid products such as fruits and vegetables and products high in fat, such as nuts, ice cream, milk, and
milk products, are especially susceptible to ammonia injury. The quantity of air in a product allows ammonia
to penetrate, thus ice cream and marshmallows generally cannot be salvaged. Shrimp and other seafoods
are especially prone to absorbing ammonia. Frozen products are slightly less susceptible to contamination
due to lower metabolism rates.
Seeds and seedlings are also affected by ammonia. High concentrations of ammonia reduce germination
and seedling growth. However, long-term, low-level exposure could be toxic. Seed with higher moisture
content would be more susceptible.
Product quality also plays a significant role in susceptibility. Newly harvested produce and nuts are more
resistant to ammonia injury than produce stored for several months. Nuts in shell show lesser susceptibility
to ammonia damage than shelled nuts.
Packaging plays a significant role in susceptibility to ammonia injury. Any material capable of protection
against changes in moisture content due to fluctuating humidity would also tend to protect against ammonia
fumes. Well-sealed polyethylene and PVC packaging offer good protection against ammonia fumes when
frozen foods are exposed for up to 24 hours. Unpackaged foods rapidly become unacceptable in terms of
flavor, usually within 15 minutes to one hour of exposure.
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Ammonia may become trapped by packaging material, especially corrugated cardboard. This material
stubbornly resists attempts to eliminate odor. Product may be exposed to residual ammonia in the packaging
material. Recartoning can be time-consuming but is effective in limiting product exposure.
Another result of ammonia exposure is thawing as a result of lowered melting points.
A method of salvaging frozen foods involves removing product from the corrugated master carton, running
the product through a blast freezer to evaporate the ammonia, and repackaging.
C.5.2 Assessing Ammonia Damage
If a product is directly contaminated by liquid ammonia, that product is normally considered a total loss. It
may be more difficult to determine whether products further from the source of an ammonia leak are
contaminated.
The U.S. FDA, Bureau of Foods, Plant and Protein Technology, recommends several tests for assessing
ammonia damage in exposed products. These methods include:
a) Ammoniacal Nitrogen Determination. Association of Official Analytical Chemist (AOAC) method 2.057.
The maximum acceptable level of ammoniacal nitrogen does not normally exceed 0.15 percent.
b) Sensory evaluation (a taste test). A panel score of 5.0 or higher on a 9 point hedonic scale may be
considered acceptable.
c) pH measurement of contaminated food. Based on sensory evaluations, a product is generally
considered acceptable if its pH does not exceed that of the normal product by more than 1.0 pH unit.
d) Visual evaluation of the product. Ammonia may render a product unmarketable from an aesthetic
standpoint.
The FDA suggests that decisions regarding the acceptability of foods that may have been exposed to
ammonia be based on at least three different test methods and that data be compared to control product
data. Disposition decisions based on any single test parameter could be in error. The visual symptoms of
ammonia injury may not appear until several days after exposure. Increases in pH may not be proportional
to the concentration of ammonia absorbed due to the natural buffering capacity of foods. It has been
suggested that the value of chemical nitrogen analysis as a diagnostic tool is limited unless used soon after
the product has been exposed to ammonia because levels may not persist. In addition, elevated ammonia
levels in some foods (e.g., meats and seafood) may be the result of aging or microbial spoilage rather than
exposure to ammonia fumes.
The bottom line is each instance of ammonia contamination must be evaluated on a case by case basis.
There is no single standard.
C.6 Leak Detection Systems
To minimize the effects of ammonia release on products, detection systems need a capability for alarm and
detection much below LEL levels (16 percent-160,000 ppm). For prevention of contamination, the instrument
must be sensitive and reliable in the 50-100 ppm range. The instrument also must be reliable in refrigerated
areas where moisture condensation and freezing are possible. The choice of a system will depend on a review
of the suppliers past installation experience since the specific application is relatively new. There have been
both good and bad reports on existing systems.
Location and spacing of detectors in refrigerated areas or machine rooms will require adoption of
manufacturers guidelines. The best advice is to put detectors in the vicinity of potential leaks. This would
be mostly near the chillers in the refrigerated areas. In machine rooms a more widespread distribution would
be needed due to numerous leak sources. Also, the machine rooms may have normal levels in the 25-50
ppm range unless very recently built. This background level would affect the setting of alarm levels and could
possibly affect detector sensitivity.
Maintenance of the detection system will require frequent calibration: at least monthly is suggested. Actual
operating experience might indicate a need for more frequent calibration. Calibration must be completed only
by those trained for the operation and following detailed instructions.

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